Search

International audience; In Europe, African swine fever virus (ASFV) is one of the most threatening infectious transboundary diseases of domestic pigs and wild boar. In September 2018, ASF was detected in wild boar in the South of Belgium. France, as a bordering country, is extremely concerned about the ASF situation in Belgium, and an active preparedness is ongoing in the country. One of the questions raised by this situation relates to disturbing activities that may affect wild boar movements and their possible impact on the spread of ASFV. Despite evidence of disturbance related to hunting practices, there is a paucity of information on the impact of forestry and human leisure activities. To assess this impact on wild boar movements, a systematic review was first conducted but very few useful data were obtained. For this reason, an expert elicitation was carried out by the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety in order to deal with this knowledge gap. A total of 30 experts originating from France and adjacent neighbouring countries (Spain, Belgium and Switzerland) were elicited about the relative importance of six factors of spatial disturbance of wild boar (noise, smell, invasion of space, modification of the environment, duration and frequency of the activity). Then, for each factor of disturbance, they were asked about the impact of 16 different commercial forestry and human leisure activities. A global weighted score was estimated in order to capture the variability of a wide range of territorial conditions and the uncertainty of expert elicitation. This estimate permitted ranking all 16 activities and aggregating them in three groups according to their potential for disturbance of wild boar, using a regression tree analysis. The results of this expert elicitation provide a methodological approach that may be useful for French and other European decision makers and stakeholders involved in the crisis management of ASF.

Review. et al., Many infectious diseases originating from, or carried by, wildlife affect wildlife conservation and biodiversity, livestock health, or human health. We provide an update on changes in the epidemiology of 25 selected infectious, wildlife-related diseases in Europe (from 2010–16) that had an impact, or may have a future impact, on the health of wildlife, livestock, and humans. These pathogens were selected based on their: 1) identification in recent Europe-wide projects as important surveillance targets, 2) inclusion in European Union legislation as pathogens requiring obligatory surveillance, 3) presence in recent literature on wildlife-related diseases in Europe since 2010, 4) inclusion in key pathogen lists released by the Office International des Epizooties, 5) identification in conference presentations and informal discussions on a group email list by a European network of wildlife disease scientists from the European Wildlife Disease Association, or 6) identification as pathogens with changes in their epidemiology during 2010–16. The wildlife pathogens or diseases included in this review are: avian influenza virus, seal influenza virus, lagoviruses, rabies virus, bat lyssaviruses, filoviruses, canine distemper virus, morbilliviruses in aquatic mammals, bluetongue virus, West Nile virus, hantaviruses, Schmallenberg virus, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, African swine fever virus, amphibian ranavirus, hepatitis E virus, bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis), tularemia (Francisella tularensis), brucellosis (Brucella spp.), salmonellosis (Salmonella spp.), Coxiella burnetii, chytridiomycosis, Echinococcus multilocularis, Leishmania infantum, and chronic wasting disease. Further work is needed to identify all of the key drivers of disease change and emergence, as they appear to be influencing the incidence and spread of these pathogens in Europe. We present a summary of these recent changes during 2010–16 to discuss possible commonalities and drivers of disease change and to identify directions for future work on wildlife-related diseases in Europe. Many of the pathogens are entering Europe from other continents while others are expanding their ranges inside and beyond Europe. Surveillance for these wildlife-related diseases at a continental scale is therefore important for planet-wide assessment, awareness of, and preparedness for the risks they may pose to wildlife, domestic animal, and human health., F.R.F. was funded by the Spanish Ministry for the Economy, Industry and Competitiveness (MINECO) through the ‘Ramon y Cajal program.

West Nile virus (WNV) infection is a non-contagious disease mainly transmitted by the bites of infected mosquitoes from the genus Culex. The virus is maintained in a mosquito-bird-mosquito cycle, and can accidentally be transmitted to mammalian hosts. Among mammalian hosts, equines and humans are the most sensitive to WNV infection and can develop severe meningoencephalitis. As WNV infections are zoonotic and can be severe in humans and equines, West Nile fever is considered to be a public and animal health concern. After a silent period of almost ten years, WNV re-emerged in France at the periphery of the Camargue area during the summer of 2015, underlining the fact that the Camargue area creates favourable conditions for WNV emergence and amplification in France. The French Network for Epidemiological Surveillance of Equine Diseases (Reseau d'Epidemio-Surveillance en Pathologie Equine [RESPE]) facilitated the early detection of WNV cases in horses. In total, 49 horses were found to be infected; among them, 44 presented clinical signs, 41 with meningoencephalitis and three with hyperthermia only. Six horses among the 41 with nervous symptoms died from the disease or were euthanised (a case fatality rate of 14.6%). The authors describe the characteristics of the 2015 WNV epizootics, the early detection of the first WNV equine cases via the RESPE network and the coordination of WNV surveillance in France.

« Dans le cadre de la planification, les services de la DGAL se préparent, aux différents échelons, à la mise en œuvre des mesures de lutte contre la peste porcine africaine (PPA) en identifiant les ressources humaines et matérielles nécessaires. Pour la question du dépeuplement en élevage, il est prévu un prestataire national pour la réalisation des chantiers de dépeuplement de gros effectifs porcins en élevage, le reste des chantiers étant et devant être piloté et organisé par les directions départementales en charge de la protection des populations DDecPP avec des moyens locaux. Pour autant, selon la dynamique de diffusion de la maladie, ces dispositifs pourraients’avérer insuffisants et une option pourrait être de transférer des animaux issus de cheptels infectés pour une mise à mort à l'abattoir. Par ailleurs, une stratégie de dépeuplement préemptive à l'image de ce qui a été mis en place lors de l’épisode influenza aviaire 2016-2017 pourrait être également mise en place et nécessiterait également une mobilisation importante des moyens de dépeuplement.Il s'agirait donc plus précisément d'évaluer le risque de diffusion de la PPA, à la fois par le transport et par la persistance du virus au sein des sites d’abattage, lors de la mobilisation d'abattoirs pour dépeupler des foyers. Cette même question est posée pour du dépeuplementpréemptif d'animaux a priori non suspects en périphérie de foyer. Ces cas de figure pourraient se présenter en cas de dépassement des capacités d'intervention sur site Des questions complémentaires liées aux opérations de dépeuplement d'animaux infectés sontégalement posées.- Parmi les méthodes d’euthanasie individuelle, un dispositif à tige perforante suivi d'un jonchage ou une injection létale peuvent être utilisés pour les porcs ainsi que le tir à balle pour les sangliers. Ces méthodes qui peuvent entraîner des effusions de sang sont-elles denature à engendrer un risque supplémentaire de diffusion du virus ?- Les intervenants dans un foyer sont équipés de protections individuelles (EPI) et passent par un sas sanitaire pour sortir de l'exploitation en vue de limiter les risques de diffusion de la maladie. La procédure recommandée pour l'entrée et la sortie d'un élevage infecté estjointe ; quel serait le délai de carence à respecter entre l'intervention dans un foyer et l'intervention dans un élevage sain afin de prévenir tout risque de diffusion de la maladie ? Le délai historiquement préconisé est de 72h et demande à être documenté. »

