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SummaryUnsustainable hunting threatens biodiversity in the tropics through the removal of key seed-dispersing frugivorous primates. Traditionally, hunting in the Amazon Basin was managed through hunter territoriality, with the threat of social sanctions for overexploitation. We examined hunter territoriality and differential prey selection as alternative hypotheses to central-place foraging. Territoriality occurred beyond common hunting grounds, which were on major rivers and immediately surrounding the community. Hunters displayed selectivity in prey choice, with 50% of hunters not hunting primates. The combination of hunter territoriality and differential prey selection means that over 22% of the hunted area of the Sucusari river basin could be considered primate refuge. Of the remaining hunted area, 16% was hunted relatively little by primate hunters. We suggest that the combination of territoriality and selection against primates creates refuges, mitigating the effects of sustained hunting pressure and contributing to the conservation of these species.

Effective estimation of wildlife population abundance is an important component of population monitoring, and ultimately essential for the development of conservation actions. Diurnal line-transect surveys are one of the most applied methods for abundance estimations. Local ecological knowledge (LEK) is empirically acquired through the observation of ecological processes by local people. LEK-based methods have only been recognized as valid scientific methods for surveying fauna abundance in the last three decades. However, the agreement between both methods has not been extensively analysed. We compared concomitant abundance data for 91 wild species (mammals, birds and tortoises) from diurnal line transects (9,221 km of trails) and a LEK-based method (291 structured interviews) at 18 sites in Central and Western Amazonia. We used biological and socioecological factors to assess the agreements and divergences between abundance indices obtained from both methods. We found a significant agreement of population abundance indices for diurnal and game species. This relationship was also positive regardless of species sociality (solitary or social), body size and locomotion mode (terrestrial and arboreal); and of sampled forest type (upland and flooded forests). Conversely, we did not find significant abundance covariances for nocturnal and non-game species. Despite the general agreement between methods, line transects were not effective at surveying many species occurring in the area, with 40.2% and 39.8% of all species being rarely and never detected in at least one of the survey sites. On the other hand, these species were widely reported by local informants to occur at intermediate to high abundances. Although LEK-based methods have been long neglected by ecologists, our comparative study demonstrated their effectiveness for estimating vertebrate abundance of a wide diversity of taxa and forest environments. This can be used simultaneously with line-transect surveys to calibrate abundance estimates and record species that are rarely sighted during surveys on foot, but that are often observed by local people during their daily extractive activities. Thus, the combination of local and scientific knowledge is a potential tool to improve our knowledge of tropical forest species and foster the development of effective strategies to meet biodiversity conservation goals.

Mineral lick elevation, size, and distance to the closest human community are all associated with mammal and bird species visitations. The most frequently hunted licks have similar species assemblages. Results indicate high variability in species assemblages at different mineral licks suggesting different species-specific resource needs at different licks.

Scientists are increasingly using volunteer efforts of citizen scientists to classify images captured by motion‐activated trail cameras. The rising popularity of citizen science reflects its potential to engage the public in conservation science and accelerate processing of the large volume of images generated by trail cameras. While image classification accuracy by citizen scientists can vary across species, the influence of other factors on accuracy is poorly understood. Inaccuracy diminishes the value of citizen science derived data and prompts the need for specific best‐practice protocols to decrease error. We compare the accuracy between three programs that use crowdsourced citizen scientists to process images online: Snapshot Serengeti, Wildwatch Kenya, and AmazonCam Tambopata. We hypothesized that habitat type and camera settings would influence accuracy. To evaluate these factors, each photograph was circulated to multiple volunteers. All volunteer classifications were aggregated to a single best answer for each photograph using a plurality algorithm. Subsequently, a subset of these images underwent expert review and were compared to the citizen scientist results. Classification errors were categorized by the nature of the error (e.g., false species or false empty), and reason for the false classification (e.g., misidentification). Our results show that Snapshot Serengeti had the highest accuracy (97.9%), followed by AmazonCam Tambopata (93.5%), then Wildwatch Kenya (83.4%). Error type was influenced by habitat, with false empty images more prevalent in open‐grassy habitat (27%) compared to woodlands (10%). For medium to large animal surveys across all habitat types, our results suggest that to significantly improve accuracy in crowdsourced projects, researchers should use a trail camera set up protocol with a burst of three consecutive photographs, a short field of view, and determine camera sensitivity settings based on in situ testing. Accuracy level comparisons such as this study can improve reliability of future citizen science projects, and subsequently encourage the increased use of such data., We show that the accuracy levels of trail‐camera image classification by citizen scientists are affected by habitat type and trail‐camera set up. By comparing the accuracy results from three camera trap citizen science projects, we found that setting trail cameras to capture 3 images per burst, testing the appropriate camera sensitivity, and a shorter field of view resulting from dense vegetation may significantly improve citizen scientist image classification accuracy when compared to classifications by experts.

