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This research was designed to develop and test a model of the Air Force manpower market. The study indicates that previous manpower supply studies failed to account for simultaneous determination of enlistments and retentions and misinterpreted regressions as supply equations. They are, instead, reduced form equations resulting from joint interaction of Air Force demand and enlistment supply activity. A stochastic process model is used to represent the Air Force manpower market. Variables determining manpower inventory levels, personnel turnover, and new enlistment flows are the mandated force level requirement, Air Force and civilian wages, the unemployment rate, and perceived civilian returns to Air Force-provided training. In the model it is possible to trace the impact of changes in the determining variables upon retention and enlistments. The empirical work supports the simultaneous demand and supply approach developed in the study. The results indicate that (1) changes in force level account for most enlistment rate changes during the all-volunteer force period, (2) higher Air Force wages have improved retention and reduce demand for new enlistments, (3) accessions show lower Air Force Qualifications Test scores, and (4) previous estimates of military manpower supply elasticities are biased downward from true elasticity. (Author/CSS)

Each year, state legislators introduce hundreds of bills that generate new data collections, analyses, and resources, playing a crucial role in how people access and use data. Notably, in 2023 legislators introduced and enacted bills governing cross-agency data systems--the most important step that states must take to make robust access to data possible. Legislation also addressed funding state data systems, centering privacy, and ensuring greater access to data for decision-making. This resource spotlights the bills introduced and laws enacted in 2023 addressing data governance, as well as other Data Quality Campaign (DQC) recommendations for states to support data access through improved statewide longitudinal data systems (SLDSs). It also examines some bills that demonstrate how states found "lighter touch" ways to increase transparency and access to data.

Community colleges play a critical role in helping people connect to careers in the United States. After the Great Recession, community colleges emerged as the workforce and economic development institution that could fill the gaps left by traditional higher education for shorter, non-degree career education while also meeting the needs of local employers and communities for emerging skills. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, unemployment stood at a historic low, and employers struggled to find the skilled workers they needed. At the same time, higher education had become prohibitively expensive and a growing number of students were looking for pathways into good jobs that did not require a four-year degree. The pandemic upended the labor market, creating unprecedented challenges in supply chains, public health, and the economy. However two and half years after the onset of the pandemic, the U.S. finds itself with a labor market that bears a strong resemblance to that of the pre-pandemic period, with low unemployment and a large number of unfilled positions. This article argues that to build a more equitable post-pandemic economy, the country needs to accelerate the development of high-quality, affordable workforce programs at community colleges that lead directly to quality jobs and careers. It examines how state and federal governments should provide sustainable financing for high-quality non-degree programs and the students participating in them, improve data infrastructure and use, and support collaboration among colleges.

There continues to be widespread anxiety about the future of work. I recently proposed a labor studies perspective on how to understand and meet undeniable challenges. This follow-up paper explores the implications of my analysis for the contemporary American academy, reflecting on how labor studies can help enlist public research universities in support of building a human-centered world of work. American universities have long been intricate bundles of contradictions, but recent trends have left them at a crossroads: Will they be able to reform and connect with a progressive reading of the original land-grant vision to support a future in the interest of workers? Or will their practices further drift away from a public-serving mission as they succumb to neoliberal expectations? This paper contends that the three constitutive features of labor studies--its focus on people's struggles, interdisciplinarity, and upholding workers' rights--illuminate crucial steps for realizing much-needed innovations in support of revaluing both work and workers.

