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Enhanced cognitive function in humans is hypothesized to result from cortical expansion and increased cellular diversity. However, the mechanisms that drive these phenotypic differences remain poorly understood, in part due to the lack of high-quality cellular resolution data in human and non-human primates. Here, we take advantage of single cell expression data from the middle temporal gyrus of five primates (human, chimp, gorilla, macaque and marmoset) to identify 57 homologous cell types and generate cell-type specific gene coexpression networks for comparative analysis. While ortholog expression patterns are generally well conserved, we find 24% of genes with extensive differences between human and non-human primates (3383/14,131), which are also associated with multiple brain disorders. To validate these observations, we perform a meta-analysis of coexpression networks across 19 animals, and find that a subset of these genes have deeply conserved coexpression across all non-human animals, and strongly divergent coexpression relationships in humans (139/3383, NHEJ1, GTF2H2, C2 and BBS5) typically evolve under relaxed selective constraints and may drive rapid evolutionary change in brain function.One Sentence SummaryCross-primate middle temporal gyrus single cell expression data reveals patterns of conservation and divergence that can be validated with population coexpression networks.

Humans have unique cognitive abilities among primates, including language, but their molecular, cellular, and circuit substrates are poorly understood. We used comparative single nucleus transcriptomics in adult humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, rhesus macaques, and common marmosets from the middle temporal gyrus (MTG) to understand human-specific features of cellular and molecular organization. Human, chimpanzee, and gorilla MTG showed highly similar cell type composition and laminar organization, and a large shift in proportions of deep layer intratelencephalic-projecting neurons compared to macaque and marmoset. Species differences in gene expression generally mirrored evolutionary distance and were seen in all cell types, although chimpanzees were more similar to gorillas than humans, consistent with faster divergence along the human lineage. Microglia, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes showed accelerated gene expression changes compared to neurons or oligodendrocyte precursor cells, indicating either relaxed evolutionary constraints or positive selection in these cell types. Only a few hundred genes showed human-specific patterning in all or specific cell types, and were significantly enriched near human accelerated regions (HARs) and conserved deletions (hCONDELS) and in cell adhesion and intercellular signaling pathways. These results suggest that relatively few cellular and molecular changes uniquely define adult human cortical structure, particularly by affecting circuit connectivity and glial cell function.

Single cell RNA-sequencing data have significantly advanced the characterization of cell type diversity and composition. However, cell type definitions vary across data and analysis pipelines, raising concerns about cell type validity and generalizability. With MetaNeighbor, we proposed an efficient and robust quantification of cell type replicability that preserves dataset independence and is highly scalable compared to dataset integration. In this protocol, we show how MetaNeighbor can be used to characterize cell type replicability by following a simple 3-step procedure: gene filtering, neighbor voting, and visualization. We show how these steps can be tailored to quantify cell type replicability, determine gene sets that contribute to cell type identity, and pretrain a model on a reference taxonomy to rapidly assess newly generated data. The protocol is based on an open-source R package available from Bioconductor and Github, requires basic familiarity with Rstudio or the R command line, and can typically be run in less than 5 minutes for millions of cells.

Dose-limiting toxicities significantly impact the benefit/risk profile of many drugs. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) in patients receiving drugs with dose-limiting toxicities can identify therapeutic hypotheses to prevent these toxicities. Peripheral neuropathy (PN) is a common dose-limiting neurological toxicity of chemotherapies with no effective approach for prevention. We conducted a meta-analysis of time-to-PN using WGS data in 4,900 European-ancestry patients receiving chemotherapeutic agents in 14 randomized controlled trials. We identified two low frequency variants associated with PN risk: rs17020773 in intron 13 of GRID2 and rs115575220 downstream of SCG2. Rare coding variant burden analysis identified predicted gain of function variants associated with increased PN risk in the C-terminus of GPR68, a pH-sensitive G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR), that alter arrestin binding motifs. Analysis of snRNA-seq from human dorsal root ganglia indicated that expression of GPR68 was highest in mechano-thermo sensitive nociceptors. Inhibition of GPR68 signaling may provide a strategy to prevent PN in cancer patients.