Introduction: Post-operative whole breast radiotherapy reduces ipsilateral recurrence by 20% and 15-year breast cancer mortality by 5.4%. Technique offerings should evolve to maximise clinical outcomes whilst reducing toxicities. Partial breast irradiation (PBI) reduces skin toxicity while being as effective as whole breast radiotherapy, Simultaneous Integrated Boost (SIB) shortens treatment while offering better tumour control than sequential boost and regional nodal irradiation (RNI) with VMAT IMRT provides excellent target dose conformity. Access to advanced radiotherapy in UK lags behind demand, due to workforce shortages and time pressures for planning and peer review. Background: GenesisCare is the global leader in oncology services with 12 UK oncology centres, equipped with latest radiotherapy technologies and offering IMRT/VMAT for RNI (NICE guidelines), SIB (IMPORT-HIGH) and PBI (GEC-ESTRO, IMPORT LOW). GenesisCare UK (GCUK) collaborates with breast oncologists and surgeons who work in the National Health Service and who utilise those techniques inconsistently. This retrospective study aims at identifying patient eligibility for those techniques, measure uptake and devise strategies to increase patient access. Method: Patients referred for radiotherapy between November 2018 and May 2019 were screened for PBI, SIB or RNI eligibility. We focused on our Oxford and Cambridge centres because clinicians practising there are familiar with those techniques from their NHS practice. Minimum patient datasets, histology/imaging reports and multi-disciplinary team (MDT) meeting outcomes were reviewed. Patient eligibility was evaluated against uptake. Results: 408 cases were treated across the network, with 39 cases in Oxford and Cambridge. Two patients with stage IV disease and one with DCIS were excluded and remaining 36 patients were evaluated as per table 1. Table 1 Technique eligibility vs utilisationTechniqueEligible (%)Eligible & Offered (%)Eligible Not offered (%)Not eligible (%)PBI12 (33)1 (8)11 (92)24 (67)SIB15 (42)3 (20)12 (80)21 (58)RNI5 (14)5 (100)031 (86) Only 1 of 12 PBI eligible patients were offered PBI (RTOG zero acute skin toxicity). From the remaining 11 patients, 1 had grade 4 toxicity and received oral antibiotics for skin infection, 4 had grade 2, 5 had grade 1 and 1 had zero toxicity. All high-risk patients had RNI with VMAT, but only 20% eligible for a boost were offered SIB. They had sequential boost with treatment prolongation by 5-8 days. Summary and Next Steps Access to breast radiotherapy in UK lags behind demand, especially for advanced techniques like PBI, SIB and RNI. At GCUK, we set out our vision for the Breast Service of the Future (SOF), an approach that draws from best practice and evidence-based radiotherapy. We believe that patients should be offered a personalised radiotherapy approach and we have taken steps to maximise patient access to advanced breast radiotherapy (table 2). Table 2 Breast SOF StrategyActionEnablers1. Key Opinion Leader engagement, clinical protocol development, whole MDT approach to change including breast oncologists, surgeons, radiologists, eMDT & Peer Review process set upBreast SOF ConferenceContouring workshopsUK roadshowsIT and Innovation teams1. Internal staff training to advanced techniques for dosimetrists, radiographers and physicistsESTRO PBI and IGRT coursesContouring workshops1. Purchasing Auto-contouring software for Organs at risk and Internal Mammary Chain, creation of breast contouring atlasesClinician/staff training by GCUK clinical applications specialist1. Breast SOF journal development and circulation across the network (oncologists, surgeons, GPs, radiologists) to include evidence-based practice behind advanced radiotherapy techniquesBreast SOF Steering CommitteeBreast reference group and clinician engagement Citation Format: Penny Kechagioglou, Mark Bowler, Trevor Williams. Partial breast irradiation, simultaneous integrated boost and regional nodal irradiation: A UK private provider approach to maximising patient access to advanced breast radiotherapy [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 2019 San Antonio Breast Cancer Symposium; 2019 Dec 10-14; San Antonio, TX. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2020;80(4 Suppl):Abstract nr P4-12-26.

