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The goal of the Hui Malama o ke Kai project was the development of a community-based youth program that supported the prevention of youth violence and substance use among 5th- and 6th-grade students from a predominantly Hawaiian community. This program's development included engaging with a variety of community partners and mobilizing parents through the youths' cultural development. Recommendations for working with Hawaiians and other indigenous peoples include having program evaluators work more intimately with program participants and developing program components that address ethnic identity and family engagement. In doing so, youth programs with indigenous peoples can also galvanize small communities that are coping with destructive social concerns.

Results from SINTEF's research on radiation hardness of silicon detectors, thin silicon detectors, silicon drift devices, reach-through avalanche photodiodes, and detectors with thin dead layers are presented.

A pilot series of 10 /spl mu/m to 15 /spl mu/m thin silicon detectors has been made for the /spl Delta/E-E telescopes in the CHICSi detector system. This system will operate at the CELSIUS heavy ion storage ring in Uppsala, Sweden. /spl Delta/E-E telescopes provide isotope identification and energy determination of fragments from nuclear collisions. The thin detectors are made as p-i-n diodes in thin etched membranes in 280 /spl mu/m thick silicon wafers. The membranes are made with anisotropic etching using 25 wt.% tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) solution. The etch speed of this solution is very uniform across a wafer. As a result detectors with uniform thickness can be produced. The etch depth varies with less than /spl plusmn/0.3 /spl mu/m over a wafer and the surface microroughness is in the range from 2 to 4 nm. Each detector has a 10.0 mm/spl times/10.0 mm active area on a 10.2 mm/spl times/10.2 mm membrane surrounded by a 1.1 mm wide supporting frame. The detectors have leakage currents in the active area of approximately 0.5 nA at 20 V. The breakdown voltage of the detectors is above 100 V. Evaluation experiments with telescopes consisting of a thin detector in combination with a thick detector have shown excellent isotope separation capabilities. Mass separation of /sup 6/Li and /sup 7/Li is clearly observable.

A “single-sided” microstrip detector with n-type strip implants in n-type silicon substrate materials has been developed for use in high luminosity vertex tracker experiments. This technology has been chosen to make a detector which will operate satisfactorily well beyond the radiation dose which converts the substrate to p-type material. This full-size detector of dimensions 60 mm × 60 mm has 1025 strips (with 512 read-out strips) biased with polysilicon resistors. Separate “p-stop” implants between the strips isolate the strips from each other electrically. These individual p-stops are implemented in order to reduce the detector noise. A combination of silicon oxide and silicon nitride gives a very reliable dielectric layer for the coupling capacitors, which yields a low fraction of defective read-out strips. The backside p-n-junction area is surrounded by a high-stability guard which makes it possible to operate the detector at bias voltages corresponding to several times the depletion voltage. Preliminary irradiation tests carried out in order to determine the detector design's suitability for the experiments at the CERN-Large Hadron Collider have shown that the detectors are not fatally damaged after a radiation dose of 2 × 1014 protons cm−2.

The performance and stability of silicon diode detectors can be improved by implementing guard ring structures around the active detector area. The purpose of this work is to study design parameters influencing the performance of multiguard structures, especially the effect of metal field plates. An important feature is the potential distribution in the multiguard ring structure which depends on the bulk doping concentration, the oxide charge, the size of the gap between guard rings and the field-plate design. We have made a systematic investigation of the effect of distance between floating p+ guard rings with two different metal field plate designs. We have also varied the width of the field plates and studied the effect of gamma irradiation. Numerical simulations have been done to compare with results from the experimental potential distributions between guard rings.

Silicon microstrip detectors can be biased with polysilicon resistors or Field Effect Transistor (FET) biasing structures. Polysilicon resistors are radiation hard, but using the FET biasing principle reduces processing costs and can give better noise performance. A set of microstrip detectors has been manufactured with a standard radiation sensor process in order to assess the radiation hardness of punch-through and FET biasing. Eight different bias geometry designs were used in order to study the effects of bias gap lengths and strip end geometries on the detector characteristics. The test detectors were irradiated at several dose levels up to 75 kGy with a 60Co source. Initially the devices had very low oxide charge (3 × 1010 cm−2) and leakage current levels (60 pA per strip). The dynamic resistance was in the 1 GΩ range, which is higher than the values which can be achieved by conventional polysilicon resistors. Radiation exposure gave significant increases in the leakage current of the devices. This causes large reductions in the dynamic resistance, and detector performance will degrade. The degradation due to increased leakage current was present for all strip end geometries, and it could not be compensated by changing the gate voltage.

