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Financial conflicts are among the top reasons for dissatisfaction and dissolution in romantic relationships. Beyond economic strain, however, few studies have examined the psychological antecedents of financial conflicts that contribute to relationship satisfaction. The present research examined whether basing one’s self-esteem on financial success was associated with greater perceived financial conflicts with one’s partner and worse relationship outcomes. A cross-sectional study ( N = 167), dyadic study ( N = 193 couples), and a 6-week diary study ( N = 74 couples) revealed that participants with financially contingent self-worth reported having more financial conflicts with their partner, which was associated with lower relationship satisfaction and perceived partner support. In a final experiment ( N = 337), participants who were led to expect many (vs. few) benefits of financial success based their current self-worth more on money, showed greater conflict responses to financial scenarios involving their partner, and reported lower relationship satisfaction and perceived partner support.

Significance Science is rapidly changing with the current movement to improve science focused largely on reproducibility/replicability and open science practices. Through network modeling and semantic analysis, this article provides an initial exploration of the structure, cultural frames of collaboration and prosociality, and representation of women in the open science and reproducibility literatures. Network analyses reveal that the open science and reproducibility literatures are emerging relatively independently with few common papers or authors. Open science has a more collaborative structure and includes more explicit language reflecting communality and prosociality than does reproducibility. Finally, women publish more frequently in high-status author positions within open science compared with reproducibility. Implications for cultivating a diverse, collaborative culture of science are discussed., Science is undergoing rapid change with the movement to improve science focused largely on reproducibility/replicability and open science practices. This moment of change—in which science turns inward to examine its methods and practices—provides an opportunity to address its historic lack of diversity and noninclusive culture. Through network modeling and semantic analysis, we provide an initial exploration of the structure, cultural frames, and women’s participation in the open science and reproducibility literatures (n = 2,926 articles and conference proceedings). Network analyses suggest that the open science and reproducibility literatures are emerging relatively independently of each other, sharing few common papers or authors. We next examine whether the literatures differentially incorporate collaborative, prosocial ideals that are known to engage members of underrepresented groups more than independent, winner-takes-all approaches. We find that open science has a more connected, collaborative structure than does reproducibility. Semantic analyses of paper abstracts reveal that these literatures have adopted different cultural frames: open science includes more explicitly communal and prosocial language than does reproducibility. Finally, consistent with literature suggesting the diversity benefits of communal and prosocial purposes, we find that women publish more frequently in high-status author positions (first or last) within open science (vs. reproducibility). Furthermore, this finding is further patterned by team size and time. Women are more represented in larger teams within reproducibility, and women’s participation is increasing in open science over time and decreasing in reproducibility. We conclude with actionable suggestions for cultivating a more prosocial and diverse culture of science.

Does exposure to income inequality in adolescence relate to well-being in adulthood? In Studies 1 and 2 ( N = 888), individuals who grew up in U.S. counties with higher income inequality expected g...

How do people think about happiness? Is it something best enjoyed as an investment over time, or is it something fleeting that should be savored? When people view happiness as an investment, they may endorse delaying happiness (DH)-the belief that working hard and sacrificing opportunities for happiness now will contribute to greater future happiness. When people view happiness as fleeting, they may endorse living in the moment (LM)-the belief that one should seize proximal opportunities to experience happiness now, rather than later. Using a mix of cross-sectional, meta-analytic (Studies 1, 2a, 2b, 2c), experimental (Study 3), and daily diary methods (Study 4), people who endorsed DH or LM beliefs anticipated more positive affect upon goal attainment and experienced greater well-being, but only DH was related to more negative affect when pursuing nonfocal goals and less delay discounting of future rewards. Implications for self-regulation and emotion are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The findings of AlShebli Makovi & Rahwan1 highlight an endemic problem in science: co-authoring with men is associated with greater numbers of citations for junior scientists than co-authoring with women. The reasons for this likely stem from a long history and culture in science where White, straight, cisgender men are the dominant force. Under the authors’ assumption that authorship is equal to mentorship (a notion we criticize below), the reported citation disparity by coauthor gender for junior scientists may simply reflect that under the current status quo there are more barriers for women to establish strong mentorship programs and secure resources to support their mentees compared to men. In other words, citation disparity is the problem, not the solution as proposed by the authors. We argue that the citation disparity is uncorrelated with mentorship and the quality of the publication. Unfortunately, AlShebli Makovi & Rahwan err in their publication in two ways: they define mentorship as co-authorship (albeit with conditions), and they prescribe the problem as a solution suggesting that junior scientists, especially women, ought to be mentored by men - a proposal we have aptly named “MANtoring”. These faulty interpretations and conclusions reveal a broader problem in scholarship: failure to critically examine structural biases and assumptions when evaluating and interpreting data showing disparity. Much work is needed to improve the culture of science and to provide a more fair and equitable environment for individuals of any background (women in this case, but a similar reasoning would apply to people historically marginalized based on gender, race, sexuality, class, and other dimensions) to thrive2. The AlShebli et al article is a wakeup call to authors in all disciplines to take greater care in interpreting and acting on their disparity data. Failure to do so could have catastrophic effects on science including the irony of exacerbating the very problems researchers are attempting to address.