Filarial nematode infections are common in primates, but have received little attention in the Neotropics. Epidemiological data on filarial infections in primates are still too sparse to fully understand the complex of this parasitism, especially because of the difficulty in studying the ecology and epidemiology of wild primates.. We describe natural infections by Dipetalonema parasitizing 211 primates belonging to eight free-living primate genera in Amazonia, and assess the relationships between parasitic indicators and climatic (rainfall and river level), ecological (fruiting periods of plants) and biological (sex, species' body mass, group size and density) factors. The overall prevalence was 64.4% (95% CI: 64.0 - 64.9); parasitic mean abundance (N filariae per individual) and parasitic mean intensity (N filariae per infected host) of infection were 11.9 (95% CI: 8.3 - 15.6) and 18.4 (95% CI: 13.4 - 23.4) filariae/individual, respectively. Although we observed differences in parasitic parameters among primate genera, there was no correlation between parasitic parameters with density, body mass or group size. Sapajus, Cebus and Lagothrix had the highest prevalence and parasitic mean intensity. Using Lagothrix lagotricha poeppigii, the most sampled species (n = 92), as a model, we found that the number of filariae per infected host was associated with fruit production in swamp forests during the dry season, the time of food scarcity. The long periods of food shortage may cause environmental stress on primates, impairing their immune defenses and leading to increased parasite load but not affecting infection prevalence. However, the lack of information on vector ecology, key to understand risk factors associated to infection rate, prevents confirming the existence of an infection pattern dependent on food availability.

Among mammals, the order Primates is exceptional in having a high taxonomic richness in which the taxa are arboreal, semiterrestrial, or terrestrial. Although habitual terrestriality is pervasive among the apes and African and Asian monkeys (catarrhines), it is largely absent among monkeys of the Americas (platyrrhines), as well as galagos, lemurs, and lorises (strepsirrhines), which are mostly arboreal. Numerous ecological drivers and species-specific factors are suggested to set the conditions for an evolutionary shift from arboreality to terrestriality, and current environmental conditions may provide analogous scenarios to those transitional periods. Therefore, we investigated predominantly arboreal, diurnal primate genera from the Americas and Madagascar that lack fully terrestrial taxa, to determine whether ecological drivers (habitat canopy cover, predation risk, maximum temperature, precipitation, primate species richness, human population density, and distance to roads) or species-specific traits (body mass, group size, and degree of frugivory) associate with increased terrestriality. We collated 150,961 observation hours across 2,227 months from 47 species at 20 sites in Madagascar and 48 sites in the Americas. Multiple factors were associated with ground use in these otherwise arboreal species, including increased temperature, a decrease in canopy cover, a dietary shift away from frugivory, and larger group size. These factors mostly explain intraspecific differences in terrestriality. As humanity modifies habitats and causes climate change, our results suggest that species already inhabiting hot, sparsely canopied sites, and exhibiting more generalized diets, are more likely to shift toward greater ground use.

Many wildlife conservation projects aim to change the perceptions of local communities through conservation education programs. However, few assess whether and how these programs effectively promote shifts in community perceptions and attitudes towards wildlife conservation. We designed an educational program focused on communicating to local inhabitants from a remote community in the Peruvian Amazon that their territories are considered globally important for the red uakari (Cacajao calvus), and inspire them to become protectors and defenders of this endangered species. We aimed to evaluate changes in perceptions and attitudes towards the red uakari monkey after a conservation education workshop. We found that positive attitudes and perceptions towards the red uakari (such as uakari hunting suspension and perception of uakari importance) increased immediately after and in the short-term (two years) following the workshop but diminished in the medium-term (three years). However, attitudes remained better than before the workshop. Our results indicate that conservation education programs are useful in encouraging positive attitudes towards wildlife conservation in the short term, but ongoing environmental education activities may be necessary to have lasting positive effects.

Bald uakaris, genus Cacajao, are Amazonian primates currently classified as one species and four subspecies based on the patterns of pelage coloration. In this study, we test if their current taxonomy is represented by the phylogenetic relationship of the main lineages retrieved from molecular data. We included, for the first time, all bald uakari taxa in a mitochondrial (cytochrome b) and genome-wide (ddRAD) phylogenetic analyses. We also examined the pattern of pelage colouration in specimens from zoological collections. Having determined the number of lineages using Maximum Likelihood and the species tree using coalescent analyses, we test their divergence time using a Bayesian approach. While the cytochrome b analysis only recovered two clades, the ddRAD analysis supported the reciprocal monophyly of five lineages of bald uakaris, with all clades including only individuals with distinct and exclusive diagnostic phenotypic characters. We found that species diversification in Cacajao occurred during the last 300 Kya and may have been influenced by the formation of rivers and flooded forests in western Amazonia. We propose that the four bald uakari subspecies currently recognised can be upgraded to species level and we describe the white uakaris from the basin of the Rio Tarauacá as a new species.