International audience; Mycobacterium bovis infection was first described in free-ranging wildlife in France in 2001, with subsequent detection in hunter-harvested ungulates and badgers in areas where outbreaks of bovine tuberculosis (TB) were also detected in cattle. Increasing concerns regarding TB in wildlife led the French General Directorate for Food (DGAL) and the main institutions involved in animal health and wildlife management, to establish a national surveillance system for TB in free-ranging wildlife. This surveillance system is known as “Sylvatub.” The system coordinates the activities of various national and local partners. The main goal of Sylvatub is to detect and monitor M. bovis infection in wildlife through a combination of passive and active surveillance protocols adapted to the estimated risk level in each area of the country. Event-base surveillance relies on M. bovis identification (molecular detection) (i) in gross lesions detected in hunter-harvested ungulates, (ii) in ungulates that are found dead or dying, and (iii) in road-killed badgers. Additional targeted surveillance in badgers, wild boars and red deer is implemented on samples from trapped or hunted animals in at-risk areas. With the exception of one unexplained case in a wild boar, M. bovis infection in free-living wildlife has always been detected in the vicinity of cattle TB outbreaks with the same genotype of the infectious M. bovis strains. Since 2012, M. bovis was actively monitored in these infected areas and detected mainly in badgers and wild boars with apparent infection rates of 4.57–5.14% and 2.37–3.04%, respectively depending of the diagnostic test used (culture or PCR), the period and according to areas. Sporadic infection has also been detected in red deer and roe deer. This surveillance has demonstrated that M. bovis infection, in different areas of France, involves a multi-host system including cattle and wildlife. However, infection rates are lower than those observed in badgers in the United Kingdom or in wild boars in Spain.

International audience; When bovine tuberculosis (bTB) circulates in a multi-host system, it is paramount to characterize the interactions between wildlife and livestock as they may lead to interspecific transmission. To that purpose, we undertook a 1-year survey in 25 farms located in an infected area in the Burgundy region (east central France). We used camera traps deployed on 101 water and food access points located in pastures and farm buildings considered as attractive points for red deer, wild boar, and badgers. For each species, we analyzed the duration of each visit, the number of individuals, their behavior, and the frequency of visits. Wild boar was the most frequent species, with 5.0 visits/100 nights, and their visits occurred most frequently around water sources and in summer. The frequency of visits from red deer was highest at salt licks and in summer. Badger was more frequent in winter and on pasture feed troughs. These results highlight the wide variation in the patterns of contact at the wildlife-cattle interface among the different bTB-susceptible species. Combined with other epidemiological data, these data could be used both to assess the risk of bTB transmission in Burgundy and to implement biosecurity measures.

Concerns about the spread of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) have led to cloacal swab sampling of hundreds of thousands of birds worldwide as part of AIV surveillance schemes, but the effects of cloacal swabbing have not been adequately evaluated. We tested for differences between swabbed, swabbed and bled, and non-sampled wild ducks in terms of live re-encounter and dead recoveries for Common Pochard Aythya ferina and Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula, and also determined re-encounter and recovery rates for Mallard Anas platyrhynchos and Common Teal Anas crecca. No effects of sampling methods were detected, except in Teal. Re-encounter rates were lower in sampled Teal than in controls, with annual re-encounter probabilities being 25% and 35% lower in males and females, respectively. Teal possibly left or avoided sampling sites, or sought sites where they were less detectable after sampling. In general, no deleterious effects were found, suggesting that cloacal swabbing and blood sampling are suitable methods for conducting AIV surveillance in ducks.

In a context of (re)emerging infectious diseases with wildlife reservoirs, understanding how animal ecology shapes epidemiology is a key issue, particularly in wild ungulates that share pathogens with domestic herbivores and have similar food requirements. For the first time in Europe, brucellosis (Brucella melitensis), a virulent zoonosis, persisted in an Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) population and was transmitted to cattle and humans. To better understand disease dynamics, we investigated the relationships between the spatial ecology of ibex and the epidemiology of brucellosis. Combining home range overlap between 37 GPS-collared individuals and visual observations of 148 visually-marked individuals monitored during the 2013–2016 period, we showed that females were spatially segregated in at least 4 units all year round, whereas males were more prone to move between female units, in particular during the rutting period. In addition to ibex age, the spatial structure in females largely contributed to variation in seroprevalence in the whole population. These results suggest that non-sexual routes are the most likely pathways of intraspecific transmission, crucial information for management. Accounting for wildlife spatial ecology was hence decisive in improving our ability to better understand this health challenge involving a wildlife reservoir.

International audience; Rarely found infected, roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) are not considered a bovine tuberculosis (bTB) reservoir. However, serial cases discovered between 2010 and 2014 in one of the bTB endemic regions in France threw doubt on the epidemiological role played by this small wild cervid in ecosystems where cattle and other wild animals are both infected. Our objective was to analyse the bTB host status of roe deer as regards infection prevalence within the population and Mycobacterium bovis-induced pathology in this species. From November 2001 to March 2016, 668 roe deer were analysed (culture and/or PCR) through active surveillance implemented in three bTB endemic areas in France (Brotonne forest, Dordogne and Côte d’Or) and 132 through passive surveillance (presence of macroscopic lesions) in the whole country. Only seven roe deer were found infected by M. bovis, exclusively in bTB endemic areas, one through active surveillance (Brotonne forest; n = 203, apparent prevalence 0.49%). On the basis of these results, observed pathological patterns (mainly pulmonary lesions), species social behaviour (less gregarious than other ungulates) and food behaviour (mainly a selective browser), roe deer does not appear to be a true reservoir of bTB. However, once infected, it develops lesions reflecting a clear ability for bacterial excretion and therefore transmission to other species, most likely by indirect contact. It could thus be a spillover host included in a multi-host component reservoir in endemic areas. Consequently, passive surveillance is essential to detect infection and to implement specific management to limit interactions with cattle, where infected roe deer are found.

