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Discrimination between friends and foes is crucial for many superorganismal insects to ensure altruistic acts are only directed towards kin. However, whether or not an extremely sensitive recognition system is needed, could depend on the type of invaders that generally present a threat to the species in question. Ants are known to engage in intraspecific conflicts, and readily discriminate between nestmate and non-nestmate conspecifics. In contrast, fungus-growing termites do not invade or aggressively compete with neighbouring nests, but are instead often threatened by phylogenetically distant invaders, such as ants. Therefore, we hypothesized that termites have less need for a recognition system efficient in distinguishing small chemical differences. We studied intra- and interspecific recognition of the worker and soldier castes of the fungus-growing termite Macrotermes natalensis and investigated both recognition of and behaviour towards different stimuli of varying ecological importance. Both workers and soldiers were unable to efficiently discriminate against conspecific non-nestmates. Furthermore, we found that not only were soldiers more sensitive to small differences in chemical profiles than workers, but they also showed different behaviour than workers when a stimulus was recognized as foreign. Our results also raise the question whether termites have specifically evolved to recognize and react to the smell of ants. Our results reinforce the notion that nestmate recognition is a trait under stringent selection, where efficient recognition is only selected for when needed, probably because of the energetic costs of maintaining the neural tissue required.

One of the traditional practices in drier eastern districts of Zimbabwe aimed to reduce protein malnutrition involves blending nutrient rich termite powders and millet flour. Despite this common practice, no standard guidelines have been developed to optimize and evaluate nutritional benefits of this blending. This study was aimed at formulating an extruded instant porridge composed of termite and millet powders and characterizing the physico-chemical, nutritional and sensory attributes of this porridge. Termite and millet powders were analysed for nutritional quality using Association of Official Analytical Chemists methods after which formulation of porridge was done using the Pearson Square method. The instant porridge’s nutritional and, heavy metal contents were analysed using Inductively Coupled Plasma—Optical Emission Spectrometry method. Functional properties and microbiological quality were assessed using standard methods. A panel of 80 untrained individuals assessed the porridge for appearance, texture, aroma, taste and overall acceptability. Results showed that the porridge had 8.1% moisture content, protein 11.5%, carbohydrate 73%, crude fibre 2%, fat 4%, ash 2% and energy content of 351 kcal/100 g. No toxic heavy metals were detected in the porridge. Microbial tests indicated the presence of yeast and molds but no E. coli was present in the analysed samples. A combined 52% of sensory evaluators either liked or liked very much the instant porridge. A sizeable number indicated the unfavorable mouth stickiness, heavy termite aroma and fear of allergenicity. The instant porridge has potential to help in addressing micronutrient deficiencies if attributes to improve consumer acceptability are enhanced.

This study investigated soil factors responsible for localised patches of enhanced sugarcane growth on the remains of termite (Macrotermes natalensis) mounds observed on predominantly coarse-textur...

The taxonomic position of a novel aerobic, Gram-positive actinobacteria, designated strain RB5T, was determined using a polyphasic approach. The strain, isolated from the gut of the fungus-farming termite Macrotermes natalensis, showed morphological, physiological and chemotaxonomic properties typical of the genus Streptomyces . Based on 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, the closest phylogenetic neighbour of RB5T was Streptomyces polyrhachis DSM 42102T (98.87 %). DNA–DNA hybridization experiments between strain RB5T and S. polyrhachis DSM 42102T resulted in a value of 27.4 % (26.8 %). The cell wall of strain RB5T contained ll-diaminopimelic acid as the diagnostic amino acid. Mycolic acids and diagnostic sugars in whole-cell hydrolysates were not detected. The strain produced the following major phospholipids: diphosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylinositol-mannoside and phosphatidylserine. The menaquinone profile showed hexa- and octahydrogenated menaquinones containing nine isoprene units [MK-9(H6) and MK-9(H8)]. The strain exhibited a fatty acid profile containing the following major fatty acids: 12-methyltridecanoic acid (iso-C14 : 0) 12-methyltetradecanoic acid (anteiso-C15 : 0), 13-methyltetradecanoic acid (iso-C15 : 0) and 14-methylpentadecanoic acid (iso-C16 : 0). Here, we propose a novel species of the genus Streptomyces – Streptomyces smaragdinus with the type strain RB5T (=VKM Ac-2839T=NRRL B65539T).