The Center for Industrial Research (SI), the University of Oslo (UiO) and a group of Norwegian companies have collaborated between 1990 and 1992 in the research programme ‘Industrial Microelectronics’ with a total cost of 30 MNOK. The programme was sponsored by the Norwegian Scientific and Industrial Research Council (NTNF) as one of the twin programmes constituting a national research initiative in microelectronics. The motivation for the programme is the recognition of microelectronics as a key technology commanding the performance and market success of many of the electronics systems from the Norwegian electronics industry towards the year 2000. The main objective is to stimulate industrial innovation by developing, transferring and exploiting knowledge and methods based upon advanced microelectronics. Focused activities are silicon sensor technology, combined analogue/digital design of application‐specific integrated circuits, large scale instrumentation, sensor packaging and thermal management of electronic systems. SI is focusing on applied research, UiO on education, and collaborating Norwegian companies are using the results in their own R&D projects. It is anticipated that the research results will be fully industrialised within 3–5 years. The programme is co‐ordinated with other Norwegian government‐sponsored research activities as well as European research programmes based on microelectronics. The programme is organised in projects and monitored with a set of milestones strongly indicating the achievement of successful industrial innovation, research results of international standing and high‐quality education of key personnel for the industry. Several successful examples of the research results are highlighted: Design and process methodology for double‐sided microstrip silicon radiation sensors for detection of high energy elementary particles, silicon‐to‐silicon and silicon‐to‐thin film anodic bonding processes for sensor fabrication, combined analogue/digital application‐specific integrated circuits for front‐end instrumentation applications, packaging of radiation sensors and thermal management of electronic systems by evaporation cooling. It is concluded that the programme has successfully achieved results in harmony with the objective.

A 1 mm thick silicon pad detector has been developed for the Atlas Positron Experiment (APEX) [1,2]. This experiment requires efficient detection of positrons and electrons with energies up to 1 MeV with an energy resolution of better than 10 keV and time resolution of less than 2 ns. To satisfy these requirements, the detectors should be 1 mm thick with low leakage current and be capable of operation at voltages greater than needed for full depletion. To enhance the charge collection time, the detectors should also withstand cooling to liquid nitrogen temperature. These requirements have been satisfied using diodes manufactured on high resistivity silicon in combination with a segmented guard ring structure (multiguard) and a process optimized to reduce the bulk generated leakage current. A room temperature leakage current of 1 nA/cm2 was achieved and an energy resolution of 3.6 keV FWHM was measured with 30 pF input capacitance on a charge sensitive preamplifier. At −130°C with 90 pF input capacitance an energy resolution of 3.4 keV FWHM and a time resolution of 1.2 ns was measured for 500 keV electrons in coincidence with gamma rays detected in a BaF2 scintillator detector. Results from the evaluation of different designs and process approaches are discussed.

Measurements have been carried out on the temperature dependence of the behaviour of two types of drift device: photodiodes and position sensitive drift chambers with segmented anode and cathode structures. Leakage currents and electron mobility have been investigated at low temperature for the drift photodiodes. Self-triggering has been achieved for the position sensitive drift chambers using 60 keV photons, and differences in arrival time between the prompt trigger signal from the cathode and the delayed anode signal have been studied as a function of drift distance and temperature.

Silicon drift chambers with subdivided anode structures intended for two-dimensional position measurement have been produced. These devices use implanted resistor chains to form the drift and have orthogonal strips on the reverse side intended for self-triggering capability. An important consequence of the design is that low drift fields must be used (≤ about 70 V/cm). We present results based on detailed position-response studies which show significant distortions of both pulse height and drift time characteristics. The causes of the distortions will be considered.

Capacitively coupled Si strip detectors with readout on both the p-side and the n-side have been developed. A novel scheme to separate strips ohmically on the n-side by means of field depletion via a suitable potential applied to the readout strips has been successfully demonstrated. Results on the spatial resolution of these detectors for both sides measured in a high energy beam are presented. The spatial resolution of the n-side has been measured at different incident angles of the beam tracks with respect to a vertical plane through the n + strips at 0°, 20° and 40°.