Summary The Schmallenberg virus (SBV) has recently emerged in Europe, causing losses to the domestic livestock. A retrospective analysis of serodata was conducted in France for estimating seroprevalence of SBV among six wildlife species from 2011–2012 to 2013–2014, that is during the three vector seasons after the emergence of the SBV in France. Our objective was to quantify the exposure of wildlife to SBV and the potential protective effect of elevation such as previously observed for bluetongue. We also compared the spatiotemporal trends between domestic and wild animals at the level of the departments. We tested 2050 sera using competitive ELISA tests. Individual and population risk factors were further tested using general linear models among 1934 individuals. All populations but one exhibited positive results, seroprevalence up to 30% being observed for all species. The average seroprevalence did not differ between species but ranged from 0 to 90% according to the area and period, due to the dynamic pattern of infection. Seroprevalence was on average higher in the lowlands compared to areas located up to 800 m. Nevertheless, seroprevalence above 50% occurred in areas located up to 1500 m. Thus, contrary to what had been observed for bluetongue during the late 2000s in the same areas, SBV could spread to high altitudes and infect all the studied species. The spatial spread of SBV in wildlife did not fully match with SBV outbreaks reported in the domestic livestock. The mismatch was most obvious in mountainous areas where outbreaks in wildlife occurred on average one year after the peak of congenital cases in livestock. These results suggest a much larger spread and vector capacity for SBV than for bluetongue virus in natural areas. Potential consequences for wildlife dynamics are discussed.

Lesional aspects of Brucella melitensis in Capra ibex. After the evidence of a high seroprevalence of brucellosis in Alpine ibex populations in the French Alps (Bargy massif), it became essential to study the pathogeny of the disease in this wild ungulate. Necropsies were achieved between 2012 and 2014 on 64 affected ibex, supplemented by bacteriologic analysis. About one ibex out of three showed at least one typical lesion of brucellosis and infection could have several locations on the same animal. Arthritis and orchitis were lesions the most frequently observed. Year of capture and sex of animals were identified as risk factors for ibex to develop clinical signs of the disease. These types of lesions and isolation of the bacteria demonstrate the possibility for individuals to excrete B. melitensis without clinical signs and suggest various excretion routes. According to the brucellosis pathogeny, the Alpine ibex seems to be able to constitute a wildflife reservoir for B. melitensis., Suite à la découverte d’une forte séroprévalence de brucellose dans les populations de bouquetins du massif du Bargy, il est apparu indispensable d’étudier la pathogénie de la maladie afin de mieux comprendre cette relation hôte-pathogène. Des autopsies ont été réalisées entre 2012 et 2014 sur 64 bouquetins atteints, complétées par des analyses bactériologiques. Près d’un bouquetin sur trois était porteur d’au moins une lésion évoquant la brucellose et l’infection pouvait avoir plusieurs localisations chez un même animal. Les arthrites et les orchites étaient les lésions les plus fréquemment observées. La période de capture et le sexe des individus ont été identifiés comme facteurs de risque faisant varier l’atteinte lésionnelle parmi la population. La nature des lésions observées et l’isolement de la bactérie prouvent l’existence d’animaux excréteurs sans aucun signe clinique et laissent entrevoir plusieurs voies d’excrétion. Le bouquetin des Alpes semble donc, d’après la pathogénie de la brucellose, pouvoir constituer un réservoir pour B. melitensis., Freycon Pauline, Game Yvette, Hars Jean, Fromont Emmanuelle. Étude lésionnelle de la brucellose due à Brucella Melitensis chez le bouquetin des Alpes Capra Ibex. In: Bulletin de l'Académie Vétérinaire de France tome 170 n°2, 2017. pp. 126-130.

Interactions among wildlife species are major drivers for the transmission of multi-host pathogens, such as Mycobacterium bovis, which also affect livestock. Although France is officially free from bovine tuberculosis (bTB), some areas are still harboring infection in cattle and wildlife. We aimed at characterizing the visits of susceptible wild species (badger, red deer, and wild boar) at baited places and waterholes, considered as possible hotspots for contacts. We described the visits in terms of frequency, duration, and number of individuals and studied the influence of the season. Then, we estimated the frequency of intraspecies and interspecies interactions occurring at baited places and waterholes which may lead to bTB transmission, including direct and indirect contacts through the soil or water. We used camera traps placed on baited places and waterholes on 13 locations monitored during 21 months. The number of visits, their duration, and the number of individuals per visit were analyzed by generalized linear mixed models for each targeted species. The frequency of the interspecies and intraspecies interactions was also analyzed separately. The season, the type of site (baited place or waterhole), and the location were the explanatory variables. Badgers’ visits and interactions were more frequent than for other species (mean: 0.60 visit/day and 5.42 interactions/day) especially on baited places. Red deer only visited waterholes. Wild boars visited most often baited places in spring–summer and waterholes in autumn–winter. They came in higher number than other species, especially on baited places. Direct interactions were uncommon. The most frequent interspecies interactions occurred between red deer and wild boar (mean: 4.02 interactions/day). Baited places and waterholes are important interfaces between the different wild species involved in the bTB multi-host system in this area. They can thus promote intraspecies and interspecies bTB transmission. Baiting ban should be carried on and management of waterholes should be considered as tool to limit the spread of bTB in wildlife.

Summary In early 2001, Mycobacterium bovis infection was confirmed in red deer (RD) (Cervus elaphus) shot in Normandy region, France. An epidemiological survey conducted during the following hunting season in two connected forests confirmed the occurrence of the disease in both free-ranging RD and wild boar (WB) (Sus scrofa). This was the first detected bovine tuberculosis outbreak in wildlife in France. We present a simple deterministic age-structured model of the within- and between-species M. bovis transmission in RD and WB populations that distinguishes direct transmission (horizontal and pseudo-vertical) and indirect transmission through contaminated offal left behind by hunters. Results issued from the epidemiological surveys conducted in Normandy forests were used to estimate transmission parameters. Because data for RD and WB populations were not available, population sizes at demographic equilibrium were estimated and used to run the model. We qualitatively tested different control measure scenarios with our model, considering different mortality rates and offal harvesting, to determine which ones affect the success of infection control. The most realistic control scenario would combine the total depopulation of RD and good compliance with offal harvesting, because the model suggests that infected offal left by hunters represents the main transmission source of M. bovis in the field.