The taxonomic positions of two novel aerobic, Gram-stain-positive Actinobacteria, designated RB20T and RB56T, were determined using a polyphasic approach. Both were isolated from the fungus-farming termite Macrotermes natalensis. Results of 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis revealed that both strains are members of the genus Nocardia with the closest phylogenetic neighbours Nocardia miyunensis JCM12860T (98.9 %) and Nocardia nova DSM44481T (98.5 %) for RB20T and Nocardia takedensis DSM 44801T (98.3 %), Nocardia pseudobrasiliensis DSM 44290T (98.3 %) and Nocardia rayongensis JCM 19832T (98.2 %) for RB56T. Digital DNA–DNA hybridization (DDH) between RB20T and N. miyunensis JCM12860T and N. nova DSM 44481T resulted in similarity values of 33.9 and 22.0 %, respectively. DDH between RB56T and N. takedensis DSM44801T and N. pseudobrasiliensis DSM44290T showed similarity values of 20.7 and 22.3 %, respectively. In addition, wet-lab DDH between RB56T and N. rayongensis JCM19832T resulted in 10.2 % (14.5 %) similarity. Both strains showed morphological and chemotaxonomic features typical for the genus Nocardia , such as the presence of meso-diaminopimelic acid (A2pm) within the cell wall, arabinose and galactose as major sugar components within whole cell-wall hydrolysates, the presence of mycolic acids and major phospholipids (diphosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinositol), and the predominant menaquinone MK-8 (H4, ω-cyclo). The main fatty acids for both strains were hexadecanoic acid (C16 : 0), 10-methyloctadecanoic acid (10-methyl C18 : 0) and cis-9-octadecenoic acid (C18 : 1 ω9c). We propose two novel species within the genus Nocardia : Nocardia macrotermitis sp. nov. with the type strain RB20T (=VKM Ac-2841T=NRRL B65541T) and Nocardia aurantia sp. nov. with the type strain RB56T (=VKM Ac-2842T=NRRL B65542T).

The taxonomic positions of two novel aerobic, Gram-positive actinobacteria, designated strains RB29T and RB68T, were determined using a polyphasic approach. Based on 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, the closest phylogenetic neighbours of RB29T were identified as Actinomadura rayongensis DSM 102126T (99.2 % similarity) and Actinomadura atramentaria DSM 43919T (98.7 %), and for strain RB68T was Actinomadura hibisca DSM 44148T (98.3 %). Digital DNA–DNA hybridization (dDDH) between RB29T and its closest phylogenetic neighbours, A. rayongensis DSM 102126T and A. atramentaria DSM 43919T, resulted in similarity values of 53.2 % (50.6–55.9 %) and 26.4 % (24.1–28.9 %), respectively. Additionally, the average nucleotide identity (ANI) was 93.2 % (94.0 %) for A. rayongensis DSM 102126T and 82.3 % (78.9 %) for A. atramentaria DSM 43919T. dDDH analysis between strain RB68T and A. hibisca DSM 44148T gave a similarity value of 24.5 % (22.2–27.0 %). Both strains, RB29T and RB68T, revealed morphological characteristics and chemotaxonomic features typical for the genus Actinomadura , such as the presence of meso-diaminopimelic acid in the cell wall, galactose and glucose as major sugar components within whole-cell hydrolysates and the absence of mycolic acids. The major phospholipids were diphosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylinositol and phosphatidylinositol mannoside. Predominant menaquinones were MK-9(H6) and MK-9(H8) for RB29T and MK-9(H4) and MK-9(H6) for RB68T. The main fatty acids were identified as 10-methyloctadecanoic acid (10-methyl C18:0), 14-methylpentadecanoic acid (iso-C16:0), hexadecanoic acid (C16:0) and cis-9-octadecanoic acid (C18 : 1 ω9c). Here, we propose two novel species of the genus Actinomadura : Actinomadura rubteroloni sp. nov. with the type strain RB29T (=CCUG 72668T=NRRL B-65537T) and Actinomadura macrotermitis sp. nov. with the type strain RB68T (=CCUG 72669T=NRRL B-65538T).