What makes a mouse a mouse, and not a hamster? Differences in gene regulation between the two organisms play a critical role. Comparative analysis of gene coexpression networks provides a general framework for investigating the evolution of gene regulation across species. Here, we compare coexpression networks from 37 species and quantify the conservation of gene activity 1) as a function of evolutionary time, 2) across orthology prediction algorithms, and 3) with reference to cell- and tissue-specificity. We find that ancient genes are expressed in multiple cell types and have well conserved coexpression patterns, however they are expressed at different levels across cell types. Thus, differential regulation of ancient gene programs contributes to transcriptional cell identity. We propose that this differential regulation may play a role in cell diversification in both the animal and plant kingdoms.

We wanted to examine how victims of workplace offenses react to the offender (e.g., whether they forgive the offender), based on both the offender’s and the victim’s religion. Furthermore, we wanted to examine whether specific types of apologies would be more effective in improving reactions. Furthermore, we will examine several potential mediators of these effects, as well as whether organizational commitment moderates these effects.

The primary motor cortex (M1) is essential for voluntary fine-motor control and is functionally conserved across mammals1. Here, using high-throughput transcriptomic and epigenomic profiling of more than 450,000 single nuclei in humans, marmoset monkeys and mice, we demonstrate a broadly conserved cellular makeup of this region, with similarities that mirror evolutionary distance and are consistent between the transcriptome and epigenome. The core conserved molecular identities of neuronal and non-neuronal cell types allow us to generate a cross-species consensus classification of cell types, and to infer conserved properties of cell types across species. Despite the overall conservation, however, many species-dependent specializations are apparent, including differences in cell-type proportions, gene expression, DNA methylation and chromatin state. Few cell-type marker genes are conserved across species, revealing a short list of candidate genes and regulatory mechanisms that are responsible for conserved features of homologous cell types, such as the GABAergic chandelier cells. This consensus transcriptomic classification allows us to use patch–seq (a combination of whole-cell patch-clamp recordings, RNA sequencing and morphological characterization) to identify corticospinal Betz cells from layer 5 in non-human primates and humans, and to characterize their highly specialized physiology and anatomy. These findings highlight the robust molecular underpinnings of cell-type diversity in M1 across mammals, and point to the genes and regulatory pathways responsible for the functional identity of cell types and their species-specific adaptations., An examination of motor cortex in humans, marmosets and mice reveals a generally conserved cellular makeup that is likely to extend to many mammalian species, but also differences in gene expression, DNA methylation and chromatin state that lead to species-dependent specializations.

Significance The identification of genes that are differentially expressed provides a molecular foothold onto biological questions of interest. Whether some genes are more likely to be differentially expressed than others, and to what degree, has never been assessed on a global scale. Here, we reanalyze more than 600 studies and find that knowledge of a gene’s prior probability of differential expression (DE) allows for accurate prediction of DE hit lists, regardless of the biological question. This result suggests redundancy in transcriptomics experiments that both informs gene set interpretation and highlights room for growth within the field., Differential expression (DE) is commonly used to explore molecular mechanisms of biological conditions. While many studies report significant results between their groups of interest, the degree to which results are specific to the question at hand is not generally assessed, potentially leading to inaccurate interpretation. This could be particularly problematic for metaanalysis where replicability across datasets is taken as strong evidence for the existence of a specific, biologically relevant signal, but which instead may arise from recurrence of generic processes. To address this, we developed an approach to predict DE based on an analysis of over 600 studies. A predictor based on empirical prior probability of DE performs very well at this task (mean area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, ∼0.8), indicating that a large fraction of DE hit lists are nonspecific. In contrast, predictors based on attributes such as gene function, mutation rates, or network features perform poorly. Genes associated with sex, the extracellular matrix, the immune system, and stress responses are prominent within the “DE prior.” In a series of control studies, we show that these patterns reflect shared biology rather than technical artifacts or ascertainment biases. Finally, we demonstrate the application of the DE prior to data interpretation in three use cases: (i) breast cancer subtyping, (ii) single-cell genomics of pancreatic islet cells, and (iii) metaanalysis of lung adenocarcinoma and renal transplant rejection transcriptomics. In all cases, we find hallmarks of generic DE, highlighting the need for nuanced interpretation of gene phenotypic associations.