Results of the surveillance of regulated contagious diseases in the french wildlife. The FrenchMinistry of Agriculture, the National Hunting andWildlife Agency (ONCFS) and the hunters’ associations are increasingly concerned with the impact of wildlife diseases on livestock and human health. The demographic growth of some wild species is further increasing this risk. In France, wildlife diseases aremonitored passively through the SAGIR network, whose objective is to diagnose the causes of wildlife mortality, and actively by targeting certain species and diseases with a major economic or public health impact. This surveillance programhas shown for instance that wild boars act as a reservoir for Brucella suis biovar 2 and the Aujeszky’s disease virus, and that they are responsible for the contamination of open-air pig farms, as well as for the persistence for over fifteen years of the virus of classical swine fever in the North-East of France and in other parts of Europe. Oral vaccination of wild boars had been thus implemented since 2004 in order to control the enzooty. Since 2001, cases of bovine tuberculosis due to Mycobacterium bovis have been identified in red deer and wild boar in several areas of France, which threaten disease-free livestock. Likewise, the question of a possible role of wild ruminants in the epidemiology of Bluetongue disease is being raised. Finally, wild birds constitute uncontrollable reservoirs for influenza and West Nile viruses, among others, and may threaten domestic poultry, humans or horses. The sanitary status of wild species is thus increasingly taken into account in the management and control of livestock diseases., Les ministères chargés de l’Agriculture et le monde cynégétique sont de plus en plus préoccupés par le risque sanitaire que peut représenter la faune sauvage pour les animaux d’élevage et l’homme. Ce risque est aggravé par la croissance démographique de certaines espèces sauvages. En France, l’épidémiosurveillance des maladies de la faune sauvage est assurée par le réseau SAGIR dont l’objectif est de diagnostiquer les causes de mortalité des animaux sauvages (surveillance passive), ainsi que par la mise en oeuvre de plans de surveillance ciblés sur certaines espèces et sur des maladies à impact économique ou zoonotique majeur (surveillance active). Les résultats de cette surveillance montrent, par exemple, que le sanglier est un réservoir de Brucella suis biovar 2 et du virus de la maladie d’Aujeszky, responsable de la contamination d’élevages de porcs en plein air, et qu’il entretient depuis plus de quinze ans le virus de la peste porcine classique dans le nord-est de la France, comme dans d’autres régions d’Europe. Depuis 2001, des cas de tuberculose bovine à Mycobacterium bovis ont été découverts chez les cerfs et les sangliers dans plusieurs départements, laissant peser un risque de recontamination de cheptels bovins indemnes. De même, la question du rôle joué par les ruminants sauvages dans l’épidémiologie de la fièvre catarrhale ovine est posée. Enfin, les oiseaux sauvages, réservoirs incontrôlables des virus influenza et du virusWest Nile pour ne citer qu’eux, peuvent représenter un risque pour les volailles, l’homme ou le cheval. De ce fait, la faune sauvage est maintenant prise en compte dans les mesures de gestion sanitaire des maladies animales., Hars Jean, Rossi Sophie. Résultats de la surveillance de maladies animales réputées contagieuses (MARC) dans la faune sauvage en France. In: Bulletin de l'Académie Vétérinaire de France tome 162 n°3, 2009. pp. 215-223.

Since the sixties, bovine tuberculosis (TB) has been identified in the wildlife of several countries throughout the world. The various mammal species infected by Mycobacterium bovis can bee classified as reservoirs, spill-overs or dead-end hosts In 2000, France was officially declared free of bovine TB and, until that date, M. bovis had never been found in free-living wildlife. However, since 2001, the disease has been identified in wild ungulates in four geographically distinct regions : first of all in Normandy (2001), then in Corsica (2003) and Burgundy (2003), and later in the Pyrenees (2005). An epidemiological survey conducted in 2001-2002 in the Normandy Brotonne forest, revealed an apparent prevalence of bovine TB of 28 % in wild boars and 14 % in red deer. In most animals, no macroscopic lesions were detected during the initial inspection in the field. Control measures (increased shooting, ban on artificial game feeding, destruction of killed animal viscera, etc…) were immediately adopted to contain the epizootic. Despite such measures, the phenomenon worsened : in 2005-2006, the apparent prevalence reached more than 30 % in wild boars and more than 20 % in red deer, with an increase in the number of open lesions in both species. On the contrary, in the others regions, cases seem to be sporadic (1%< p < 5%). The same genotypes of M. bovis were found in wild ungulates and in neighbouring cattle, which suggests that there is a real epidemiological link between wild and domestic animals. These results raise the question of the emergence of TB in wildlife, its origin and the risk of transmission to cattle., Depuis les années 1960, la tuberculose due à Mycobacterium bovis a été décrite dans la faune sauvage de plusieurs pays à travers le monde. Selon les cas, les différentes espèces de mammifères trouvées infectées par M. bovis peuvent être considérées comme réservoirs primaires, réservoirs secondaires ou culs-de-sac épidémiologiques. En 2000, la France a été déclarée officiellement indemne de tuberculose bovine et, jusqu’à cette date, M. bovis n’avait jamais été isolé chez un animal sauvage en liberté. Cependant, depuis 2001, l''infection a été identifiée chez des ongulés sauvages dans quatre régions distinctes : tout d’abord en Normandie (2001), puis en Corse et en Bourgogne (2003), et dans les Pyrénées (2005). En 2001-2002, dans la forêt normande de Brotonne, une enquête épidémiologique a révélé des prévalences apparentes d''infection de 28% chez le sanglier et 14 % chez le cerf. La plupart des animaux ne présentaient pas de lésions visibles à l’inspection par les chasseurs. Des mesures de lutte (accroissement de la pression de chasse, interdiction d’affouragement, destruction des viscères des animaux tués…) ont été immédiatement prises pour tenter de contenir l’épizootie. Malgré cela, le phénomène s’est aggravé : en effet, en 2005-2006, la prévalence apparente a atteint plus de 30 % chez le sanglier et plus de 20 % chez le cerf, avec une augmentation du taux de lésions ouvertes dans les deux espèces Par contre, dans les autres régions, les cas semblent demeurer sporadiques (1 % < p< 5%). Les mêmes génotypes de M. bovis ont été retrouvés chez les ongulés sauvages et les bovins qui auraient pu être à leur contact. Ceci laisse supposer qu’il existe un réel lien épidémiologique entre les animaux sauvages et domestiques Ces résultats posent la question de l’émergence de la tuberculose dans la faune sauvage, de son origine, et du risque de transmission au bétail., Hars Jean, Boschiroli Maria-Laura, Duvauchelle Aurore, Garin-Bastuji Bruno. La tuberculose à Mycobacterium bovis chez le cerf et le sanglier en France. Émergence et risque pour l’élevage bovin. In: Bulletin de l'Académie Vétérinaire de France tome 159 n°5, 2006. Séances thématiques exceptionnelles : Les maladies infectieuses. pp. 393-401.