Mound building termites are key ecosystem engineers of subtropical savanna regions. Mounds allow termites to maintain suitable conditions for termite reproduction and food cultivation ('fungus gardens'). We studied how the internal mound temperature of Macrotermes natalensis, a dominant mound-building termite of the subtropical savanna of southern Africa, responds to a number of environmental variables. We used general additive mixed models (GAMM) to determine how external temperature, mound size (volume) and the amount of vegetation shade affects mound internal temperature over a 24-h period. Internal mound temperature varied daily following changes of the external temperature, although the range of variation was much smaller. Active termite mounds maintained a higher internal temperature than inactive ones, and mound activity reinforced the positive effect of mound size and moderated the negative effect of vegetation shade on internal temperatures. In turn, external temperature fluctuations equally affected active and inactive mounds. Large mounds maintained near optimal internal temperatures compared to smaller sized mounds. We therefore conclude that termite mound size is a stronger determinant of internal mound temperature stability compared to plant shade cover.

We report a preliminary functional and complete structural characterization of a highly unusual geldanamycin analog, natalamycin A, that was isolated from Streptomyces strain M56 recovered from a South African nest of Macrotermes natalensis termites. Bioassay-guided fractionation based on antifungal activity led to the isolation of natalamycin A, and a combination of NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallographic analysis, including highly-accurate quantum-chemical NMR calculations on the largest and most conformationally-flexible system to date, revealed natalamycin A’s three-dimensional solid- and solution-state structure. This structure along with the structures of related compounds isolated from the same source suggest a geldanamycin-like biosynthetic pathway with unusual post-PKS modifications.

SUMMARY Fungus-growing higher termites build long subterranean galleries that lead outwards from the nest to foraging sites. When soldiers are disturbed, they tend to drum with their heads against the substrate and thereby create vibrational alarm signals. The present study aimed at describing these acoustic signals, how they are elicited, produced and perceived, and how these signals propagate within the galleries and nests over long distances in two termite species of the Southern African savannah, Macrotermes natalensis and an Odontotermes sp. The signals consist of trains of pulses with a pulse repetition rate of 10–20 Hz. The galleries have physical features that promote vibrational communication and are used as channels for long-distance communication. In M. natalensis, the signal propagation velocity is ~130 m s−1 and the signals are attenuated by ~0.4 dB per centimetre distance. Nestmates are extremely sensitive to these vibrations with a behavioural threshold amplitude of 0.012 m s−2. Workers respond by a fast retreat into the nest and soldiers are recruited to the source of vibration. Soldiers also start to drum with a reaction time of about 0.3 s, thereby amplifying the intensity of the signal. This social long-distance communication through chains of signal-reamplifying termites results in a relatively slow propagation (1.3 m s−1) of the signal without decrement over distances of several metres.

Zusammenfassung Die 2. Mitteilung enthalt eine morphologische Darstellung uber den Proventrikel der Termiten und seine Bedeutung im sozialen Leben dieser Insekten. Als Beispiel wird der Kropf-Kaumagen von Macrotermes natalensis beschrieben, dessen strukturelle Gliederung im Vergleich mit anderen Termitenarten Unterschiede aufweist. Zum allgemeinen Bauprinzip des Termiten-Proventrikels gehoren 12 Kauplatten, verdickte chitinige Vorsprunge (Kauplatten) der inneren Cuticularschicht des Vorderdarmes. Je nach Termitenart sind die Kauplatten verschiedenartig strukturiert und mit Reibezahnchen und Reibeleisten ausgestattet. Die Tatigkeit des Kaumagens wird durch Muskeln bewirkt. Die gegenstandig im Mageninnern sitzenden Kauplatten uben eine reibende Wirkung aus und zerkleinern das feste Material (Holz) zu einem Nahrungsbrei (mechanische Vorverdauung). Von den Kauplatten in den Ventiltrichter hinabreichende kissenartige Lappen (Segelfalten) drucken die zerkaute Nahrung in den Kropf zuruck. Hinsichtlich seiner Bedeutung wird der Kropf-Kaumagen als „soziales Futterungsorgan” aufgefast; die Nahrung wird zerrieben und als kohlenhydrathaltiger Brei an die heranwachsenden Larven verfuttert. Summary The second contribution gives a morphological picture of the proventriculus of termites and its importance in the social life of these insects. That of Macrotermes natalensis which shows differences in structure compared with other species, is described as an example. Basically, the gizzards of termites consist of twelve chewing plates, thickened chitinized projections of the inner cuticular layer of the fore-gut, which are of different structure in each species and are provided with teeth and ridges. The gizzard is activated by muslces. The opposed chewing plates have a grinding effect and break up solid material (wood) into a food brei (mechanical predigestion). Pad-like lobes (‘wing folds’) reaching from the chewing plates into the cardiac valve press back the chewed food into the crop. In view of its importance, the proventriculus is considered as a ‘social feeding organ’; the food is ground and fed the growing larvae as a brei rich in carbohydrates.