Low capacitance photodiodes based on the principle of the solid state drift chamber have been constructred and tested. The devices are based on a cellular design with an anode at the centre of each of five cells allowing electrons liberated by ionisation to drift up to 1 mm to the readout strip. Results on the performance of the detectors, including leakage current, capacitance and drift properties, are presented and compared with simulations. A second series drift photodiodes have been processed which incorporate improvements based on results acquired from the first design. They have leakage currents of a few nA and shorter drift times at the periphery of the drift cells. We present measurements showing the performance of the new devices.

The goal of the Hui Malama o ke Kai project was the development of a community-based youth program that supported the prevention of youth violence and substance use among 5th- and 6th-grade students from a predominantly Hawaiian community. This program's development included engaging with a variety of community partners and mobilizing parents through the youths' cultural development. Recommendations for working with Hawaiians and other indigenous peoples include having program evaluators work more intimately with program participants and developing program components that address ethnic identity and family engagement. In doing so, youth programs with indigenous peoples can also galvanize small communities that are coping with destructive social concerns.

Low energy electrons, alpha particles and X-rays has a short penetration depth in silicon. For detection of these types of radiation it is important that the detector has a shallow inactive region at the side which is irradiated. A series of shallow dead layer test detectors produced by n-side implantation of phosphorus, arsenic or antimony has been characterized. Leakage current levels in the range 2-5 nA/cm/sup 2/ were achieved with dead layers in the range 0.1-0.2 /spl mu/m. A silicon pixel detector which will be used in a hybrid photon detector has been produced with thin dead layer technology. The lower detection limit for electrons with this detector is 2.5 keV.

We present results from studies of the properties of dedicated n-side microstrip structures before and after irradiation, with photons to 7 Mrad and fast neutrons to 8 × 10 13 ncm −2 . Both p-stop and field plate devices were investigated, each having a range of strip geometries in order to determine optimal configurations for long-term viability and performance.

The RD20 collaboration is investigating the design and operation of an LHC inner tracking detector based on silicon microstrips. Measurements have been made on prototype detectors after irradiation with electrons, neutrons, photons, and protons for doses up to 5 Mrad and fluences up to 10 15 particles/cm 2 . The annealing of effective doping changes caused by high neutron fluences, one of the major limits to detector lifetime at the LHC, is shown to be strongly inhibited by cooling below room temperature. Detailed results are presented on the critical issue of microstrip capacitance. We have also investigated bulk damage caused by high-energy protons, interstrip isolation after neutron irradiation, and MOS capacitors irradiated with electrons and photons.

A silicon microstrip detector has been developed with 50- mu m-pitch strips on both the p- and n-side, using the principle of capacitive coupling between p/sup +/ diode strips (respectively, n/sup +/ strips) and the metallization strips which connect to the front-end preamplifiers. The detector is biased on both sides via polysilicon resistors connecting each p/sup +/ or n/sup +/ line to a common bias bus. To allow ohmic separation at the n-side, the accumulation layer of electrons has to be disrupted between the n/sup +/ strips. This has been achieved in three different ways: by separate polysilicon lines on thick oxide between two adjacent n/sup +/ lines to break the conducting accumulation layer by externally induced field depletion or by using the metal lines of the n/sup +/ strips on thick oxide or on thin oxide. Results on 20*20-mm/sup 2/ test devices are presented. A preliminary analysis of the spatial resolution gives sigma =16 mu m on both sides. These results demonstrate that double-sided readout Si strip detectors can be used for experiments where spatial resolution in the 10 mu m range is needed. >

SUMMARY Electron microscope investigations of the siliceous frustule show that the diatom described by Hustedt as Stephanodiscus subsalsus (A. Cleve) Hust. is not Skeletonema subsalsum (A. Cleve) Bethge (Melosira subsalsa A. Cleve) but is Microsiphona potamos Weber. This species is so similar to Skeletonema costatum (Grev.) Cleve and Skeletonema subsalsum that the combination Skeletonema potamos (Weber) Hasle is suggested. Present records classify Skeletonema potamos as a freshwater species of lakes and rivers. In Sandusky Bay, Lake Erie (U.S.A.) and in River Wumme, a tributary of the River Weser (Germany) it grows with Skeletonema subsalsum. In nature, and when grown in cultures at a salinity of 0%, the processes are extremely short; when grown at salinities of 2% or more, the processes are much longer.