Although people may think that money improves one’s relationships, research suggests otherwise. Focusing on money is associated with spending less time maintaining relationships and less desire to rely on others for help. But why does focusing on money relate to worse social outcomes? We propose that when people base their self-esteem on financial success—that is, have financially contingent self-worth—they are likely to feel pressured to pursue success in this domain, which may come at the expense of spending time with close others. Consistent with this idea, results of four cross-sectional studies ( N = 2,439) and a daily diary study ( N = 246) revealed that basing one’s self-worth on financial success is associated with greater feelings of loneliness and social disconnection, and this may be related to experiencing less autonomy and spending less time with family and friends.

Financial success is an important goal, yet striving for it is often associated with negative outcomes. One reason for this paradox is that financial pressures may be tied to basing self-worth on financial success. Studies 1a to 1c developed a measure of Financial Contingency of Self-Worth (Financial CSW), and found that it predicted more financial social comparisons, financial hassles, stress, anxiety, and less autonomy. In response to a financial (vs. academic) threat, higher Financial CSW participants experienced less autonomy, perceived financial problems more negatively, and disengaged from their financial problems (Study 2). When given an opportunity to self-affirm, however, Financial CSW participants did not show diminished autonomy in response to a financial (vs. academic) threat (Study 3). Finally, participants with higher Financial CSW were less likely to make extravagant spending decisions following a financial (vs. health) threat (Study 4). Together, these studies demonstrate the many consequences of staking self-worth on financial success.

Although women today excel in many areas of society, they are often underrepresented in the traditionally male-dominated fields of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM). The present research examined whether traditional romantic partner preferences—specifically, a desire to date partners who are smarter than oneself—affects women's tendency to minimize their intelligence in STEM fields when pursuing romantic goals. Women (but not men) who preferred smarter romantic partners showed worse math performance (Studies 1–2), less identification with math (Study 2), and less interest in STEM careers (Study 3) when the goal to be romantically desirable was activated. A meta-analysis across studies supported results. This research thus demonstrates that partner preferences influence women's STEM outcomes in response to romantic goal pursuit.

Interpersonal attraction may be shaped by (a) one’s psychological distance from a target (the subjective experience that a target is close to or far from the self) and (b) the perceived standing of a target on a trait relative to the self (as better or worse than the self). We propose that when evaluating a psychologically distant target, individuals may rely on abstract schemas (e.g., the desirability of a partner’s traits) and prefer targets who possess more (vs. less) desirable qualities than themselves. However, when evaluating psychologically near targets, concrete contextual details of the environment (e.g., how a target’s behavior affects self-evaluations in the moment) may determine individuals’ attraction toward targets. Six studies revealed that when evaluating psychologically distant targets, men showed greater attraction toward women who displayed more (vs. less) intelligence than themselves. In contrast, when targets were psychologically near, men showed less attraction toward women who outsmarted them.