One-in-five of Arizona's youth did not complete high school and a similarly large proportion of the state's youth is disconnected from either work or education. These youth face higher risks of unemployment and economic insecurity and are more reliant on government supports. This situation, which fails to ensure that the state's youth are adequately prepared for adulthood creates both social and fiscal losses. This report calculates the social and fiscal losses for high school dropouts and disconnected youth (those not in work or school/college). The social loss reflects lost earnings, higher criminal activity, poorer health status, higher reliance on government programs, as well as productivity losses and tax distortions. The fiscal loss reflects lost taxes and increased government spending on crime, health, and welfare; this loss is split between the federal government and Arizona state/local governments. The losses are estimated for the state of Arizona and for selected localities within Arizona. The economic framework used to model these losses are detailed in Appendix A, and calculations for each locality are provided in Appendix B. An economic model based on national research evidence and Arizona-specific data are used to calculate these losses. The model creates lifetime economic profiles for dropouts in comparison to high school graduates and for disconnected youth in comparison to other youth. These profiles are expressed as present values at age 18 (dropouts) and age 20 (disconnected youth) in 2013 dollars and adjusted for the price level in Arizona. Details outlining the economic framework used to model the losses are contained in the appendix. Policy implications of having large proportions of youth who have neither completed high school or become involved in the labor market are considered.

The Great Recession left a crater in the labor market that has been devastating for unemployed Americans of all ages. After more than two years of unemployment at well over 8%, there is a hole of more than 11 million jobs, with average spells of unemployment lasting nearly nine months. The weak labor market has been particularly tough on young workers. In 2010, the unemployment rate for workers age 16-24 was 18.4%--the worst on record in the 60 years that this data has been tracked. Though the labor market has started to "slowly" recover, the prospects for young high school and college graduates remain grim. This briefing paper examines the dire labor market confronting young workers and concludes with ways that government policy could help. (Contains 11 figures and 2 endnotes.)

In the past year, cash-strapped districts have been handing out pink slips by the hundreds, and some, by the thousands. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that nearly 60,000 teachers were laid off in 2009. State budget gaps and deficit projections, with federal stimulus funding already spent, suggest more of the same for 2010. Some observers expect current cuts to come faster even than those of the 1970s, when the baby boom generation waned, emptying out schools across the country. In this paper, the National Council on Teacher Quality (NCTQ) taps into its TR[superscript 3] (Teacher Rules, Roles and Rights; www.nctq.org/tr3) database to examine district policies, some mandated by state law, for making layoff decisions. TR[superscript 3] posts data from 100 school districts across all 50 states, including the 75 largest districts in the nation as well as the 25 largest districts in the states that would not be otherwise represented. These 100 districts represent 20 percent of all public school students in the United States. A list of recommendations that will help school districts navigate difficult layoff decisions while keeping student needs front and center in the process is also presented. (Contains 5 figures and 10 footnotes.)

This research investigates the incidence and wage effects of overskilling for vocational education and training (VET) graduates in Australia between 2001 and 2006. Overskilling is defined as the extent to which workers are able to use their skills and abilities in their current job. The authors compare overskilling with other measures of skill mismatch and skill underutilisation in the workplace and explain why overskilling is their chosen mismatch measure. The research focuses on the impact of four different levels of highest educational attainment: formal school qualification with Year 12; formal school qualification less than Year 12; formal post-school qualification (VET); and formal post-school qualification with diploma/degree. The research finds that many Australian workers report that they are overskilled in their workplace (30% moderately, and 15% severely overskilled). Almost counterintuitively, those with the lowest formal qualifications report the highest incidence of underutilisation. Overskilling is found to be self-perpetuating, but only for university graduates and school graduates. VET graduates show no overskilling state dependence, a result that suggests that a mismatched VET graduate can get out of their mismatched job and into a well-matched job more easily than their school or their university counterpart. The research offers two main conclusions: first, post-school qualifications generate benefits that may go beyond the increased lifetime financial returns often referred to in the literature; and, second, different types of post-school education confer different benefits, in terms of employment possibilities and patterns, with VET being a safer but less well-remunerated education pathway. Appendices include: (1) Descriptive statistics; and (2) Estimation results. (Contains 12 tables and 20 footnotes.)

Australia, in common with many industrialised countries, must adjust in the coming years to an ageing population. The labour force participation rate is projected to fall and there will be a record number of older people who have retired from work. Thus, there will be fewer workers as a share of the population to generate the income needed to support the entire population. This publication looks at older workers in terms of their employment characteristics and describes ways to boost their participation or to remain at work. (Contains 2 figures.) [Funding for this paper is provided through the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations.]