Gene-gene relationships are commonly measured via the co-variation of gene expression across samples, also known as gene co-expression. Because shared expression patterns are thought to reflect shared function, co-expression networks describe functional relationships between genes, including co-regulation. However, the heterogeneity of cell types in bulk RNA-seq samples creates connections in co-expression networks that potentially obscure co-regulatory modules. The brain initiative cell census network (BICCN) single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) datasets provide an unparalleled opportunity to understand how gene-gene relationships shape cell identity. Comparison of the BICCN data (500,000 cells/nuclei across 7 BICCN datasets) with that of bulk RNA-seq networks (2,000 mouse brain samples across 52 studies) reveals a consistent topology reflecting a shared co-regulatory signal. Differential signals between broad cell classes persist in driving variation at finer levels, indicating that convergent regulatory processes affect cell phenotype at multiple scales.

What makes a mouse a mouse, and not a hamster? The answer lies in the genome, and more specifically, in differences in gene regulation between the two organisms: where and when each gene is expressed. To quantify differences, a typical study will either compare functional genomics data from homologous tissues, limiting the approach to closely related species; or compare gene repertoires, limiting the resolution of the analysis to gross correlations between phenotypes and gene family size. As an alternative, gene coexpression networks provide a basis for studying the evolution of gene regulation without these constraints. By incorporating data from hundreds of independent experiments, meta-analytic coexpression networks reflect the convergent output of species-specific transcriptional regulation.In this work, we develop a measure of regulatory evolution based on gene coexpression. Comparing data from 14 species, we quantify the conservation of coexpression patterns 1) as a function of evolutionary time, 2) across orthology prediction algorithms, and 3) with reference to cell- and tissue-specificity. Strikingly, we uncover deeply conserved patterns of gradient-like expression across cell types from both the animal and plant kingdoms. These results suggest that ancient genes contribute to transcriptional cell identity through mechanisms that are independent of duplication and divergence.

Crop productivity depends on activity of meristems that produce optimized plant architectures, including that of the maize ear. A comprehensive understanding of development requires insight into the full diversity of cell types and developmental domains and the gene networks required to specify them. Until now, these were identified primarily by morphology and insights from classical genetics, which are limited by genetic redundancy and pleiotropy. Here, we investigated the transcriptional profiles of 12,525 single cells from developing maize ears. The resulting developmental atlas provides a single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) map of an inflorescence. We validated our results by mRNA in situ hybridization and by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) RNA-seq, and we show how these data may facilitate genetic studies by predicting genetic redundancy, integrating transcriptional networks, and identifying candidate genes associated with crop yield traits.

Co-expression analysis has provided insight into gene function in organisms from Arabidopsis to Zebrafish. Comparison across species has the potential to enrich these results, for example by prioritizing among candidate human disease genes based on their network properties, or by finding alternative model systems where their co-expression is conserved. Here, we present CoCoCoNet as a tool for identifyingconserved gene modules andcomparingco-expressionnetworks. CoCoCoNet is a resource for both data and methods, providing gold-standard networks and sophisticated tools for on-the-fly comparative analyses across 14 species. We show how CoCoCoNet can be used in two use cases. In the first, we demonstrate deep conservation of a nucleolus gene module across very divergent organisms, and in the second, we show how the heterogeneity of autism mechanisms in humans can be broken down by functional groups, and translated to model organisms. CoCoCoNet is free to use and available to all athttps://milton.cshl.edu/CoCoCoNet, with data and R scripts available atftp://milton.cshl.edu/data.