People often search for cues in the environment to determine whether or not they will be judged or treated negatively based on their social identities. Accordingly, feedback from gatekeepers—members of majority groups who hold authority and power in a field—may be an especially important cue for those at risk of experiencing social identity threat, such as women in math settings. Across a series of studies, women who received positive (“Good job!”) versus objective (score only) feedback from a male (vs. female) authority figure in math reported greater confidence; belonging; self-efficacy; more favorable Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) attitudes/identification/interest; and greater implicit identification with math. Men were affected only by the type of math feedback they received, not by the source of feedback. A meta-analysis across studies confirmed results. Together, these findings suggest that positive feedback from gatekeepers is an important situational cue that can improve the outcomes of negatively stereotyped groups.

Previous research suggests that there is a fundamental link between expansive body postures and feelings of power. The current research demonstrates that this link is not universal, but depends on people's cultural background (Western versus East Asian) and on the particular type of expansive posture enacted. Three types of expansive postures were examined in the present studies: the expansive-hands-spread-on-desk pose ( Carney et al., 2010 ), the expansive-upright-sitting pose ( Huang et al., 2011 , Tiedens and Fragale, 2003 ), and the expansive-feet-on-desk pose ( Carney et al., 2010 ). Of these postures, the expansive-feet-on-desk pose was perceived by both Americans and East Asians as the least consistent with East Asian cultural norms of modesty, humility, and restraint (Study 1). The expansive-hands-spread-on-desk and expansive-upright-sitting postures led to greater sense of power than a constricted posture for both Americans and East Asians (Studies 2a–2b). In contrast, the expansive-feet-on-desk pose led to greater power activation (Study 3) and action orientation (Study 4) for Americans, but not for East Asians. Indeed, East Asians in the expansive-feet-on-desk pose showed less power activation and action orientation than Americans in this pose. Together, these findings support a basic principle of embodiment — the effects of posture depend on: (a) the type of posture, and (b) the symbolic meaning of that posture.

The present study of 150 adolescents (M age = 13.05 years) examined the associations between appearance-based rejection sensitivity (Appearance-RS) and psychological adjustment during early adolescence, and evaluated three types of other-gender peer experiences (other-gender friendship, peer acceptance, and romantic relationships) as moderators. Appearance-RS was found to be uniquely related to two types of social anxiety, but not to self-esteem. Other-gender friendship emerged as a protective factor, whereas high other-gender peer acceptance emerged as a risk factor (especially for boys), after controlling for same-gender mutual best friendship involvement and peer acceptance. Results highlight the importance of distinguishing between different types of other-gender peer experiences during early adolescence and suggest that Appearance-RS during adolescence warrants further investigation.

The present study examined responses to romantic breakup as a function of relationship contingency of self-worth (CSW)—the degree to which individuals base self-worth on being in a romantic relationship. Relationship CSW was hypothesized to be a vulnerability factor, exacerbating affective and behavioral responses to romantic relationship dissolution. Results of structural equation modeling (N = 312) revealed that among participants who reported a breakup over the past year, those who more strongly based self-worth on being in a relationship reported greater emotional distress and obsessive pursuit of their ex-partners than did those with lower relationship CSW. Specifically, emotional distress partially mediated the link between relationship CSW and obsessive pursuit. Implications of relationship CSW for interpersonal motivation and well-being are discussed. jasp_769 1749..1773

The present research examined the impact of everyday romantic goal strivings on women’s attitudes toward science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM). It was hypothesized that women may distance themselves from STEM when the goal to be romantically desirable is activated because pursuing intelligence goals in masculine domains (i.e., STEM) conflicts with pursuing romantic goals associated with traditional romantic scripts and gender norms. Consistent with hypotheses, women, but not men, who viewed images (Study 1) or overheard conversations (Studies 2a-2b) related to romantic goals reported less positive attitudes toward STEM and less preference for majoring in math/science compared to other disciplines. On days when women pursued romantic goals, the more romantic activities they engaged in and the more desirable they felt, but the fewer math activities they engaged in. Furthermore, women’s previous day romantic goal strivings predicted feeling more desirable but being less invested in math on the following day (Study 3).