Classical swine fever (CSF) is of increasing concern in Europe where wild boar appear to play an important epidemiological role. In most parts of the continent, demographic trends are on the increase, due to improvement in game management. As a result of higher densities, populations become more susceptible to various infectious diseases, among which CSF is cause for particular concern. Wild boar do not appear to be a classic reservoir in most cases, but nevertheless may perpetuate foci of infection over the long term, constituting a real threat for the pig farming industry. Since the infection does not appear to spread easily in natural populations of free-ranging wild boars, control of the disease may be feasible. However, most of the appropriate measures, such as banning hunting, are not considered acceptable. Consequently, the expertise of wildlife disease specialists is required to help solve the problem when it occurs.

International audience; Schmallenberg virus infection is emerging in European domestic and wild ruminants. We investigated the serologic status of 9 red deer populations to describe virus spread from September 2010 through March 2012 among wildlife in France. Deer in 7 populations exhibited seropositivity, with an average seroprevalence of 20%.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License.-- et al., The Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa) is increasingly considered as a relevant actor in the epidemiology of animal tuberculosis (TB). Therefore, monitoring TB in wild boar becomes a key tool for establishing comprehensive control schemes for this disease. To estimate the exposure of free living wild boar to Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC) in France, a bovine-purified protein derivative based ELISA was used to test 2,080 archived serum samples of hunter-harvested animals in 58 French “départements”. Two cut-off values were used for diagnostic interpretation: 0.2, recommended by the manufacturer (specificity: 96.43%; sensitivity: 72.6%), and 0.5 (specificity: 100%; sensitivity: 64%). During the same period, at the 0.2 cut-off, global true seroprevalence was 5.9% (IC95%: 4.3%-7.7%) and 76% of the sampled “départements” had seropositive wild boar, including seven cattle TB-free “départements. At the 0.5 cut-off, global true seroprevalence was 2.2% (IC95%: 1.5-3.2) and positive wild boar belonged to 21% of the “départements”. All but one of these positive “départements” had reported at least one cattle TB outbreak since 2000. A good consistence between seropositive wild boar and TB outbreaks in cattle was found, especially at the 0.5 cut-off value (the mean distance to the nearest cattle TB outbreak was 13km and 27km for seropositive and seronegative wild boar, respectively; P, This study was funded by our own institutional resources (Anses).

Bovine tuberculosis in wildlife in France. Risk for cattle Tuberculosis (TB) due to M. bovis has been described in wildlife species of many countries, albeit, depending on the situation, being considered as a sentinel or a reservoir of the infection for livestock and/or human. In France, TB has been discovered for the first time, in 2001, in wild ungulates of the Brotonne Forest (Normandy). Since then, passive and active surveillance for the disease has been implemented in several regions, and later expanded to the whole country through the Sylvatub surveillance program since 2011. Firstly described in wild boar and red deer, it has also been detected in 2009 in badgers of Côte d’Or, then in 2010 in Dordogne and Charente. The presence of high density populations of wild animals and some practices as artificial feeding, which lead to non-natural high concentrations of animals, are major factors of emergence and persistence of TB in wildlife. In several French regions, M. bovis would be circulating in a multi-host system including bovines (and pigs, in Corsica only), several wildlife species and their environment which thus complicates the epidemiology and sanitary management of the disease., La tuberculose à Mycobacterium bovis (TB) est décrite dans la faune sauvage de plusieurs pays, celle-ci pouvant être, selon les cas, sentinelle ou réservoir de l’infection pour les bovins et/ ou l’homme. En France, la TB a été découverte en 2001 chez des ongulés sauvages en forêt de Brotonne (Normandie). Depuis cette date, une surveillance événementielle et programmée de la maladie a été mise en place dans plusieurs départements, puis étendue de façon harmonisée à tout le territoire français métropolitain grâce à la mise en place du dispositif Sylvatub depuis 2011. D’abord décrite chez les cerfs et les sangliers, la TB a été détectée chez le blaireau en 2009 en Côte d’Or, puis en 2010 en Dordogne et en Charente. La présence de fortes densités d’animaux sauvages et entre autres la pratique de l’agrainage, qui provoque des concentrations artificielles d’animaux, sont des facteurs majeurs d’émergence et de persistance de la TB dans les populations sauvages. Dans plusieurs régions de France, M. bovis semble circuler dans un système multi-hôtes comprenant les bovins (et les porcs en Corse uniquement), plusieurs espèces sauvages et leur environnement ce qui complique l’épidémiologie et la gestion sanitaire de la maladie., Hars Jean, Richomme Céline, Rivière Julie, Payne Ariane, Faure Eva, Boschiroli Maria-Laura. La tuberculose bovine dans la faune sauvage en France. Risques pour l’élevage bovin. In: Bulletin de l'Académie Vétérinaire de France tome 166 n°3, 2013. pp. 222-228.

International audience; Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite infecting humans and animals. Wild boars Sus scrofa are a potential source of human infection and an appropriate biological model for analyzing T. gondii dynamics in the environment. Here, we aimed to identify environmental factors explaining the seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in French wild boar populations. Considering 938 individuals sampled from 377 'communes', overall seroprevalence was 23% (95% confidence interval: [22-24]). Using a Poisson regression, we found that the number of seropositive wild boars detected per 'commune' was positively associated with the presence of European wildcats (Felis silvestris) and moderate winter temperatures.