In 2004 NCVER invited proposals from a consortia of researchers to address questions relating to changing work skill needs and work organisation arrangements and their implications for the vocational education and training sector. The National Institute of Labour Studies, Flinders University, and the Centre for Post-compulsory Education and Lifelong Learning, University of Melbourne, were selected to undertake a body of work in among other areas, the nature of future labour supply, including changing demographics, work patterns and educational levels. This is the focus of this report. The report's purpose is to: (1) set out some clear thinking on the meaning of the term "skill shortage"; (2) identify circumstances under which shortages are resolved naturally by market forces; and (3) provide a guide for when a shortage warrants action from public-policy interventions to assist the market. The report does not attempt to quantify any overall or particular shortage of skills. The report is directed at policy-makers, employers, industry bodies and training providers interested in understanding the nature of skill shortages. Appended is: a list of Skills Consortium publications. (Contains 3 tables and 1 figure.) [This document was produced with funding provided through the Department of Education, Science and Training.]

This fact sheet states that in 2006, a good education is no longer just a way for an individual to get ahead. It is also the best way a state can get ahead -- and therefore a real economic priority. A state must ensure that all of its citizens have access to a college education. In Oregon, a state recovering from the 2000-03 recession, the demand for well-educated employees will increase over the next several years, and many professional and related positions -- especially in education and computer-related fields -- will require a bachelor's degree or higher. The question for Oregon and other states is how, in a time of tight budgets, to meet the increasing demands on higher education and thereby meet the needs of an increasingly sophisticated economy. This fact sheet presents Oregon's occupational outlook and six fast-track fields (registered nurses, teachers, physician assistants, pharmacists, physical therapists, and occupational therapists). This document also describes the Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education's Professional Student Exchange Program, which offers students opportunities to train outside of their home state in 14 highly competitive fields (architecture, dentistry, graduate library studies, medicine, nursing, occupational therapy, optometry, osteopathic medicine, pharmacy, physical therapy, physician assistant, podiatry, public health, and veterinary medicine). Table 1 presents Oregon's top jobs, while Table 2 presents Oregon Professional Employment Projections, 2004-2014.

In Nevada, the demand for well-educated employees will only increase over the next several years. In the decade leading up to 2012, healthcare occupations will see growth of 47 percent. Teachers will be in demand: over 1,100 new primary and secondary educators will need to be hired each year. Managers will see their ranks swell by 44 percent, with high growth in top jobs, like CEO and general manager; about 24,000 new openings will need to be filled in all. The growth of these sectors is good news for Nevada's citizens, since wages for jobs in these areas are significantly higher than the average for Nevada in general. But entry into these jobs comes with a price tag: most positions in these fields will require a bachelor's degree or higher. The question for Nevada and other states is how, in a time of tight budgets, to meet the increasing demands on higher education and thereby meet the needs of an increasingly sophisticated economy. (Contains 2 tables.)

In 2006, a good education is no longer just a way for an individual to get ahead. It is also, and increasingly, the best way a state can get ahead-and therefore a real economic priority. A college degree confers specific, calculable benefits on a state's citizens: the average lifetime income of an individual with a bachelor's degree is $2.1 million, compared to $1.2 million for those with just a high school diploma. But the benefits realized by the state are just as impressive as those that an individual sees. Not only does a state with a well-educated populace see increased tax revenues from its (better-paid) citizens, it is also able to use the education level of its citizens as a powerful lure for business and industry-a way to build its economy overall. In Alaska, the demand for well-educated employees will only increase over the next several years. In 2012, professional occupations will account for the largest share of the state's employment and the second largest number of new jobs, according to the Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development. The increase in this sector is good news for Alaska's citizens, since the median wage for professional jobs is 25 percent higher than for all other occupations. Entry into these jobs comes with a price tag: at least half of these new positions will require a bachelor's degree or higher. Over the decade leading up to 2012, the need for health care professionals will continue to rise in Alaska. The demand for registered nurses will see a 33 percent increase-another 1,600-plus new positions will be created in the state. The Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education (WICHE) has had workforce issues at the top of its agenda since its creation in the 1950s. In fact, WICHE was launched specifically to address the shortage of workforce-training opportunities in medicine, dentistry, and other professional fields. Today, WICHE offers a slew of undergraduate, graduate, and professional options that help the West's states educate and train their citizens, building their economies in the process. (Contains 2 tables.)