The primary motor cortex (M1) is essential for voluntary fine motor control and is functionally conserved across mammals. Using high-throughput transcriptomic and epigenomic profiling of over 450,000 single nuclei in human, marmoset monkey, and mouse, we demonstrate a broadly conserved cellular makeup of this region, whose similarity mirrors evolutionary distance and is consistent between the transcriptome and epigenome. The core conserved molecular identity of neuronal and non-neuronal types allowed the generation of a cross-species consensus cell type classification and inference of conserved cell type properties across species. Despite overall conservation, many species specializations were apparent, including differences in cell type proportions, gene expression, DNA methylation, and chromatin state. Few cell type marker genes were conserved across species, providing a short list of candidate genes and regulatory mechanisms responsible for conserved features of homologous cell types, such as the GABAergic chandelier cells. This consensus transcriptomic classification allowed the Patch-seq identification of layer 5 (L5) corticospinal Betz cells in non-human primate and human and characterization of their highly specialized physiology and anatomy. These findings highlight the robust molecular underpinnings of cell type diversity in M1 across mammals and point to the genes and regulatory pathways responsible for the functional identity of cell types and their species-specific adaptations.

Single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNAseq) data can reveal co-regulatory relationships between genes that may be hidden in bulk RNAseq due to cell type confounding. Using the primary motor cortex data from the Brain Initiative Cell Census Network (BICCN), we study cell type specific co-expression across 500,000 cells. Surprisingly, we find that the same gene-gene relationships that differentiate cell types are evident at finer and broader scales, suggesting a consistent multiscale regulatory landscape.

Single-cell transcriptomics can provide quantitative molecular signatures for large, unbiased samples of the diverse cell types in the brain1–3. With the proliferation of multi-omics datasets, a major challenge is to validate and integrate results into a biological understanding of cell-type organization. Here we generated transcriptomes and epigenomes from more than 500,000 individual cells in the mouse primary motor cortex, a structure that has an evolutionarily conserved role in locomotion. We developed computational and statistical methods to integrate multimodal data and quantitatively validate cell-type reproducibility. The resulting reference atlas—containing over 56 neuronal cell types that are highly replicable across analysis methods, sequencing technologies and modalities—is a comprehensive molecular and genomic account of the diverse neuronal and non-neuronal cell types in the mouse primary motor cortex. The atlas includes a population of excitatory neurons that resemble pyramidal cells in layer 4 in other cortical regions4. We further discovered thousands of concordant marker genes and gene regulatory elements for these cell types. Our results highlight the complex molecular regulation of cell types in the brain and will directly enable the design of reagents to target specific cell types in the mouse primary motor cortex for functional analysis., The authors describe an integrated atlas of the diverse cell types in the mouse primary motor cortex.

Single cell transcriptomics has transformed the characterization of brain cell identity by providing quantitative molecular signatures for large, unbiased samples of brain cell populations. With the proliferation of taxonomies based on individual datasets, a major challenge is to integrate and validate results toward defining biologically meaningful cell types. We used a battery of single-cell transcriptome and epigenome measurements generated by the BRAIN Initiative Cell Census Network (BICCN) to comprehensively assess the molecular signatures of cell types in the mouse primary motor cortex (MOp). We further developed computational and statistical methods to integrate these multimodal data and quantitatively validate the reproducibility of the cell types. The reference atlas, based on more than 600,000 high quality single-cell or -nucleus samples assayed by six molecular modalities, is a comprehensive molecular account of the diverse neuronal and non-neuronal cell types in MOp. Collectively, our study indicates that the mouse primary motor cortex contains over 55 neuronal cell types that are highly replicable across analysis methods, sequencing technologies, and modalities. We find many concordant multimodal markers for each cell type, as well as thousands of genes and gene regulatory elements with discrepant transcriptomic and epigenomic signatures. These data highlight the complex molecular regulation of brain cell types and will directly enable design of reagents to target specific MOp cell types for functional analysis.

As a fundamental unit of life, the cell has rightfully been the subject of intense investigation throughout the history of biology. Technical innovations now make it possible to assay cellular features at genomic scale, yielding breakthroughs in our understanding of the molecular organization of tissues, and even whole organisms. As these data accumulate we will soon be faced with a new challenge: making sense of the plethora of results. Early investigations into the replicability of cell type profiles inferred from single-cell RNA sequencing data have indicated that this is likely to be surprisingly straightforward due to consistent gene co-expression. In this opinion article we discuss the evidence for this claim and its implications for interpreting cell type-specific gene expression.