1. Arboreal camera trapping is a burgeoning method providing a novel and effective technique to answer research questions across a variety of ecosystems, and it has the capacity to improve our understanding of a wide range of taxa. However, while terrestrial camera trapping has received much attention, there is little guidance for dealing with the unique challenges of working in the arboreal realm. 2. Our review draws on the expertise of researchers from six continents and the broader literature to investigate the advantages and disadvantages of arboreal camera trapping, and challenges to consider when using this technology. We also include mini-guides with detailed information on the current arboreal camera trap literature, mounts used to install arboreal cameras, tree climbing pointers and safety tips, methods for deploying cameras without climbing, and tips for managing interference with camera function. 3. We find that arboreal camera traps have been most commonly used in the study of mammals in forests, however there is potential for this method to be applied to a broad range of habitats including urban areas, and taxa such as birds, amphibians, invertebrates, and plants. Methods in arboreal camera trapping could be improved by developing a greater understanding of the factors affecting detection of species. The most common challenges of arboreal camera trapping are camera placement and camera site access. These can be overcome by understanding correct camera orientation, managing potential sources of interference in front of cameras, utilizing appropriate cameras mounts, and training researchers properly. 4. Given the benefits and opportunities presented by arboreal camera trapping, it is likely to become an ever-more popular method of studying arboreal species and systems. The information synthesized in this review provides guidance for future studies to help direct more reliable and robust ecological inferences from arboreal camera trapping.

Assessing pupils' learning is an integral part of teaching and learning and should not be seen as a 'bolt-on' process. This chapter includes sections on developing intended learning outcomes, establishing assessment criteria and assessing learning through teacher observation, questioning, peer- and self-assessment. Formative assessment focuses on strategies to develop pupil learning. Summative assessment is intended to identify the current level of pupil learning. For a detailed assessment of pupils' learning, reader should write assessment criteria for each learning outcome. In order to observe effectively, the reader must be clear about both their intended learning outcomes and the associated assessment criteria. An effective strategy for supporting peer- and self-assessment is to create resources with clear and unambiguous assessment criteria that are aspirational and challenging. Regularly assessing pupils provides a detailed record of pupil learning across a unit of work.

Hunting for wild meat in the tropics provides subsistence and income for millions 29 of people. Methods have remained relatively unchanged since the introduction of 30 shotguns and battery-powered incandescent flashlights, but due to the short life of batteries in such flashlights, nocturnal hunting has been limited. However, brighter, 32 more efficient light-emitting diode (LED) flashlights, have recently been adopted by 33 hunters. Brighter spotlights increase the freezing response of many species, and 34 greater battery life allows hunters to pursue game for longer and more frequently. 35 Hunters interviewed in African and South American forests, disclosed that LEDs 36 increase the frequency and efficiency of nocturnal hunting, and the number of kills 37 made. These changes were reflected in harvest data in Brazil. The drastic change in 38 efficiency brought about by LEDs, well known to hunters around the world, poses a 39 significant threat to wildlife. We consider the implications for communities, governments, 40 wildlife managers and conservationists

Scientists are increasingly using volunteer efforts of citizen scientists to classify images captured by motion-activated trail-cameras. The rising popularity of citizen science reflects its potential to engage the public in conservation science and accelerate processing of the large volume of images generated by trail-cameras. While image classification accuracy by citizen scientists can vary across species, the influence of other factors on accuracy are poorly understood. Inaccuracy diminishes the value of citizen science derived data and prompts the need for specific best practice protocols to decrease error. We compare the accuracy between three programs that use crowdsourced citizen scientists to process images online: Snapshot Serengeti, Wildwatch Kenya, and AmazonCam Tambopata. We hypothesized that habitat type and camera settings would influence accuracy. To evaluate these factors, each photo was circulated to multiple volunteers. All volunteer classifications were aggregated to a single best answer for each photo using a plurality algorithm. Subsequently, a subset of these images underwent expert review and were compared to the citizen scientist results. Classification errors were categorized by the nature of the error (e.g. false species or false empty), and reason for the false classification (e.g. misidentification). Our results show that Snapshot Serengeti had the highest accuracy (97.9%), followed by AmazonCam Tambopata (93.5%), then Wildwatch Kenya (83.4%). Error type was influenced by habitat, with false empty images more prevalent in open-grassy habitat (27%) compared to woodlands (10%). For medium to large animal surveys across all habitat types, our results suggest that to significantly improve accuracy in crowdsourced projects, researchers should use a trail-camera set up protocol with a burst of three consecutive photos, a short field of view, and consider appropriate camera sensitivity. Accuracy level comparisons such as this study can improve reliability of future citizen science projects, and subsequently encourage the increased use of such data.