Employment in Colorado (including hourly and salaried jobs and self-employment) is projected to grow by 23 percent from 2002 to 2012, adding some 551,630 new jobs to the state's economy and growing the workforce from 2,355,290 to 2,906,920. The rate of growth is much higher than the 15 percent increase projected for the nation as a whole. Strikingly, seven of Colorado's top jobs are in fields related to health. In the decade leading up to 2012, the need for health care professionals will rise steeply in the state. The demand for registered nurses will see a 43 percent increase, over 13,000 new R.N.s will be needed in the state. Colorado will see strong competition for those nurses. The top five states needing the largest numbers of nurses are all in the West (Colorado is number five). Pharmacists will log growth of 58 percent, with some 180 hires being made each year for new and replacement positions. Physician assistants will see a 52 percent increase in their ranks, with about 80 being hired each year for new positions. Physical therapists will experience a 43 percent increase, while occupational therapists will see a 43 percent boost in their numbers. Colorado will also experience a strong demand for new occupational therapists, radiation therapists and medical/health services managers. One reason for the increase: the aging of the state's population. This workforce brief describes 3 Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education (WICHE) student exchange programs helping to meet the needs of Colorado's ever increasing economy while continuing to keep one eye on the state's educational budget. (Contains 2 tables.)

In Arizona, one of the country's fastest growing states, the demand for well-educated employees will only increase over the next several years. In the decade leading up to 2013, healthcare occupations will see growth of 50 percent. Almost 1,800 dentists will need to be hired to fill new posts and to cover retirement, for example. Teachers will be in high demand: nearly 70,000 educators (including librarians) will need to be hired. Managers will see their ranks swell by 21 percent. The growth of these sectors is good news for Arizona's citizens, since wages for jobs in these areas are significantly higher than the average for Arizona in general. But entry into these jobs comes with a price tag: most positions in these fields will require a bachelor's degree or higher. The question for Arizona and other states is how, in a time of tight budgets, to meet the increasing demands on higher education and thereby meet the needs of an increasingly sophisticated economy. (Contains 2 tables.)

In South Dakota, the demand for well-educated employees will only increase over the next several years. In the decade leading up to 2012, healthcare and healthcare support occupations will see growth of about 25 percent; over 2,500 new practitioners and technicians will be needed. There will be a 24 percent increase in the number of computer-related positions, adding almost 1,500 new jobs throughout the state. Teachers will be in high demand: more than 3,600 new educators (including librarians) will need to be hired. And there will be a 17 percent increase in the business and financial operations sector, adding over 2,000 new jobs. The growth of these sectors is good news for South Dakotas citizens, since wages for jobs in these areas are higher than the average for South Dakota in general. Five of South Dakota's top jobs are in a field related to healthcare. The demand for registered nurses will see a 26 percent increase. While not the fastest growing field in the state terms of percentage, it will generate the largest number of new jobs, adding more than 2,200 new positions over the decade leading up to 2012. In addition, more than 1,800 registered nurses will be needed to fill retirement vacancies. Physician assistants will see their ranks grow by 46 percent, adding an additional 210 positions; physical therapists will add the same number and see growth of 28 percent. Over the next several years, workers who have the most education and training will have the best opportunity for high-paying jobs in growing sectors. In addition, a number of professions requiring education beyond the bachelor's degree are expected to see moderate to strong growth. (Contains 2 tables.)