Significance Neurons and nonneuronal cells in the developing brain dynamically regulate gene expression as neural connectivity is established. However, the specific gene programs activated in distinct cell populations during the assembly and refinement of many intact neuronal circuits have not been thoroughly characterized. In this study, we take advantage of recent advances in transcriptomic profiling techniques to characterize gene expression in the postnatal developing lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) at single-cell resolution. Our data reveal that genes involved in brain development are dynamically regulated in all major cell types of the LGN, suggesting that the establishment of neural connectivity depends upon functional collaboration between multiple neuronal and nonneuronal cell types in this brain region., Coordinated changes in gene expression underlie the early patterning and cell-type specification of the central nervous system. However, much less is known about how such changes contribute to later stages of circuit assembly and refinement. In this study, we employ single-cell RNA sequencing to develop a detailed, whole-transcriptome resource of gene expression across four time points in the developing dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), a visual structure in the brain that undergoes a well-characterized program of postnatal circuit development. This approach identifies markers defining the major LGN cell types, including excitatory relay neurons, oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, microglia, and endothelial cells. Most cell types exhibit significant transcriptional changes across development, dynamically expressing genes involved in distinct processes including retinotopic mapping, synaptogenesis, myelination, and synaptic refinement. Our data suggest that genes associated with synapse and circuit development are expressed in a larger proportion of nonneuronal cell types than previously appreciated. Furthermore, we used this single-cell expression atlas to identify the Prkcd-Cre mouse line as a tool for selective manipulation of relay neurons during a late stage of sensory-driven synaptic refinement. This transcriptomic resource provides a cellular map of gene expression across several cell types of the LGN, and offers insight into the molecular mechanisms of circuit development in the postnatal brain.

Crop productivity depends on activity of meristems that produce optimized plant architectures, including that of the maize ear. A comprehensive understanding of development requires insight into the full diversity of cell types and developmental domains, and the gene networks required to specify them. Until now, these were identified primarily by morphology and insights from classical genetics, and insights are limited by genetic redundancy and pleiotropy. Here, we investigated the transcriptional profiles of 12,525 single cells from developing maize ear inflorescence primordia. The resulting developmental atlas provides the first comprehensive single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) map of an inflorescence. We validated our results by mRNA in situ hybridization and by Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorting (FACS) RNA-seq, and show how these data may facilitate genetic studies by predicting genetic redundancy, integrating transcriptional networks, and identifying candidate genes associated with crop yield traits.

Recent technical advances have enabled transcriptomics experiments at an unprecedented scale, and single-cell profiles from neural tissue are accumulating rapidly. There has been considerable effort to use these profiles to understand cell diversity, primarily through unsupervised clustering and differential expression analysis. However, current practices to validate these findings vary. In this review, we describe recent efforts to evaluate clusters from single-cell RNA-sequencing data, and provide a framework for considering current evidence and practices in terms of their capacity to establish principles of cell biology. Single-cell RNA-sequencing has already transformed neuroscience. By facilitating detailed comparative and genetic perturbation analyses, it may provide the tools to uncover fundamental mechanisms of neural diversity throughout the tree of life.

The XXIIIrd World Congress of Psychiatric Genetics (WCPG) meeting, sponsored by the International Society of Psychiatric Genetics (ISPG), was held in Toronto, ON, Canada, on October 16-20, 2015. Approximately 700 participants attended to discuss the latest state-of-the-art findings in this rapidly advancing and evolving field. The following report was written by trainee travel awardees. Each was assigned one session as a rapporteur. This manuscript represents the highlights and topics that were covered in the plenary sessions, symposia, and oral sessions during the conference, and contains major notable and new findings.

Chromatin accessibility provides an important window into the regulation of gene expression. Recently, the Assay of Transposase Accessible Chromatin with sequencing (ATAC-seq) was developed to profile genome-wide chromatin accessibility. In this work we analyzed 193 ATAC-seq samples from 12 studies to determine the robustness of peaks, as well as their specificity across studies. We employ a read-downsampling approach and find that even samples which have high average read-depth yield poorly powered peaks using conventional pipelines. Finding that many peaks are sensitive to slight perturbations in read-sampling, we develop an approach to improve the robustness of peak signals and apply this novel method to detect differential accessibility between the amygdala and cortex. Most peak calling results heavily and unreasonably depend on the absolute number of reads, easily yielding artifacts when differential peak evaluations are performed. These problems can be ameliorated by resampling reads to determine the robust aggregate result.