Incluye contenido parcial de los autores Abstract.Mammalian carnivores are considered a key group in maintaining ecologicalhealth and can indicate potential ecological integrity in landscapes where they occur. Carni-vores also hold high conservation value and their habitat requirements can guide managementand conservation plans. The order Carnivora has 84 species from 8 families in the Neotropicalregion: Canidae; Felidae; Mephitidae; Mustelidae; Otariidae; Phocidae; Procyonidae; andUrsidae. Herein, we include published and unpublished data on native terrestrial Neotropicalcarnivores (Canidae; Felidae; Mephitidae; Mustelidae; Procyonidae; and Ursidae). NEOTRO-PICAL CARNIVORES is a publicly available data set that includes 99,605 data entries from35,511 unique georeferenced coordinates. Detection/non-detection and quantitative data wereobtained from 1818 to 2018 by researchers, governmental agencies, non-governmental organi-zations, and private consultants. Data were collected using several methods including cameratrapping, museum collections, roadkill, line transect, and opportunistic records. Literature(peer-reviewed and grey literature) from Portuguese, Spanish and English were incorporated inthis compilation. Most of the data set consists of detection data entries (n=79,343; 79.7%) butalso includes non-detection data (n=20,262; 20.3%). Of those, 43.3% also include count data(n=43,151). The information available in NEOTROPICAL CARNIVORES will contribute tomacroecological, ecological, and conservation questions in multiple spatio-temporal perspec-tives. As carnivores play key roles in trophic interactions, a better understanding of their distri-bution and habitat requirements are essential to establish conservation management plans andsafeguard the future ecological health of Neotropical ecosystems. Our data paper, combinedwith other large-scale data sets, has great potential to clarify species distribution and relatedecological processes within the Neotropics. There are no copyright restrictions and no restric-tion for using data from this data paper, as long as the data paper is cited as the source of theinformation used. We also request that users inform us of how they intend to use the data.

1. Camera traps deployed in grids or stratified random designs are a well-established survey tool for wildlife but there has been little evaluation of study design parameters. 2. We used an empirical subsampling approach involving 2225 camera deployments run at 41 study areas around the world to evaluate three aspects of camera trap study design (number of sites, duration and season of sampling) and their influence on the estimation of three ecological metrics (species richness, occupancy, detection rate) for mammals. 3. We found that 25-35 camera locations were needed for precise estimates of species richness, depending on scale of the study. The precision of species-level estimates of occupancy was highly sensitive to occupancy level, with 0.75) species, but more than 150 sites likely needed for rare (

The harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) is one of the main predators of arboreal mammals in the neotropics, affecting the ecology and behaviour these species. Knowledge of harpy eagle diets across their geographical range is patchy, the ability of harpy eagles to adapt to changing habitats is still open to question. The three main species in the diet of harpy eagles nesting at Tambopata were porcupines (Coendou sp.) (n = 7) howler monkeys (Alouatta sara) (n = 6) and two-toed sloths (Choloepus didactylus) (n = 4), all species that do well in disturbed forests. We conclude that harpy eagles can reproduce in secondary forests, feeding on abundant disturbance-tolerant species, if they themselves are not hunted and their nesting trees are conserved. Harpy eagle nests have a high value for tourism, and strategies that allow landowners to benefit from harpy eagles nesting on their property through revenues from tourism may be instrumental in incentivising the conservation of forests and emergent trees, and the regeneration of forests in anthropogenic landscapes.

The collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) and white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) are very important species as a source of protein and economic income for rural household, and are culturally important in Amazonian Communities. Despite their importance, and due to the scarcity of information on their populations in a large part of the Peruvian Amazon, it is difficult to evaluate the sustainable use as bushmeat and for the export of skins. In this way, this study aims to evaluate populations of P. tajacu and T. pecariin the regions of Loreto and Ucayali by using fixed-width line transects in 33 localities and through interviews to determine the 'cultural consensus' for the abundance of the species in 11 localities. Of a total of 14,220.5 km of 2 linear transects traveled in the study sites, showed that the population density of P. tajacu was 1.24 ind/km 2 being registered in 32 (96.9%) localities, while T. pecarishowed a population density of 1.59 ind/km and was registered in 16 (48.5%) localities. Only the density of P. tajacu was related to the group size. The 162 interviews conducted in 11 communities showed that the population density of P. tajacu was abundant, while the perception of abundance of T. pecari was from frequent to abundant. The population densities of the two species of peccaries were greater in the non-flooded forests than in the flooded forest, and both species showed a positive correlation. According to the study methods used, there were no differences in the population size reported for the two species of peccaries, both inside and outside the natural protected areas. This indicates that areas outside the natural protected areas that contain high population densities are of a great importance for the conservation of peccaries, and contribute to ensuring food security for rural and indigenous communities. El sajino (Pecari tajacu) y la huangana (Tayassu pecari) son especies muy importantes como fuente de proteína y de ingresos económicos a nivel familiar, como elemento cultural y en general del buen vivir de las comunidades nativas. Apesar de su importancia, la escasa información de sus poblaciones en gran parte de la Amazonía peruana dificulta evaluar su uso sostenible como carne de monte o exportación de pieles. De esta forma, este estudio pretende evaluar las poblaciones de P. tajacu y T. pecari en las regiones de Loreto y Ucayali mediante el método de transectos en banda en 33 localidades y mediante el método de consenso cultural en 11 localidades. Los 14,220.5 km recorridos en transectos lineales mostraron que la densidad 2 poblacional de P. tajacu fue de 1.24 ind/km siendo registrado en 32 (96.9%) localidades, mientras que T. 2 pecari mostró una densidad de 1.59 ind/km y fue registrado en 16 (48.5%) localidades. Sólo la densidad de P. tajacu estuvo relacionada con el tamaño de grupo. Las 162 entrevistas realizadas en 11 comunidades mostraron que los cazadores locales percibieron al P. tajacu como abundante y al T. pecari como frecuente o abundante. Las densidades poblacionales de las dos especies de pecaríes fueron mayores en bosques no inundables o de tierra firme que en bosques inundables, presentando ambas especies una correlación positiva. De acuerdo a los métodos de estudio empleados, no hubo diferencias en el tamaño poblacional reportados para ambas especies, tanto dentro como fuera de las áreas naturales protegidas. Esto indica que las zonas fuera de las áreas naturales protegidas contienen altas densidades poblacionales, son de gran importancia para la conservación de los pecaríes y contribuyen a garantizar la seguridad alimentaria de las poblaciones humanas ribereñas y nativas.

The resilience of a given species to hunting is conditioned by the effect of potential threats upon the more sensitive periods in its life history, such as when animals are breeding. We investigated the environmental drivers of breeding seasonality in the lowland paca (Cuniculus paca), and the potential impact of hunting on the species. As part of a participative study with hunters in 2 Amazonian sites, we obtained reproductive organs of pacas as well as information on the hunters’ daily wild meat extraction. Using data on rainfall, river water level, and fruiting phenology from the 2 study sites, we applied generalized additive models for location, scale, and shape (GAMLSS) to examine the effect of climatic and environmental factors on paca reproduction. Forest fruiting was directly linked to higher pregnancy rates in pacas, and when lactation and weaning of offspring mostly occurred. Hunting was highly seasonal in all studied years and positively correlated with higher levels of river water. The coincidence between hunting patterns and paca reproductive cycles during the wet season resulted in more pregnant females being harvested. In addition to the known slow reproductive rate of pacas, the disproportionate offtake of pregnant females may affect the long-term sustainability of hunting of this species. Reducing hunting during the flooded season may not be feasible because the lowland paca provides most of the wild meat consumed by thousands of rural Amazonians during this period. However, options to offset the negative effects of killing of pregnant females could include the zoning of hunting areas or encouraging hunters to target primarily males. Our results indicate that strategies for the sustainable harvest of pacas and other heavily hunted Amazonian mammals should consider the interaction between the species’ reproductive cycles and hunting by local people in order to enhance conservation and management efforts.

Infanticide by males is a phenomenon common in species in which the reproductive output of large numbers of females can be monopolized by a small number of males. It is thought to increase a male’s fitness, at the expense of the fitness of the infant’s parents, by bringing females into season more quickly. Infanticide by males has been recorded in just three cetacean species. We report aggressive behavior suggestive of infanticide in a fourth, the Amazon river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis). We observed and photographed a series of attacks on a neonate Amazon river dolphin by a large male, with apparent protective behavior by the mother. Although infanticide was not confirmed, the forceful, aggressive behaviors were highly suggestive of infanticidal behavior and represent another important data point for comparative studies of infanticide in mammals. Amazon river dolphins may have a polygynous, polyandrous, or promiscuous mating system, the latter two of which are not the norm in species in which the reproductive output of large numbers of females are monopolized by a small number of males. However, sexual dimorphism, high rates of aggression by males, socio-sexual object-carrying displays by males, and a long interbirth interval suggest that successful male Amazon river dolphins may be able to monopolize a large proportion of mating opportunities, and it is plausible that male dolphins can improve their reproductive success by bringing females into estrous sooner by killing the offspring of other males.

To better understand the ecology of Trypanosoma cruzi in the northeastern Peruvian Amazon, we evaluated the prevalence of T. cruzi and other trypanosomatids in four orders of wild mammals hunted and consumed by inhabitants of three remote indigenous communities in the Peruvian Amazon. Of 300 wild mammals sampled, 115 (38.3%) were infected with trypanosomatids and 15 (5.0%) with T. cruzi. The prevalence of T. cruzi within each species was as follows: large rodents (Cuniculus paca, 5.5%; Dasyprocta spp., 2.6%), edentates (Dasypus novemcinctus, 4.2%), and carnivores with higher prevalence (Nasua nasua, 18.8%). The high prevalence of T. cruzi and other trypanosomatids in frequently hunted wild mammals suggests a sizeable T. cruzi sylvatic reservoir in remote Amazonian locations.