Employment in Hawaii (including hourly and salaried jobs and self-employment) is projected to grow by 14 percent from 2002 to 2012, adding over 78,000 new jobs to the state's economy and growing the workforce from 558,220 to 636,480. The rate of growth is slightly lower than the 15 percent increase projected for the nation as a whole. Over the next several years, workers who have the most education and training will have the best opportunity for high-paying jobs in growing sectors. In addition, a number of professions requiring education beyond the bachelor's degree are expected to see moderate to strong growth. Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education (WICHE) and its 15 member states-work collaboratively to expand educational access and excellence for all citizens of the West. By promoting innovation, cooperation, resource sharing, and sound public policy among states and institutions, WICHE strengthens higher education's contributions to the region's social, economic, and civic life. This brief provides brief descriptions and statistical information about Hawaii and WICHE's Student Exchange Programs. (Contains 2 tables.)

The construction proposed in the Cincinnati Public Schools' Facilities Master Plan will have a significant impact on the greater Cincinnati, Ohio, economy. Highlights include: (1) the Facilities Master Plan of the Cincinnati Public Schools envisions a 10-year program with $985 million in construction spending. The funding of this program includes $211 million from the State of Ohio, which increases the purchasing power of the $774 million local funding commitment; (2) the Facilities Master Plan will generate a total of $2.35 billion in economic impact, including $718 million in local household wages and salaries, meaning an average annual impact of the Facilities Master Plan for the next 10 years of $232 million, and household earnings totaling $71 million and 2,339 jobs will be generated for area residents each year; (3) the return of $718 million in wages and salaries for $774 million in local dollars is important, meaning that every $100 in local funding ultimately returns $93 in wages and salaries to the pockets of local workers; (4) business activity will especially be stimulated in the construction, business services, real estate, and retail sectors; and (5) economic benefits may result from improvements in educational quality, quality of life, and physical conditions of neighborhoods, but are not measured here. (Author/SM)

A systems approach to changing labor market performance requires a substantial and enduring commitment to the task of change. A systems reform framework has been developed that is based on a dual-customer approach, with a focus on improving labor market outcomes for both low-income people and their employers. The objective is to change the labor market system so that low-income people find and hold good-paying jobs while employers efficiently find qualified workers to fill vacant jobs. This approach rests upon these four conceptual building blocks: the systemic nature of American labor markets, the drivers of labor market systems, the high-leverage strategies for changing the system's drivers, and a process for starting and sustaining systemic change at the local level. Seven strategies have been identified for changing drivers in labor markets--three that operate mainly on the supply-side of the market (increase public financial resources for upgrading work-related skills; restructure education so that it meets employer and student needs; integrate human services, income supports and workforce development) and four on the demand-side (change workplace practices to support low-income workers; restructure government financial incentives; develop portable credentials; create policy-influencing mechanisms for stakeholders). If labor markets are indeed systems, then the seven strategies provide compelling ways to leverage relatively small changes to big results. (Appendixes include11 references and 4 endnotes.) (YLB)

This paper discusses the mission of the market-responsive community college. These colleges include mid- and high-level workforce training in their curriculum. Some of the characteristics of a market-responsive community college detailed here include: (1) allocating resources to develop training programs; (2) reaching out to businesses and other organizations; (3) responding rapidly to changes in local economic conditions and training needs; (4) recruiting faculty from among local experts in the field; and (5) partnering with other local educational institutions to deliver comprehensive training. Over 200 publications were reviewed for this report, and the 25 articles that contained the most relevant information, including descriptions of labor-market responsive behavior, were selected. The four methodologies used in preparing the articles that were selected were: (1) statistical analysis; (2) less formal data analysis; (3) literature reviews; and (4) anecdotal evidence. The conclusions of this review will be used as hypotheses to be thoroughly tested in the next phase of this initiative. A reading of the literature found that outsourced training expenditures for U.S. companies nearly doubled, from $9.9 billion to $19.3 billion annually, between 1994 and 2000. Includes brief outlines of specific community college programs and 25 annotated references to literature analyzed for the study. (NB)