International audience; Bluetongue (BT) was monitored in wildlife in France during two consecutive years corresponding to contrasting incidence rates in livestock: in 2008 at the peak of domestic outbreaks and in 2009 when very few outbreaks were observed. The disease status of 2 798 ruminants comprising 837 red deer (Cervus elaphus) was explored using ELISA test on serum and real-time RT-PCR test on blood or spleen. A large proportion of red deer were seropositive and positive to RT-PCR in 2008, but also in 2009 (seroprevalence: 47.1% and 24.3%), suggesting that red deer could maintain infection when domestic incidence was negligible. By contrast, low seroprevalence (

In France, several surveillance programmes have been carried out to monitor the presence of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in badgers in regions where cattle or wildlife show high bTB prevalence (Seine-Maritime, Cote d’Or, Dordogne/Charente). Diagnostic methods include post-mortem examination, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and/or microbiological culture. The frequency of visible lesions was significantly higher in Dordogne/Charente (14/283, 4.9 %) than in Cote d’Or (19/1146, 1.7 %) and Seine-Maritime (2/160, 1.25 %) (Fisher’s exact test, p < 0.001). Lesions were mainly located in cephalic and thoracic lymph nodes with one badger showing generalised tuberculosis. Near infected cattle farms or pastures, Mycobacterium bovis was detected using the culture method in roughly 1 % (1/103) of the badgers sampled in Seine-Maritime and in 5.6 % (49/878) of the badgers sampled in Cote d’Or. In Dordogne/Charente, the prevalence determined by PCR was 13.3 % (29/218). M. bovis was not found in badgers trapped in areas where there are no infected cattle. Spoligotyping and multiple locus variable number tandem repeat analysis showed that all M. bovis strains isolated from badgers were of the same genotype as those isolated from cattle in the vicinity, demonstrating an epidemiological link between both species. These are the first cases of bTB in badgers reported in France. Further surveys and research are needed to investigate the role badgers play in the epidemiology of bTB.

International audience; The zoonotic agent of bovine tuberculosis (bTB), Mycobacterium bovis, can be transmitted between domestic and wild animals, threatening wildlife populations and control programs for bTB in cattle. In Corsica, a French Mediterranean island where domestic and wild species have close interactions, bTB cases have been reported in cattle, pigs, and wild boar. Moreover, genotypes of M. bovis found in wild and domestic animals from the same area were identical. These data strongly suggest that wild and domestic animals are associated in an epidemiologic bTB-transmission cycle. More investigations are needed, not only to understand the role played by each species in order to implement appropriate control measures, but also to assess the risk of transmission to humans.

In February 2006, a highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus was isolated from Common Pochards (Aythia ferina) in the Dombes region of France, an important migrating and wintering waterfowl area. Thereafter, HPAI H5N1 virus was isolated from 39 swab pools collected from dead waterfowl found in the Dombes, but only from three pooled samples collected outside of this area but located on the same migration flyway. A single turkey farm was infected in the Dombes. The epizootic lasted 2 mo and was restricted to the Dombes area. Virus-positive pools were detected in 20 of 1,200 ponds and infected Mute Swans (Cygnus olor) represented 82% of the virus-positive pools. Other infected species included Common Pochard (n=4), Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea, n=1), Eurasian Buzzard (Buteo buteo, n=1), and Greylag Goose (Anser anser, n=1). Despite intensive monitoring during and after the outbreak, HPAI H5N1 virus was not isolated from healthy wild birds. Our results are consistent with an HPAI H5N1-virus introduction into the Dombes via migrating ducks. These birds could have been pushed west by a severe cold spell in central Europe where the virus had already been detected. The Mute Swan served as an excellent epidemiologic sentinel during this outbreak; swans appear to be highly sensitive to infection with these viruses and swan mortality was easy to detect. During the outbreak, the mortality rates for wild birds remained moderate and the virus affected a limited number of species.

The data obtained from a survey of Mycobacterium bovis infection in wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) conducted in France in the 2005/06 hunting season were used to describe and quantify the pathological findings in the two species. The red deer had caseous abscessed lesions in their organs and lymph nodes, whereas in the wild boar the lesions were predominantly caseocalcareous and occurred mainly in the lymph nodes. The severity of the gross tuberculosis-like lesions was estimated on the basis of a numerical score. The significant difference between the distribution of the scores in the two species indicated that the disease was more serious in the red deer than in the wild boar. Unlike the red deer, the wild boar did not show a generalised pattern of disease. Among the lymph nodes examined systematically, gross lesions were most frequently observed in the mesenteric lymph nodes in the red deer and in the retropharyngeal lymph nodes in the wild boar. In both species, the presence of gross lesions showed the closest agreement with the isolation of M bovis from the same lymph nodes. The different patterns of the lesions of tuberculosis in the two species suggest that red deer might play an important role in the intraspecies and interspecies dissemination of the infection, whereas in wild boar the spread of the infection would be more likely to be restricted to other wild boar.

In early 2001, tuberculosis-like lesions were detected in three hunter-killed red deer (Cervus elaphus) in the Brotonne Forest (Normandy, France), and Mycobacterium bovis was isolated. In subsequent hunting seasons, two surveys were conducted in the area. In the first survey (2001-02 hunting season), nine (13%) of 72 red deer sampled were positive for M. bovis. In the 2005-06 hunting season, the prevalence of M. bovis infection increased to 24% (chi2=3.85, df=1, P=0.05; 33 positive among 138 sampled). The prevalence remained stable in juveniles, but it increased significantly in adults: from 13% in 2001-02 to 32% in 2005-06 (chi2=5.13, df=1, P=0.02). Wild boar (Sus scrofa) were heavily infected in both surveys. One roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and one red fox (Vulpes vulpes) also tested positive in the second survey. Mycobacterium bovis was not isolated from Eurasian badgers (Meles meles). Spoligotyping and mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit-variable number tandem repeat analysis demonstrated that all M. bovis strains isolated from wildlife were of the same genotype. Thus, the wildlife outbreak involved only a single strain, and this strain was the same as that circulating in nearby cattle herds since 1995. Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values of the presence of macroscopic lesions as a diagnostic criterion were evaluated from the data obtained from red deer. Necropsy seems to be satisfactory as a routine tool to monitor the disease in wild red deer populations in which bovine tuberculosis has become established.

Since 1997, highly pathogenic avian influenza has evolved from an exclusively animal disease to a zoonosis. In 2003, the H5N1 HP virus developed in poultry in South-Eastern Asia, before spreading to European countries and Africa. Human cases are systematically associated with a close and intensive contact with infected poultry; their number is currently limited as compared to the total number of exposed people in the world. Many precautionary measures have been taken to prevent the extension of foci, as much in terms of animal health as in terms of protection of those potentially exposed to infected birds. Besides the zoonotic aspect, the genetic evolutionary potential of influenza viruses and the unusual world H5N1 HP virus circulation in birds have raised concerns about a potential new influenza pandemic. This is the reason why public authorities have initiated a large-scale preparedness plan to face this contingency.