Although communal relationships are seemingly characterized by altruistic concern for others, individuals may differ in their degree of egoistic versus altruistic concerns in communal relationships. In the present research, we developed a measure to assess egoistic versus altruistic concerns underlying a communal relationship orientation. These concerns were empirically distinct and predicted personal and interpersonal functioning. In Study 1, altruistic concerns predicted increased relatedness, empathy, and decreased anger, hostility, and aggression, whereas egoistic concerns predicted decreased relatedness, empathy, and increased anger, hostility, and aggression. In Study 2, altruistic concerns predicted more other-oriented (e.g., community) goals; egoistic concerns predicted more self-oriented (e.g., image) goals and depressive symptoms. Together, these findings highlight the importance of examining distinct concerns underlying a communal relationship orientation.

Appearance-based Rejection Sensitivity (Appearance-RS) is the dispositional tendency to anxiously expect, readily perceive, and overreact to rejection based on one's physical appearance. The present research examined associations among Appearance-RS, self-reported symptoms of Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD), and motivations underlying acceptance of cosmetic surgery among a sample of American college students. Appearance-RS predicted greater self-reported BDD symptoms and endorsement of cosmetic surgery for both intrapersonal and social reasons. Results remained significant even after controlling for appearance satisfaction, fear of negative evaluation, general rejection sensitivity, and depressive symptoms. This research therefore highlights the importance of considering individual differences in sensitivity to appearance rejection when examining body image disturbances, such as self-reported symptoms of BDD, and reasons for endorsing cosmetic surgery.

This study investigated cosmetic surgery attitudes\ud within the framework of objectification theory. One hundred\ud predominantlyWhite, British undergraduate women completed\ud self-report measures of impression management, global selfesteem,\ud interpersonal sexual objectification, self-surveillance,\ud body shame, and three components of cosmetic surgery\ud attitudes. As expected, each of the objectification theory\ud variables predicted greater consideration of having cosmetic\ud surgery in the future. Also, as expected, sexual objectification\ud and body shame uniquely predicted socialmotives for cosmetic\ud surgery, whereas self-surveillance uniquely predicted intrapersonal\ud motives for cosmetic surgery. These findings suggest that\ud women’s acceptance of cosmetic surgery as a way to\ud manipulate physical appearance can be partially explained by\ud the degree to which they view themselves through the lenses of\ud sexual and self-objectification.

Over the past few decades, researchers have amassed a large body of evidence documenting the consequences of self-esteem (SE), attachment styles, rejection sensitivity (RS), domain-specific aspects of SE (e.g., contingencies of self-worth), and RS (e.g., race-RS; appearance-RS) following self-threats. The present article suggests that these personality constructs share a common substrate reflecting approach and avoidance temperament and motivation. Approach and avoidance temperaments are theorized to interact with intrapersonal and interpersonal experiences to shape approach and avoidance motivation. Personality constructs serve as dispositional markers of underlying approach-avoidance motivational orientations, which, in turn, lead to predictable patterns of goal pursuit following self-threats. Individuals who feel self-confident and relationally secure (e.g., high SE, securely attached, and low RS individuals) respond to self-threats by adopting approach-motivated goals to attain positive outcomes. Individuals who lack self-confidence and feel less relationally secure (e.g., low SE, avoidantly attached, and high RS individuals) respond to self-threats by decreasing approach motivation and/or increasing avoidance-motivated goals to prevent negative outcomes. Consequences of adopting approach- and avoidance-motivated goals are discussed.

Individuals with high Appearance-based Rejection Sensitivity (Appearance-RS) anxiously expect, readily perceive, and overreact to rejection based on their physical appearance. In the present research, we hypothesized that high Appearance-RS individuals would show heightened emotional, cognitive, and motivational responses to an ambiguous experience of rejection, but only when their appearance was visible to others. Consistent with predictions, high Appearance-RS participants reported more negative affect and interpreted ambiguous appearance commentary (but not general commentary) more negatively following ambiguous rejection in a visible versus non-visible situation. Findings remained even after controlling for sex, self-esteem, and general rejection sensitivity. Appearance-RS did not differentially predict desire for future social interaction as a function of visible versus non-visible rejection. Implications for motivation and well-being are discussed.