Single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) technology provides a new avenue to discover and characterize cell types; however, the experiment-specific technical biases and analytic variability inherent to current pipelines may undermine its replicability. Meta-analysis is further hampered by the use of ad hoc naming conventions. Here we demonstrate our replication framework, MetaNeighbor, that quantifies the degree to which cell types replicate across datasets, and enables rapid identification of clusters with high similarity. We first measure the replicability of neuronal identity, comparing results across eight technically and biologically diverse datasets to define best practices for more complex assessments. We then apply this to novel interneuron subtypes, finding that 24/45 subtypes have evidence of replication, which enables the identification of robust candidate marker genes. Across tasks we find that large sets of variably expressed genes can identify replicable cell types with high accuracy, suggesting a general route forward for large-scale evaluation of scRNA-seq data., Single cell RNA-sequencing analysis poses challenges in replication due to technical biases and analytic variability among bioinformatics pipelines. Here, Crow et al develop MetaNeighbor for measuring cell-type replication across datasets, and use it to identify marker genes for neuron subtypes with evidence of replication.

Single cell RNA-sequencing technology (scRNA-seq) provides a new avenue to discover and characterize cell types, but the experiment-specific technical biases and analytic variability inherent to current pipelines may undermine the replicability of these studies. Meta-analysis of rapidly accumulating data is further hampered by the use of ad hoc naming conventions. Here we demonstrate our replication framework, MetaNeighbor, that allows researchers to quantify the degree to which cell types replicate across datasets, and to rapidly identify clusters with high similarity for further testing. We first measure the replicability of neuronal identity by comparing more than 13 thousand individual scRNA-seq transcriptomes, sampling with high specificity from within the data to define a range of robust practices. We then assess cross-dataset evidence for novel cortical interneuron subtypes identified by scRNA-seq and find that 24/45 cortical interneuron subtypes have evidence of replication in at least one other study. Identifying these putative replicates allows us to re-analyze the data for differential expression and provide lists of robust candidate marker genes. Across tasks we find that large sets of variably expressed genes can identify replicable cell types and subtypes with high accuracy, suggesting a general route forward for large-scale evaluation of scRNA-seq data.

SummaryIn characterizing a disease, it is common to search for dysfunctional genes by assaying the transcriptome. The resulting differentially expressed genes are typically assessed for shared features, such as functional annotation or co-expression. While useful, the reliability of these systems methods is hard to evaluate. To better understand shared disease signals, we assess their replicability by first looking at gene-level recurrence and then pathway-level recurrence along with co-expression signals across six pedigrees of a rare homogeneous X-linked disorder, TAF1 syndrome. We find most differentially expressed genes are not recurrent between pedigrees, making functional enrichment largely distinct in each pedigree. However, we find two highly recurrent “functional outliers” (CACNA1I and IGFBP3), genes acting atypically with respect to co-expression and therefore absent from a systems-level assessment. We show this occurs in re-analysis of Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia. Our results suggest a significant role for genes easily missed in systems approaches.