Dispersal flights of termites are the result of the sum of a number of complex and highly orchestrated behavioural responses by different castes to a variety of cues. Macrotermes natalensis (Haviland) produced a single brood of alates each year. These alates left their parent nests in dispersal flights early in the summer rainy season from late September to early December, with a peak during October. Rainfall was the primary stimulatory factor triggering flight; 5 mm was the threshold for initial flights. Large flights usually occurred later in the season and required more rain to trigger them. The initiation and duration of individual flights were regulated by factors such as temperature, light intensity, and wind. The threshold temperature for swarming flights lay between 17–19°C. If the air temperature dropped below this the flight was aborted. The species did not fly during rain and major flights took place between 39 % and 90 % relative humidity. Windless conditions were favoured for flight which ens...

The fungus-growing termite, Macrotermes natalensis (Haviland), the most common and widely distributed member of the genus in southern Africa, produces a single brood of alates annually. The release of these alates from the colony is under the control of workers. The latter construct crescent-shaped flight holes over the mound surface and in the surrounding grass. On flight evenings workers open these holes. Large numbers of workers and small numbers of minor soldiers exit the mound to surround the flight holes. Alates then rapidly leave the nest by way of these flight holes. When the last alate has flown workers and soldiers move back into the mound and the flight holes are sealed. Following the flight the females land before the males, selecting elevated sites where they stand head down with wings fully extended. The male seeks out the female and when he joins her, the wings of both are flexed. Following a period of stimulation, both sexes dealate simultaneously and the pair move to the ground to search ...

Luminescence dating is one of the most promising technique available for studying bioturbation on pedological timescales. In this study, we use multi-grain and single-grain quartz OSL to quantify termite bioturbation processes (Macrotermes natalensis) in a savannah ecosystem in Ghana. Termites transport soil from depth to the surface to construct termitaria. Over time, erosion levels these mounds and returns the sediment to the soil surface. These two processes of construction and erosion together represent an upward "conveyor belt" sediment transport process. We find that the sediment is effectively bleached during the erosion process allowing us to quantify retrospectively, for the first time, the surface deposition rate, the inverse of the upwards transport rate. At this site, this is similar to 0.28 mm year(-1) and began about 4.000 years ago. Downward mixing through subsurface galleries may replace 10-20% of the volume ka(-1) below the unit formed by reburied termite deposits. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

We report a preliminary functional and complete structural characterization of a highly unusual geldanamycin analog, natalamycin A, that was isolated from Streptomyces strain M56 recovered from a South African nest of Macrotermes natalensis termites. Bioassay-guided fractionation based on antifungal activity led to the isolation of natalamycin A, and a combination of NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallographic analysis, including highly-accurate quantum-chemical NMR calculations on the largest and most conformationally-flexible system to date, revealed natalamycin A's three-dimensional solid- and solution-state structure. This structure along with the structures of related compounds isolated from the same source suggest a geldanamycin-like biosynthetic pathway with unusual post-PKS modifications.

In African savannas, termite mounds usually serve as browsing hotspots for mammals because of their soil fertility. Van der Plas et al., in this issue, describe that browsers avoid the unpalatable, evergreen tree species on mounds of Macrotermes natalensis in a mesic savanna, preferring mainly leguminous species with high leaf N and P concentrations in the matrix. This exception is probably a consequence of the fertile soils of the study area, and highlights the importance of environmental context for assessing ecological interactions.