The present research examined the extent to which interpersonal concerns about rejection based on appearance, or Appearance-based Rejection Sensitivity (Appearance-RS), serves as an indicator of risk for excessive body image concerns. Extending previous research, we examined the association between Appearance-RS and symptoms of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) and cosmetic surgery attitudes among 106 British university students. Consistent with predictions, Appearance-RS uniquely predicted greater degree of BDD symptoms after controlling for other known predictor variables. Also, as expected, Appearance-RS uniquely predicted acceptance of cosmetic surgery for both intrapersonal and social reasons and greater consideration of having cosmetic surgery in the future. These findings highlight the importance of assessing individuals' sensitivity to rejection from others based on their physical appearance in investigations of excessive body image concerns.

Appearance-based Rejection Sensitivity (Appearance-RS) is the tendency to anxiously expect, readily perceive, and overreact to rejection based on one’s physical attractiveness. In the present research, we examined how sensitivity to appearance-based rejection influenced desire for social contact. High Appearance-RS participants wanted to avoid social interaction in general (Study 1) and even close others (Study 2) following appearance-based rejection, but not appearance-based acceptance or rejection based on perceived intelligence. Results of a daily diary study revealed that high Appearance-RS participants showed greater social avoidance on days when they felt sensitive to rejection based on their looks (Study 3). High Appearance-RS individuals therefore overreact to appearance rejection by withdrawing from social interactions. Implications for motivation, interpersonal processes, and clinical disorders are discussed.

The present research examined effects of receiving negative interpersonal feedback on state self-esteem, affect, and goal pursuit as a function of trait self-esteem and contingencies of self-worth. Two same-sex participants interacted with each other and then received negative feedback, ostensibly from the other participant, or no feedback, regarding their likeability. Participants then reported their state self-esteem, affect, and self-presentation goals—how they wanted to be perceived by others at the moment. Among participants who received negative feedback, those who more strongly based their self-worth on others' approval experienced lower state self-esteem, positive affect, and greater negative affect than those whose self-worth was less contingent on others' approval. Participants with low self-esteem showed greater desire to appear physically attractive to others the more they based self-worth on others' approval and received negative feedback. In contrast, participants with high self-esteem showe...

To learn how materialism is related to defensive and assertive self–presentational tactics, and how such tactics might mediate the established link between materialism and life satisfaction, 277 undergraduates completed a battery of questionnaires. We expected that materialism would be positively related to the use of defensive self–presentational tactics, and that defensive self–presentational tactics, in turn, would mediate the relationship between materialism and life satisfaction. Zero–order correlations generally supported these expectations. Moreover, results of structural equation modeling suggested that it was primarily the defensive self–presentational tactic of self–handicapping that mediated the relationship between materialism and life satisfaction. We discuss our findings with respect to the protective penchant of materialistic individuals.

Two studies examine the effects of failure on explicit and implicit self-esteem, affect, and self-presentation goals as a function of people's trait self-esteem and academic contingency of self-worth. Study 1 shows that participants with low self-esteem (LSE) who receive failure feedback experience lower state self-esteem, less positive affect, and less desire to be perceived as competent the more they base self-worth on academics. In contrast, participants with high self-esteem (HSE) who strongly base self-worth on academics show a slight boost in state self-esteem and desire to be perceived as competent following failure. Study 2 shows that following failure, academically contingent LSE participants downplay the importance of appearing competent to others and associate themselves with failure on an implicit level. Taken together, these findings suggest that academically contingent HSE people show resilience following failure, whereas academically contingent LSE people experience negative outcomes and disengage from the pursuit of competence self-presentation goals.

This study examines the interactive effects of self-esteem, contingencies of self-worth, and ego threat on supportiveness and liking. Targets high or low in self-esteem and academic contingency receive failure test feedback or no evaluative feedback. Then, targets interact with another participant who discloses a personal problem; afterward, both participants complete questionnaires assessing targets’ supportiveness and liking. High self-esteem, highly contingent targets feel less supportive and like partners less after interacting under threat than under no threat. Partners, in turn, perceive these targets to be less supportive and less likeable. Low self-esteem, highly contingent targets show the reverse pattern, although these findings do not reach statistical significance. Further analyses reveal that the interpersonal effects of ego threat were caused by threats in a specific domain of contingency (e.g., academics) rather than being a contingent person in general or having external or internal contingent self-worth. Implications for self-esteem and interpersonal processes are discussed.