We determined the prevalence rate and risk of infection of Trypanosoma cruzi and other trypanosomatids in Peruvian non-human primates (NHPs) in the wild (n = 126) and in different captive conditions (n = 183). Blood samples were collected on filter paper, FTA cards, or EDTA tubes and tested using a nested PCR protocol targeting the 24Sα rRNA gene. Main risk factors associated with trypanosomatid and T. cruzi infection were genus and the human-animal context (wild vs captive animals). Wild NHPs had higher prevalence of both trypanosomatids (64.3 vs 27.9%, P

Wildlife subsistence hunting is a major source of protein for tropical rural populations and a prominent conservation issue. The intrinsic rate of natural increase. (rmax ) of populations is a key reproductive parameter in the most used assessments of hunting sustainability. However, researchers face severe difficulties in obtaining reproductive data in the wild, so these assessments often rely on classic reproductive rates calculated mostly from studies of captive animals conducted 30 years ago. The result is a flaw in almost 50% of studies, which hampers management decision making. We conducted a 15-year study in the Amazon in which we used reproductive data from the genitalia of 950 hunted female mammals. Genitalia were collected by local hunters. We examined tissue from these samples to estimate birthrates for wild populations of the 10 most hunted mammals. We compared our estimates with classic measures and considered the utility of the use of rmax in sustainability assessments. For woolly monkey (Lagothrix poeppigii) and tapir (Tapirus terrestris), wild birthrates were similar to those from captive populations, whereas birthrates for other ungulates and lowland-paca (Cuniculus paca) were significantly lower than previous estimates. Conversely, for capuchin monkeys (Sapajus macrocephalus), agoutis (Dasyprocta sp.), and coatis (Nasua nasua), our calculated reproductive rates greatly exceeded often-used values. Researchers could keep applying classic measures compatible with our estimates, but for other species previous estimates of rmax may not be appropriate. We suggest that data from local studies be used to set hunting quotas. Our maximum rates of population growth in the wild correlated with body weight, which suggests that our method is consistent and reliable. Integration of this method into community-based wildlife management and the training of local hunters to record pregnancies in hunted animals could efficiently generate useful information of life histories of wild species and thus improve management of natural resources.

For arboreal primates, ground use may increase dispersal opportunities, tolerance to habitat change, access to ground-based resources, and resilience to human disturbances, and so has conservation implications. We collated published and unpublished data from 86 studies across 65 localities to assess titi monkey (Callicebinae) terrestriality. We examined whether the frequency of terrestrial activity correlated with study duration (a proxy for sampling effort), rainfall level (a proxy for food availability seasonality), and forest height (a proxy for vertical niche dimension). Terrestrial activity was recorded frequently for Callicebus and Plecturocebus spp., but rarely for Cheracebus spp. Terrestrial resting, anti-predator behavior, geophagy, and playing frequencies in Callicebus and Plecturocebus spp., but feeding and moving differed. Callicebus spp. often ate or searched for new leaves terrestrially. Plecturocebus spp. descended primarily to ingest terrestrial invertebrates and soil. Study duration correlated positively and rainfall level negatively with terrestrial activity. Though differences in sampling effort and methods limited comparisons and interpretation, overall, titi monkeys commonly engaged in a variety of terrestrial activities. Terrestrial behavior in Callicebus and Plecturocebus capacities may bolster resistance to habitat fragmentation. However, it is uncertain if the low frequency of terrestriality recorded for Cheracebus spp. is a genus-specific trait associated with a more basal phylogenetic position, or because studies of this genus occurred in pristine habitats. Observations of terrestrial behavior increased with increasing sampling effort and decreasing food availability. Overall, we found a high frequency of terrestrial behavior in titi monkeys, unlike that observed in other pitheciids.

Planning is critical and underpins effective teaching, playing an important role in shaping students’ understanding and progression. In order to achieve an effectively planned lesson, a number of factors must be considered. These include pupils’ prior learning, the ways that pupils learn the requirements of the curriculum and appropriate methods of teaching to suit the needs of all pupils and resources available. The knowledge, skills, understanding and attitudes appropriate for a young person entering the world of work in the 21st century are vastly different to those that were considered appropriate even 15 years ago. In order to actively engage pupils from the outset of the lesson, an interesting and relevant starter activity must be planned. Think of this as the ‘hook’ to draw pupils in to the lesson. This activity may draw upon and/or assess previous understanding or might present a challenge to pupils.