International audience; After West Nile virus (WNV) reappeared in Camargue in September 2000, a multi species surveillance system was first set up in three districts in 2001. It was then extended to the entire French Mediterranean costal areas at the end of 2003. The integrated surveillance system was jointly coordinated by the ministry of health and the ministry of agriculture. It combined a multidisciplinary approach, involving; human, equine, avian and entomological surveillance. Between 2003 and 2006, WNV was detected in three occurrences; in the district of Var in summer 2003 with 7 human cases and 4 equine cases; in Camargue in September 2004 with 32 equine cases and 13 birds’ seroconversions, and finally in the district of Pyrénées-Orientales at the end of September 2006 with 5 equine cases. The virus circulation was limited in time and space. Control measures were implemented in the West Nile outbreak districts, integrating local antivectorial activities, prevention individual measures (against mosquito-bites) and restriction on blood donations.; Après le retour du virus West Nile (VWN) en Camargue en septembre 2000, une surveillance multi espèces a été mise en oeuvre en 2001 dans les trois départements camarguais pour être étendue fin 2003 et ultérieurement à l’ensemble du pourtour méditerranéen. Ce dispositif de surveillance du VWN VWN, coordonné par les ministères de la santé et de l’agriculture, combine une approche pluridisciplinaire avec des volets ; humain, équin, aviaire et entomologique. De 2003 à 2006, le VWN a été détecté à trois reprises ; dans le département du Var en été 2003 avec 7 cas humains et 4 cas équins, à nouveau en Camargue en septembre 2004 avec 32 cas équins et 13 séroconversions aviaires et dans le département des Pyrénées-Orientales fin septembre 2006 avec 5 cas équins. La circulation virale est restée localisée dans le temps et dans l’espace. La souche virale a été identifiée en 2004 chez les oiseaux. Des mesures de contrôle ont été mises en oeuvre dans les départements touchés par le VWN, intégrant des actions ciblées de démoustication, des mesures de prévention individuelle contre les piqûres de moustiques et des restrictions de dons du sang.

Between February and August 2006, 490 wild birds grouped into 302 lots were collected in the East of France (Ain department). Virological tests were performed by the Departemental Laboratory. The M gene, common to all type A avian influenza viruses and detected by PCR on tracheal and cloacal swabs, was present in 41 lots, of which 39 originated from the Dombes area. The National Reference Laboratory (AFSSA Ploufragan) confirmed the presence of the highly pathogenic (HP) strain of H5N1 virus. Nervous signs were detected upon clinical examination in some of the birds. The autopsy showed predominantly congestive and hemorrhagic lesions (thoraco-abdominal cavity, heart and kidneys), often associated in mute swans with pulmonary emphysema, pancreatitis and encephalitis. Some of the birds with macroscopic or histological lesions had a negative PCR. The virus, probably introduced by the common pochard, Aythya ferina, affected mainly swans but also other aquatic or predatory birds. The outbreak lasted from February to April, and was limited to a few villages. Evidence of H5N1-HP excretion was found only in a small number of wild birds and disappeared as the weather started to warm up., Entre février et août 2006, 490 oiseaux sauvages regroupés en 302 lots ont été collectés dans le département de l’Ain et analysés au Laboratoire Départemental d’Analyses. L’analyse virologique par PCR des écouvillons trachéaux et cloacaux a révélé la présence du gène M commun aux virus influenza aviaires de type A dans 41 lots dont 39 provenaient de la Dombes. Le Laboratoire National de Référence (AFSSA Ploufragan) a confirmé la présence du virus H5N1 hautement pathogène (HP). Des oiseaux malades présentaient cliniquement des signes nerveux. À l’autopsie, les lésions congestivo-hémorragiques prédominaient (cavité thoraco-abdominale, coeur et reins), souvent associées, chez les cygnes tuberculés, à des lésions d’emphysème pulmonaire, de pancréatite et d’encéphalite. Certains oiseaux porteurs de lésions visibles à l’examen nécropsique ou histologique avaient une PCR négative. Le virus, probablement introduit par des fuligules milouins, a affecté surtout des cygnes mais aussi, d’autres oiseaux aquatiques ou prédateurs. La maladie est survenue entre février et avril et est restée circonscrite à quelques communes ; l’excrétion de virus H5N1 HP a été mise en évidence chez un faible nombre d’oiseaux sauvages et a disparu avec la remontée de la température ambiante., Baroux Daniel, Neyron Michel, Hars Jean, Ruette Sandrine, Vernet François, Darbon Fernand, Legouge Arnaud, Lombard Géraldine. Observations, symptômes et lésions relevés sur l'avifaune sauvage de l'ain lors de l'épisode d'influenza aviaire H5N1 HP en 2006. In: Bulletin de l'Académie Vétérinaire de France tome 160 n°2, 2007. pp. 115-124.

The incursion of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza among wildfowl in Europe in 2006 was a new illustration of the health risk presented by wildlife to humans and domestic animals. To help anticipate similar incursions and avoid the pitfalls of poor communication, this paper describes how this risk was analysed and managed in the past for other wildlife diseases in Europe. The author also proposes a general methodology to anticipate such events., La contamination de l’avifaune sauvage en Europe, en 2006, par des foyers d’Influenza Aviaire Hautement Pathogène (IAHP) a été une nouvelle illustration du risque sanitaire que représente la faune sauvage pour l’homme ou les animaux domestiques. Afin de mieux anticiper des incursions similaires et éviter les dérives liées à une communication mal conduite, cet article décrit la façon dont le risque a été étudié et géré dans le passé pour d’autres maladies de la faune sauvage en Europe. L’auteur propose aussi une méthodologie générale pour anticiper de tels événements., Artois Marc, Bicout Dominique, Coppalle Jérôme, Doctrinal Delphine, Durand Ingrid, Marie, Hars Jean, Sabatier Philippe. Maladies émergentes de la faune sauvage en Europe : Leçons à retenir pour se prémunir d'un retour de l'influenza aviaire. In: Bulletin de l'Académie Vétérinaire de France tome 160 n°3, 2007. pp. 215-222.