The commentaries on J. Crocker and L. E. Park’s (2004) review suggested that Crocker and Park exaggerated the costs of pursuing self-esteem (K. M. Sheldon, 2004), that it is impossible not to pursue self-esteem (T. Pyszczynski & C. Cox, 2004), and that it is possible to pursue self-esteem in healthy ways, reaping the benefits without the costs (D. L. DuBois & B. R. Flay, 2004). In addressing the comments, the authors first clarify (a) what it means to pursue self-esteem, (b) the connection between having and pursuing self-esteem, and (c) what it means to let go of the pursuit of self-esteem. They then highlight points of overall agreement and disagreement between their view and those expressed in the commentaries and, finally, end with a discussion of future research directions to address the areas of disagreement and to shed further light onto the costs and benefits of pursuing self-esteem.

Researchers have recently questioned the benefits associated with having high self-esteem. The authors propose that the importance of self-esteem lies more in how people strive for it rather than whether it is high or low. They argue that in domains in which their self-worth is invested, people adopt the goal to validate their abilities and qualities, and hence their self-worth. When people have self-validation goals, they react to threats in these domains in ways that undermine learning; relatedness; autonomy and self-regulation; and over time, mental and physical health. The short-term emotional benefits of pursuing self-esteem are often outweighed by long-term costs. Previous research on self-esteem is reinterpreted in terms of self-esteem striving. Cultural roots of the pursuit of self-esteem are considered. Finally, the alternatives to pursuing self-esteem, and ways of avoiding its costs, are discussed.

Six studies examined the social motivations of people with high self-esteem (HSE) and low self-esteem (LSE) following a threat to a domain of contingent self-worth. Whether people desired social contact following self-threat depended on an interaction between an individual's trait self-esteem and contingencies of self-worth. HSE participants who strongly based self-worth on appearance sought to connect with close others following a threat to their physical attractiveness. LSE participants who staked self-worth on appearance wanted to avoid social contact and, instead, preferred a less interpersonally risky way of coping with self-threat (wanting to enhance their physical attractiveness). Implications for theories of self-esteem, motivation, and interpersonal processes are discussed.

This study investigated effects of appearance-based rejection sensitivity (Appearance-RS) – the dispositional tendency to anxiously expect rejection based on one’s appearance – in a sample of 133 American college students. Participants were randomly assigned to write an essay about either a negative or positive appearance comment they had received in the past. Compared to participants with lower Appearance-RS, those with higher Appearance-RS felt more rejected and expressed greater interest in cosmetic surgery after recalling a negative versus positive appearance comment. Content analysis of the essays revealed that negative appearance comments were most often made in reference to one’s body weight/shape/size; positive appearance comments were most often made in reference to one’s overall appearance. Peers/friends/romantic partners were the most frequently cited source of both positive and negative appearance comments. Overall, this research suggests that the interaction between the person and the situation is important to consider when predicting cosmetic surgery interest.

Appearance-Based Rejection Sensitivity (Appearance-RS) is a personality-processing system characterized by anxious concerns and expectations about being rejected based on one's physical attractiveness. People differ in their sensitivity to rejection based on appearance, with consequences for mental and physical health, self-esteem, affect, and feelings of belonging. Study 1 describes the development and validation of the Appearance-RS scale, its relation to personality variables and to health-related outcomes. Study 2 provides experimental evidence that high Appearance-RS people feel more alone and rejected when asked to think about negative aspects of their appearance. Finally, Study 3 tests ways to reduce the negative effects of receiving an appearance threat among high Appearance-RS participants. Specifically, high Appearance-RS participants who engaged in self-affirmation (thought of their personal strengths) or received a secure attachment prime (thought of a close, caring relationship) were buffered from the negative effects of an appearance threat on subsequent state self-esteem and mood.

Previous research on attachment theory has focused on mean differences in level of self-esteem among people with different attachment styles. The present study examines the associations between attachment styles and different bases of self-esteem, or contingencies of self-worth, among a sample of 795 college students. Results showed that attachment security was related to basing self-worth on family support. Both the preoccupied attachment style and fearful attachment style were related to basing selfworth on physical attractiveness. The dismissing attachment style was related to basing self-worth less on others’ approval, family support, and God’s love.