Large and medium-bodied rainforest canopy mammals are typically surveyed using line transects, but these are labour intensive and usually ignore nocturnal species. Camera traps have become the preferred tool for assessing terrestrial mammal communities, but have rarely been used for arboreal species. Here, we compare the efficiency of arboreal camera trapping with line transects for inventorying medium and large-sized arboreal mammals, and assess the viability of using camera traps in trees to model habitat occupancy. We installed 42 camera traps, spaced 2 km apart, in the canopy of the Maijuna-Kichwa Regional Conservation Area, Peru and walked 2014 km of diurnal line transects on 22 trails at the same site. We compared the efficiency of each method using species accumulation curves. We applied a multi-species occupancy model, while examining the effect of camera height on detection probabilities, including the distance from a village and from a river as covariates to examine variability in habitat occupancy. In 3147 camera days, 18 species of arboreal medium and large-sized mammals were detected by cameras, while 11 species were recorded on line transects. Ten of these species were detected by both methods. Diurnal species were detected more quickly and with less effort using arboreal camera trapping than using diurnal line transects at the same site, although some species were more easily detected during line transects. Habitat occupancy was positively correlated with distance from the village for two species, and negatively correlated with distance from the river for one. Detection probabilities increased modestly with camera height. Practical limitations of arboreal camera trapping include the requirement for specialized climbing techniques, as well as increased potential for false triggers, requiring extended processing time. Arboreal camera trapping is an efficient method for inventorying arboreal mammals and a viable option for studying their distribution relative to environmental or anthropogenic variables when abundance or density estimates are not required.

Many herbivorous and frugivorous Amazonian species, including several arboreal animals, feed on earth and water at mineral licks in the Amazon region to supplement their diet with micronutrients and clays. These species are vulnerable to predation during this activity. We recorded an adult Brazilian porcupine (Coendou prehensilis) being predated by an adult male ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) while drinking water at a mineral lick in the Maijuna-Kichwa Regional Conservation Area (MKRCA) in northeastern Loreto, Peru. This observation provides direct evidence arboreal species like the porcupine, which move slowly on the ground, are particularly vulnerable to terrestrial predators while visiting mineral licks. Mineral licks are important in the diets and ecology of Amazonian mammals, but arboreal prey must balance the trade-off between using the resource and being hunted. We suggest that mineral licks may be hotspots of risk in Amazonian prey species' landscape of fear.

Understanding the repertoire of hunting techniques used by traditional peoples in tropical forests is crucial for recognizing the role of traditional knowledge in hunting activities, as well as assessing the impact of harvests on game species. We describe the hunting techniques used across Amazonia by Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples for hunting yellow-footed tortoises (Chelonoidis denticulatus), one of the most consumed species in the biome. We interviewed 178 local people in 25 communities living in seven study areas in the Peruvian and Brazilian Amazon. We used a Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) and Analysis of Similarity (ANOSIM) to compare the hunting techniques between ethnic groups and the ages of the interviewees. Four different techniques were reported: (1) trapping with bait (46%; n = 122); (2) hunting with dogs (35%; n = 92); (3) active searching (14 %; n = 37); and (4) visiting fruiting trees (5%; n = 14). Trapping with bait was alleged to be the most cost-effective technique by 67% of the interviewees. Among the baits used, 93% involved the use of wild species as rotten meat. Hunting with dogs was also frequently cited and involved eight different methods of training. The hunting techniques recorded were not significantly different among ethnic groups or generations. The consonance among the technique repertoire likely reflects a shared knowledge still in use across different cultural groups. There is a potential for applying the hunting techniques to large scale community-based monitoring and management programs, but the impact on additional species affected, such as species intentionally captured to be used as bait, should be considered. Local assessments and community-based management plans that incorporate traditional ecological knowledge are recommended to guarantee the maintenance of livelihoods and ensure the species' conservation in Amazonia.

This chapter aims to help mentor support a beginning physical education teacher to teach and evaluate the success of the lessons they have planned to promote pupil learning and development. It looks at important teacher personal characteristics, which assist a beginning teacher in maintaining a positive learning environment that enables all pupils to achieve their potential. The chapter looks at a range of basic teaching skills, including self-presentation, organisation and safety, movement and positioning, use of voice and instructions, use of praise and use of demonstration, which mentor need to support a beginning teacher to develop. It focuses on enabling mentor to support a beginning teacher to develop teaching approaches further once they have mastered the basics. The chapter discusses the important role that differentiation, teaching strategies and assessment for learning play in supporting pupil learning, and how mentor might support a beginning teacher's practice in these areas.