Although several behavioural studies demonstrate the ability of insects to localise the source of vibrations, it is still unclear how insects are able to perceive directional information from vibratory signals on solid substrates, because time-of-arrival and amplitude difference between receptory structures are thought to be too small to be processed by insect nervous systems. The termite Macrotermes natalensis communicates using vibrational drumming signals transmitted along subterranean galleries. When soldiers are attacked by predators, they tend to drum with their heads against the substrate and create a pulsed vibration. Workers respond by a fast retreat into the nest. Soldiers in the vicinity start to drum themselves, leading to an amplification and propagation of the signal. Here we show that M. natalensis makes use of a directional vibration sensing in the context of colony defence. In the field, soldiers are recruited towards the source of the signal. In arena experiments on natural nest material, soldiers are able to localise the source of vibration. Using two movable platforms allowing us to vibrate the legs of the left and right sides of the body with a time delay, we show that the difference in time-of-arrival is the directional cue used for orientation. Delays as short as 0.2 ms are sufficient to be detected. Soldiers show a significant positive tropotaxis to the platform stimulated earlier, demonstrating for the first time perception of time-of-arrival delays and vibrotropotaxis on solid substrates in insects.

This paper reports on the number of individuals in Macrotermes natalensis (Hav.) colonies of different sized mounds in the northern Kruger National Park. Mounds were fully excavated, termites collected by means of vacuuming, and colony size estimated by sub-sampling. The proportion of termites in the mound (above and underground sections) amounts to more than 70 % of the colony; the rest being present in the surrounding soil (excavated beyond mound perimeter). It was estimated that, on average, small mounds contain more than 5000, medium mounds more than 45000, and large mounds more than 200000 individual termites. A highly significant relationship between total individuals (N) and mound height (h) was found, given by lnN = 7.893 + 1.093h (r = 0.92). Highly significant correlations (rs > 0.90) were found between and within caste numbers, and their respective ratios given. The proportion of soldiers was found to change as colonies grew larger.

The ancient fungus-growing termite (Mactrotermitinae) symbiosis involves the obligate association between a lineage of higher termites and basidiomycete Termitomyces cultivar fungi. Our investigation of the fungus-growing termite Macrotermes natalensis shows that Bacillus strains from M. natalensis colonies produce a single major antibiotic, bacillaene A (1), which selectively inhibits known and putatively antagonistic fungi of Termitomyces. Comparative analyses of the genomes of symbiotic Bacillus strains revealed that they are phylogenetically closely related to Bacillus subtilis, their genomes have high homology with more than 90% of ORFs being 100% identical and the sequence identities across the biosynthetic gene cluster for bacillaene are higher between termite-associated strains than to the cluster previously reported in B. subtilis. Our findings suggest that this lineage of antibiotic-producing Bacillus may be a defensive symbiont involved in the protection of the fungus-growing termite cultivar.

The use of seven species of edible insects that are generally acceptable within the four dominant tribes in Kwara State, Nigeria, is described. The caterpillar Cirina forda Westwood is perhaps the most important and most widely marketed edible insect in Kwara State. Other widely appreciated insects are the termites Macrotennes natalensis Haviland and weevil Rhynchophorus phoenicis F., but, through education, edible insects could make a greater contribution in alleviating the problem of protein deficiency that exists in Kwara State.

Sporodochia bearing conidiophores were isolated from combs (fungus gardens) taken from termitaria of Macrotermes natalensis and Odontotermes badius . Stroma of sporodochial cultures from M. natalensis combs had a farinaceous, granular texture, while the stroma of sporodochial cultures from the combs of O. badius was excessively raised, cerebriform and tuberculous. Sporodochial mycelium of both isolates produced sympodially branched, holoarthric conidial chains and huge inflated, thin-walled conidia (sphaerocysts). Some differences were observed between the two isolates with respect to: (i) the morphology of conidiophores and (ii) associated thick-walled globular cysts of comb sporodochia. Lesser differences were also observed between cultures of comb sporodochia with respect to the shape of holoarthric conidia. Sporodochially produced conidia, as well as conidia produced in culture, germinated readily with one to four polar or subpolar germ-tubes.