A low-capacitance photodiode based on the principle of the solid-state drift chamber has been constructed and tested. The device is based on a cellular design with an anode at the center of each of five cells, allowing electrons liberated by ionization to drift up to 1 mm to the readout strip. Two designs were produced with p/sup +/ implant widths of 75 mu m and 85 mu m, respectively, using n-type material of 3.5-k Omega -cm resistivity. The opposite surface is a uniform p-type implant, features matching those of the other surface, and is unmetallized to ensure good photosensitivity. Results on the performance of the detector, including leakage current, capacitance, and drift properties, are presented and compared with simulation results. >

The valve morphology of the brackish-water plankton diatom Skeletonema subsalsum is dependent on salinity. In cells grown at salinities of 3‰ or less, the valve faces were flat and the connecting processes much reduced in length. Cells grown at salinities of 5‰ or higher had dome-shaped valves and extended connecting processes. The effect of an increase in salinity could be duplicated by the addition of sucrose to the growth medium. The growth rate was nearly independent of salinity in the range of 1–10‰. It was concluded that the osmotic pressure of the medium exerts a direct effect on cell-wall morphogenesis in S. subsalsum.

Type material of Skeletonema subsalsum has been examined by light and electron microscopy. The species belongs to Skeletonema and is not conspecific with Stephanodiscus subsalsus. Skeletonema subsalsum is distinguished from S. costatum morphologically mainly by structure of connecting processes, those of S. subsalsum being tubular with a basal circular hole while those of S. costatum are trough-shaped with a wide basal opening. In addition to the Stockholm Archipelago (type locality), S. subsalsum was recorded from the Gulf of Finland and the river Wumme in the Bremen area.

A silicon microstrip detector has been developed with capacitive coupling of the diode strips to the metallization and with polysilicon bias resistors to each diode. It allows the decoupling of the leakage current from the input to the charge-sensitive amplifier. Results are given on the coupling capacity and the breakdown voltage as well as on the polysilicon line resistance. It is found that the coupling capacitance, varying between 25 pF and 80 pF as a function of the oxide thickness, is large enough to avoid capacitance signal losses to the backplane. The 200-nm-thick silicon oxide withstands a potential difference of 100 V or more, thus allowing the operation of the detector with the metal strips and backplane at a ground potential and the bias voltage applied to the diodes. >

Punch-through currents flowing between adjacent p/sup +/ strips on the surface of silicon microstrip drift detectors have been observed. Measurements of the floating strip potential have shown that a p/sup +/ strip acquires a voltage such that the punch-through current and the leakage current are equal and opposite. The factors influencing the threshold for the punch-through effect have been compared with a simple computer model, and the predicted variation with the interstrip gap is found to be in reasonable agreement with measured values for a variety of detectors. >

The absorption, excretion, and biotransformation of 14C-diphenoxylate hydrochloride (5 mg. containing 20.2 µc of 14C) when administered orally in ethanolic solution and without the presence of atropine sulfate was studied in 3 men. The mean urinary and fecal excretion of the total label in a 96 hour period was 13.65 ± 1.18 per cent and 49.20 ± 2.24 per cent, respectively. Thin-layer radiochromatographic analysis of the label in excreta indicated extensive biotransformation of the parent drug. In the urine, the maior metabolites were characterized as diphenoxylic acid and hydroxydiphenoxylic acid. These acids were present in both the free and coniugated fractions. Radioactivity in the plasma was associated largely with diphenoxylic acid and to a smaller extent with the unchanged drug. Pharmacokinetic analysis using a one-compartment open model showed a rapid absorption (t½ = 19.7 ± 1.7 minutes; peak level at 2.0 hours) of diphenoxylate followed by its rapid elimination (t½ = 2.50 ± 0.34 hours). The plasma half-life (t½ = 4.38 ± 1.04 hours) of diphenoxylic acid was higher than that of diphenoxylate.

Detectors for x-ray (1-10 keV) astronomy based on silicon drift chamber (SDC) devices offer significant advantages over some types of existing detector and the potential performance of such devices is summarised. Our development program is outlined together with a discussion of device designs which are being pursued. Results are presented from some recently acquired two-dimensional drift devices working at room temperature, and from some large area drift diodes working at low temperature.

A silicon microstrip detector with capacitive coupling of the diode strips to the metallization and with individual polysilicon resistors to each diode has been developed. The detector was tested in a minimum ionizing particle beam showing a performance similar to conventional strip detectors and a spatial resolution of 3.5 μm. Capacitive coupling allows the decoupling of the leakage current from the input to the charge sensitive preamplifier especially in the case of LSI electronics.

Si strip detectors with integrated coupling capacitors between diode and metallization and with separate bias resistors for each strip have been exposed to ionising radiation. Results from measurements of detector response before and after irradiation are presented. >