Management of a wild reservoir : swine fever in european wild boars (SUS SCROFA). Classical swine fever (CSF) is a disease affecting wild and domestic Suidae. Wild boars (Sus scrofa) are considered as a reservoir for the disease, as CSF may persist for years in certain wild populations. The presence of this infection is a threat for the pig industry in the European Union where most of the member States are free of CSF. We describe the possible outcomes of an outbreak of CSF in wild animals, as well as the factors likely to influence the virus transmission and persistence. We also detail the management measures that were tested to date to prevent geographical spreading from the infected zones, and to eradicate CSF within the infected areas. The complexity of health measures dealing with an outbreak within natural populations is explained, with further details on the vaccination approach implemented in France since 2004., La peste porcine classique (PPC) est une maladie virale des Suidés domestiques et sauvages. Le sanglier (Sus scrofa) est considéré comme un réservoir de PPC car la maladie peut persister plusieurs années dans certaines populations sauvages. Or la présence de cette infection représente une menace pour la filière porcine de l''union européenne dont la plupart des États membres sont indemnes. Nous présentons ici les évolutions possibles d’un foyer sauvage de PPC en déclinant les facteurs probables de la transmission et de la persistance du virus. Nous abordons ensuite les différents moyens de gestion qui ont été mis en place jusqu’à aujourd’hui pour empêcher l’extension des zones infectées, et permettre l’éradication des foyers au sein des zones infectées. L’accent est mis sur la complexité de la gestion sanitaire d’un foyer en population naturelle. Un développement plus particulier est consacré à la gestion vaccinale qui est mise en oeuvre en France depuis 2004., Rossi Sophie, Hars Jean, Louguet Yann, Masse-Provin Nathalie, Pol Françoise, Le Potier Marie-Frédérique. Gestion d'un réservoir sauvage : La peste porcine du sanglier (Sus scrofa). In: Bulletin de l'Académie Vétérinaire de France tome 159 n°5, 2006. Séances thématiques exceptionnelles : Les maladies infectieuses. pp. 389-392.

A pestivirus was detected and characterized in chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica pyrenaica) originating from the French part of the Pyrenees. Phylogenetic analysis of the pestivirus was done on the basis of a fragment from the 5' noncoding region including 22 published nucleotide sequences of different pestivirus strains. Our strain was grouped within the clade of border disease viruses (BDV). However, it had an intermediate position between clade BDV and classical swine fever viruses representing a basal position to BDV strains of domestic sheep. Our strain was grouped as a sister unit to a novel pestivirus (Chamois-1) recently described from chamois in Spain. Therefore, we postulate that this virus occurs in the entire population of Pyrenean chamois. On the basis of the phylogenetic grouping of this isolate, a postulated cross-species transmission of pestivirus from domestic sheep to chamois via shared pastures seems to be unlikely.

Although veterinary authorities aim to limit persistence of classical swine fever (CSF) in wild boar (Sus scrofa), to avoid potential transmission to pigs, factors influencing CSF transmission and persistence are not clearly understood. Here we analyse incidence and persistence in a CSF epidemic that occurred in the French Vosges Forest. Higher incidence was found in large forests compared to smaller isolated ones, being highest near the starting point of the epidemic, but poorly related to the local density. We hypothesize that the spatial and social structure of wild boar populations may be responsible for this variability of incidence over space. Persistence was highest near the starting point of the epidemic and where initial density was highest. We hypothesize that persistence was favoured by the abundance of young wild boar, itself encouraged by CSF. Our results allow us to propose management measures aimed at limiting CSF persistence.

International audience; In the European Community, epizootics of classical swine fever (CSF) in the wild boar (Sus scrofa) are compulsorily monitored because transmission may occur between wild boars and domestic pigs, causing heavy economic losses to the pork industry. The estimation of incidence in populations of wild boars is generally based on viroprevalence. However, viral isolation becomes rare when the incidence is low because the virus cannot be detected for more than a few weeks following infection. On the contrary, seroprevalence is detectable at low incidence levels, because antibodies can be detected for the lifetime of the infected animal. We thus attempted to analyse the long-term evolution of CSF incidence using serological data. The data came from France, where CSF had been monitored from 1992 to 2002, and where the virus has not been detected since 1997. We assumed that the overall seroprevalence would estimate the proportion of immune wild boars, that seroprevalence in juveniles would approximate incidence and that seroprevalence in different age classes would show the evolution of incidence in a given cohort. Spatial and temporal trends of incidence and seroprevalence were explored using logistic modelling and the spatial trend was analysed using polynomial regression. In 1992, incidence peaked in the northern area. After 1993, incidence decreased but remained the highest in the northern area. After 2000, no seropositive juvenile was observed, suggesting the extinction of the epizootic. Our results support the reliability of serological monitoring since it allowed a longer detection of viral transmission and provided more information on the spatio-temporal evolution of incidence than did viral isolation. We advocate that the highest persistence of infection in northeastern France is not independent from infection persistence in Reinland-Pfalz (Germany). Such persistence may be due to favourable local conditions and/or the social organisation of wild boars.

On 28 August 2004 (week 35), two suspected clinical cases of West Nile virus infection in horses were identified by veterinarians in Saintes-Maries de la Mer, in the Camargue region of southeastern France

Wild aquatic birds are the main reservoir of avian influenza viruses (AIV) and play a major epidemiological role in the persistence and spread of infection ([7][1]). Given their constant evolution, AIV are a permanent threat to animal and public health and their active surveillance was intensified

Heterogeneity of infectious disease transmission can be generated by individual differences in the frequency of contacts with susceptible individuals, in the ability to transmit the infectious agent or in the duration of infection, and by spatial variation in the distribution, density or movements of hosts. Identifying spatial and individual heterogeneity can help improving management strategies to eradicate or mitigate infectious diseases, by targeting the individuals or areas that are responsible for most transmissions. Individual-based models allow quantifying the respective role of these sources of heterogeneity by integrating potential mechanisms that generate heterogeneity and then by tracking transmissions caused by each infected individual. In this study, we provide an individual-based model of endemic brucellosis Brucella melitensis transmission in the population of Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) of the Bargy massif (France) by taking advantage of detailed information available on ibex population dynamics, behaviour, and habitat use, and on epidemiological surveys. This host-pathogen system is expected to be subject of both individual and spatial heterogeneity. We first estimated the transmission probabilities, hitherto unknown, of the two main transmission routes of the infection (i.e., exposure to infectious births/abortions and venereal transmission). Then, we quantified heterogeneity at both individual and spatial levels. We found that both transmission routes are not negligible to explain the data, and that there is a high amount of heterogeneity of the host-pathogen system at the individual level, with females generating around 90% of the new cases of brucellosis infection. Males transmit infection at a lesser extent but still play a non-negligible role because they move between subpopulations and thereby create opportunities for spreading the infection spatially by venereal transmission. Two particular socio-spatial units are hotspots of transmission, and act as sources of transmission for the other units. These results may have important implications for disease management strategies.