Background Co-expression networks have been a useful tool for functional genomics, providing important clues about the cellular and biochemical mechanisms that are active in normal and disease processes. However, co-expression analysis is often treated as a black box with results being hard to trace to their basis in the data. Here, we use both published and novel single-cell RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data to understand fundamental drivers of gene-gene connectivity and replicability in co-expression networks. Results We perform the first major analysis of single-cell co-expression, sampling from 31 individual studies. Using neighbor voting in cross-validation, we find that single-cell network connectivity is less likely to overlap with known functions than co-expression derived from bulk data, with functional variation within cell types strongly resembling that also occurring across cell types. To identify features and analysis practices that contribute to this connectivity, we perform our own single-cell RNA-seq experiment of 126 cortical interneurons in an experimental design targeted to co-expression. By assessing network replicability, semantic similarity and overall functional connectivity, we identify technical factors influencing co-expression and suggest how they can be controlled for. Many of the technical effects we identify are expression-level dependent, making expression level itself highly predictive of network topology. We show this occurs generally through re-analysis of the BrainSpan RNA-seq data. Conclusions Technical properties of single-cell RNA-seq data create confounds in co-expression networks which can be identified and explicitly controlled for in any supervised analysis. This is useful both in improving co-expression performance and in characterizing single-cell data in generally applicable terms, permitting cross-laboratory comparison within a common framework. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13059-016-0964-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Understanding the organizational logic of neural circuits requires deciphering the biological basis of neuronal diversity and identity, but there is no consensus on how neuron types should be defined. We analyzed single-cell transcriptomes of a set of anatomically and physiologically characterized cortical GABAergic neurons and conducted a computational genomic screen for transcriptional profiles that distinguish them from one another. We discovered that cardinal GABAergic neuron types are delineated by a transcriptional architecture that encodes their synaptic communication patterns. This architecture comprises 6 categories of ∼40 gene families, including cell-adhesion molecules, transmitter-modulator receptors, ion channels, signaling proteins, neuropeptides and vesicular release components, and transcription factors. Combinatorial expression of select members across families shapes a multi-layered molecular scaffold along the cell membrane that may customize synaptic connectivity patterns and input-output signaling properties. This molecular genetic framework of neuronal identity integrates cell phenotypes along multiple axes and provides a foundation for discovering and classifying neuron types.

Unbiased “omics” techniques, such as next generation RNA-sequencing, can provide entirely novel insights into biological systems. However, cellular heterogeneity presents a significant barrier to analysis and interpretation of these datasets. The neurons of the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) are an important model for studies of neuronal injury, regeneration and pain. The majority of investigators utilize a dissociated preparation of whole ganglia when studying cellular and molecular function. We demonstrate that the standard methods for producing these preparations gives a 10%-neuronal mixture of cells, with the remainder of cells constituting satellite glia and other non-neuronal cell types. Using a novel application of magnetic purification, we consistently obtain over 95% pure, viable neurons from adult tissue, significantly enriched for small diameter nociceptors expressing the voltage gated ion channel Nav1.8. Using genome-wide RNA-sequencing we compare the currently used (10% neuronal) and pure (95% nociceptor) preparations and find 920 genes enriched. This gives an unprecedented insight into the molecular composition of small nociceptive neurons in the DRG, potentially altering the interpretation of previous studies performed at the tissue level, and indicating a number of novel markers of this widely-studied population of cells. We anticipate that the ease of use, affordability and speed of this technique will see it become widely adopted, delivering a greatly improved capacity to study the roles of nociceptors in health and disease.

Summary Intrathecal delivery of histone deacetylase inhibitors ameliorates hypersensitivity in models of neuropathic pain. This effect may be mediated at the level of the spinal cord through inhibition of HDAC1 function., Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACIs) interfere with the epigenetic process of histone acetylation and are known to have analgesic properties in models of chronic inflammatory pain. The aim of this study was to determine whether these compounds could also affect neuropathic pain. Different class I HDACIs were delivered intrathecally into rat spinal cord in models of traumatic nerve injury and antiretroviral drug–induced peripheral neuropathy (stavudine, d4T). Mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity was attenuated by 40% to 50% as a result of HDACI treatment, but only if started before any insult. The drugs globally increased histone acetylation in the spinal cord, but appeared to have no measurable effects in relevant dorsal root ganglia in this treatment paradigm, suggesting that any potential mechanism should be sought in the central nervous system. Microarray analysis of dorsal cord RNA revealed the signature of the specific compound used (MS-275) and suggested that its main effect was mediated through HDAC1. Taken together, these data support a role for histone acetylation in the emergence of neuropathic pain.

Chronic pain affects approximately one in five adults, resulting in a greatly reduced quality of life and a higher risk of developing co-morbidities such as depression. Available treatments often provide inadequate pain relief, but it is hoped that through deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying chronic pain states we can discover new and improved therapies. Although genetic research has flourished over the past decade and has identified many key genes in pain processing, the budding field of epigenetics promises to provide new insights and a more dynamic view of pain regulation. This review gives an overview of basic mechanisms and current therapies to treat pain, and discusses the clinical and preclinical evidence for the contribution of genetic and epigenetic factors, with a focus on how this knowledge can affect drug development.