Metadata only record Circular patches of exceptionally well-grown sugarcane, known as "isiduli" are a common feature of sandy sugarcane fields in South Africa. They correspond to termitaria of Macrotermes natalensis, leveled by ploughing of the field. Root and soil samples were collected at 0-30 and 30-60 cm depths along a 21m transect, which passed through an isiduli. Soil physical and chemical analyses were made. Nematodes in the soil and roots of cane were identified and counted and bacterial activities were measured. Plant characteristics were determined at the various points along the transect and chemical analyses of the leaves were performed. Estimated cane yield was five times greater within the isiduli than elsewhere along the transect. Levels of N, Si, S and Ca were higher in the leaves of cane within the isiduli than outside. The reverse was true for Mn, juice purity and % sucrose. Meloidogyne javanica was absent and Xiphinema elongatum less abundant in the isiduli than elsewhere. Greater numbers of Helicotylenchus dihystera, Pratylenchus zeae and Paratrichodorus spp. occurred within the isiduli than elsewhere along the transect. The limits of the contrasting nematode communities closely matched the limits of the isiduli as defined by the vegetative parameters. The levels of the different soil elements in the topsoil (0-30 cm) were always higher within the isiduli. However, the extent of the isiduli, when defined by the greater concentrations of soil elements, did not correspond well with the limits determined by the vegetative parameters. A better correspondence was observed with the soil characteristics of the deeper (30-60 cm) soil layer. Bacterial activity gave the poorest discrimination of the extent of the isiduli, high bacterial activity being observed in samples collected both inside and outside the isiduli. © 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The genus Cordycepioideus Stifler was established to accommodate a new hypocreaceous fungus, C. bisporus Stifler, pathogenic on Macrotermes natalensis (Haviland) from Lake Manyara, Tanzania (Stifler, 1941). A second species of this genus has been discovered in Jalisco, Mexico, on Tenuirostitermes tenuirostris (Desueau), and is distinguished from the type species by its 8-spored asci and smaller spores.

The first observations of behavior and photographs of interactions of the Termitoxeniinae and their termite hosts are presented. These observations involve 2 phorids: Termitophilomyia gracilis (Reichensperger) and Termitosagma henningsi (Reichensperger) and indicate that the flies interact readily with their hosts and are well integrated into the termite colony. New host data are presented for 3 species of Termitoxeniinae whose hosts were formerly recorded to be Macrotermes natalensis (Haviland). The anatomy of these 2 phorids was reinvestigated. This study showed large numbers of pores in the dorsal cuticle, large setae with cup-shaped bases on the dorsal surface, and a lack of cup-shaped bases on the setae on the ventral surface. Internally, a large compact fat body was observed but no gland cells were found near the hypodermis. We believe that the presence of pores and the absence of gland cells lend credence to original ideas about the origin of exudates in the fat body or hemolymph which can then exit to the outside of the fly through the pores in the dorsal part of the cuticle.

Lipids from various organs of Macrotermes natalensis and Macrotermes goliath queens were studied by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and gas-liquid chromatography (GLC). Haemolymph lipids contain large quantities of hydrocarbons and approximately 55 per cent of fatty acids as esters. Iso -propanol is present in ester form and also some long-chain alcohols. Total cholesterol for the two species is 450 g/ml and 764 μ g/ml respectively. Lipids from reproductive organs consist mainly of triglycerides, with some free fatty acids (FFA). Hydrocarbons and long-chain alcohols are also present, but no volatile alcohols. Fat body lipids consist predominantly of TGL and fairly large quantities of phospholipids (PL). All organs contain C 16 : 0 , C 18 : 1 , and C 18 : 2 as major fatty acids, C 16 : 1 , C 18 : 0 , and C 18 : 3 are also present but in smaller quantities.

The midguts of adult workers of the higher termite species Macrotermes natalensis contain the entire set of digestive enzymes required for the digestion of native cellulose. The C(x)-cellulases and the beta-glucosidases are produced, at least in part, by the termite's own midgut epithelium and salivary glands. The C(1)-cellulases, on the other hand, are acquired by the termites when they feed on a fungus that grows in their nests. We propose that the involvement of acquired digestive enzymes could serve as the basis for a general strategy of resource utilization and further suggest that the acquisition of digestive enzymes may be a widespread phenomenon among mycophagous invertebrates.

The stroma of Xylospkaera furcala, found growing in the nests of the termite Macrotermes natalensis, bears conidiophores each with two types of conidia that are violently discharged from the conidiophore to a distance of 0·5 mm. by means of a sudden rounding-off ol the wall between the conidiophore and the conidium.