The possible impact of technological and structural change on employment in the European Union (EU) over the next 20 years was examined through an exploration of the following alternative policy-driven scenarios: (1) business as usual; (2) concentrated technology policy (increases in innovation and research and development [R&D] efforts are concentrated on advanced technology); (3) diversified technology policy (increases in innovation and R&D efforts are allocated to sectors currently demonstrating strong performance); and (4) uniform technology policy (innovation and R&D spending are increased uniformly throughout the economy). The study demonstrated that technological progress is a necessary though insufficient condition for the EU to achieve high economic growth and higher employment levels. Rather than threatening employment at the EU level, the increased productivity resulting from technological progress appeared to be a driver for increased competitiveness and overall economic growth. Other conclusions emerging from the study were as follows: (1) technological change will increase the demand for highly skilled workers; (2) emerging technologies will both respond to changes in work organization and further raise requirements for flexibility in work organization; and (3) technology policy strategies aimed at accelerating technological progress should lead to positive results and further economic and employment growth. (Twenty tables/figures are included. An overview of the study methodology and a bibliography listing 29 references are appended.) (MN)

Expanding upon a report presented to the International Labor Organization (ILO), this book documents the current world employment situation, including how it has fallen short, how current economic policies interact with world employment, and how improvements can be made. Chapter one, "The Commitment to Full Employment," describes how the ILO measures and defines employment and unemployment and discusses the concept of creating a universal employment strategy in developing, industrialized and transition countries. Chapter two, "The Current Employment Picture" looks at broad trends in employment globally and regionally and the characteristics of employment quality, including freedom of association and equal opportunity. Chapter three, "The Employment Effects of Current Policies," discusses the recent experiences of developing countries in East and Southeast Asia and Latin America, as well as the older Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) members. Chapter four presents conclusions, including discussions of poverty, income distribution and economic growth, full employment policies, and how the ILO helps promote full employment in a global context and at the national level. Extensive bibliographic notes follow each chapter. The document contains data tables and an index. (SLR)

The purpose of this report is to provide California community colleges with a statistical description of regional employment trends between 1991 and 1997. These trends are presented by one-, two-, and three-digit Standard Industrial Classification Codes (SIC) for each of the nine regions of the state: (1) the Bay Area; (2) the Central Coast; (3) the Central Sierra; (4) Northern California; (5) Northern Sacramento Valley; (6) Greater Sacramento; (7) San Diego; (8) San Joaquin Valley; and (9) Southern California. Each chapter contains an overview of employment gains and losses in the region, employment gains and losses by major industrial group, and detailed data on the manufacturing and services sectors, and discusses candidates for additional analysis. The data provide a guide for regional and state decisionmakers as they formulate workforce development policy for the coming year. Report highlights include: (1) the services sector was responsible for 69 percent of the total job growth in the Bay Area, 81 percent in Southern California, and 41 percent in the Central Sierra region; (2) retail trade ranked second to services in Northern California, with 2,763 new jobs; and (3) agriculture ranked second to services in the Central Coast region, with 7,742 new jobs. Contains numerous graphs and figures. (JA)

Cyclical and structural issues in engineering skills formation in Great Britain were studied through a review of recent employment patterns, income patterns, employment projections, recent trends in education and training, and recent developments in technology and work organization. The review focused on the following issues: (1) the extent and nature of mismatches between the supply of and demand for engineering skills; (2) the extent to which engineering skill problems are cyclical as opposed to structural; and (3) the adequacy of current arrangements for engineering education and training. The following were among the main conclusions: (1) engineering skill problems are most apparent when they manifest in the form of external recruitment difficulties at the peak of each business cycle; (2) long-term trends in training levels and recruitment difficulties in the past 3 decades reflect structural rather than merely cyclical weaknesses in the British system of engineering training; (3) recent changes in markets and work organizations have significantly increased engineering employers' expectations of graduates; and (4) one way to expand modern apprenticeship (MA) numbers would be to develop preapprenticeship courses to prepare underqualified 16- and 17-year-olds for later entry to MA schemes. (Fourteen tables/figures are included. The bibliography lists 34 references.) (MN)

Transition to a market economy in Lithuania has changed the labor market significantly. The employment rate has decreased in all age groups and resulted in increased productivity of labor. Employment in the private sector and self employment have increased considerably. The share of those employed in agriculture has increased. The worst employment situation is in territories with large rural areas, where employment has decreased and unemployment has risen. Youth unemployment is a major problem. The share of unemployed individuals with professions not in demand is growing. Specialists in new professions or with advanced vocational skills are in great demand. The majority of the unemployed have no professional qualifications. Analysis of the links between vocational education and training and the labor market reveals difficulties such as the following four problems: (1) the courses offered do not correspond to labor demand; (2) employers are very often dissatisfied with the training quality; (3) mobility of the labor force is low; and (4) the state does not pay enough attention to development of continuing vocational training. With fewer allocated funds, active labor market policy measures suffer the most. Also, labor market policies are not an integrated part of the policy of national economic development. (Appendixes include supplementary tables and information by chapter. Contains 28 references.) (YLB)

A factual and descriptive analysis of the employment situation in Bulgaria showed that the transition to a market economy has led to a substantial reduction of employment. The economic restructuring begun in 1990 has proved very difficult, and the privatization of the large industrial enterprises faces problems mainly due to insufficient interest on the part of foreign investors. From 1990-98, employment has decreased by one and one-half million people. The high labor supply is maintained by the restrictive incomes policy and enormous impoverishment of the population during the transition years due to high inflation and the economic recession in 1996. The unemployment rate is high: in 1993, it reached 21 percent; by 1998, it had decreased to 15.9 percent. Since 1996, a wide range of labor market policies have been introduced to stimulate employers to create new jobs and hire the unemployed, and to stimulate the unemployed to start their own businesses or to join labor integration programs. The educational system has undergone substantial restructuring; the professional training and retraining has shown a good degree of adaptation. The industrial policy is oriented toward active participation of the state in investment activities to increase employment. (Appendixes include 4 charts and additional information on the employment situation. Contains 20 references.) (YLB)

Romania's adoption of a more gradual approach in restructuring and privatizing the state-owned sector has resulted in industry with an unchanged structure that remains the main cause of social and economic decline. Employment has shown a steady decline. Industrial employment has decreased dramatically. Sectors like transport, hotels, and restaurants have faced a lower decline, but agriculture, health, education, public administration, trade, and finance have had a positive evolution. High levels of income tax and social contributions have motivated development of a "black labor market." Despite relatively low unemployment rates, the labor market has not provided sufficient job opportunities, especially for new entrants. Partial explanations are the unpredictable evolution of the economy, inexperience of vocational education and training units in monitoring local labor market development, and limited cooperation with employers and labor market institutions. Almost two-thirds of unemployment is concentrated in urban areas. Key obstacles to employment are skills mismatch, inadequate training and retraining programs, low mobility of the labor force, and information shortages regarding vacancies. No legislation and no coherent policy on continuing vocational education or job creation exist. (Appendixes include tables; organization of education and training provision; and unemployment regulations. Contains 28 references.) (YLB)

During the years 1989-1997 in Estonia, employment has decreased; unemployment and inactivity have increased. Females have tended to move to inactivity while males have become unemployed. The wage patterns are very flat relative to those in market economies. Estonia has opted for very low levels of unemployment benefits, pensions, and a low minimum wage. Public sector employment has decreased drastically. The largest share of private sector employees are involved in the service sector. There is a substantial regional and occupational mismatch of vacancies and unemployed people. Participation rates have dropped for all age groups, with the largest decline among older people. The labor demand for younger members of the labor force has increased dramatically. Since most unemployment is structural, the only possible conclusion is that vocational secondary education and job training have not been flexible enough to satisfy labor market needs. Studying at vocational education and training institutions is the second-best choice for young people; school leavers prefer academic higher education. No formal training system exists for adults who face changes in job functions or dismissal. Labor policy is very restrictive and passive. (Appendixes include: data tables; labor force surveys; ethnic composition of population; legal regulation of the labor market; and education system. Contains 22 references.) (YLB)