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ZusammenfassungPatienten mit COPD haben ein erhöhtes Risiko für schwerwiegende Verläufe einer COVID-19-Erkrankung. Der Ausbruch von COVID-19 auf einer Station für nicht invasive Beatmung (NIV) zeigte darüber hinaus eine hohe Mortalität (32 %) unter COPD-Patienten mit NIV sowie Hinweise für eine verstärkte Infektionsübertragung durch die eingesetzten Therapiegeräte. Maßnahmen zur Prophylaxe und Eindämmung von COVID-19-Infektionen im stationären Setting werden hier aufgeführt.

Lophodermium piceae is the most common endophyte of Norway spruce (Picea abies) needles, and it probably occurs in the total distribution area of Norway spruce. Its significance to the host tree is still largely unknown mainly because no methodology is known for generating endophyte-free saplings nor for inoculation of intact needles with this fungus. We report here how a daily heat treatment at 40 °C for 8 h eradicates endophytes of Norway spruce needles within a few days without causing visible harm to the plants. We compared various methods for inoculation of endophyte-free saplings. In order to obtain effective inocula, we investigated what factors activate dormant L. piceae infections in the needle tissue resulting in ascomata formation. Best inoculation success was achieved by suspending naturally shed, highly infected needles above the saplings. Infection frequencies of up to 70% of needles were achieved with repeated inoculations in the course of 3 years. Once established in needles, individual infections by L. piceae can persist for at least 5 years. Individual infections remain small in young needles, but at a needle age of 6 years, they start to grow and spread resulting in presence all over the needle from base to tip at a needle age of 7 years, but still without causing visible symptoms on the needles. The presented methodology for generating both endophyte-free and endophyte-infected saplings of Norway spruce provides a new approach for testing the significance of infections by L. piceae to insect herbivory and diseases of Norway spruce needles.

Die Etablierung der unterstutzten Spontanatmung gilt allgemein als eine vorteilhafte und wenig gefahrdende Phase der Beatmungstherapie. Allerdings geben neuere Erkenntnisse Hinweise auf eine potenzielle Schadigung durch exzessive Spontanatembemuhungen vor allem bei akuter Lungenschadigung. Das Syndrom wird unter dem Begriff „patient self-inflicted lung injury“ zusammengefasst. Arzte, Pflegepersonen und Atmungstherapeuten sollten fur diese Thematik sensibilisiert werden. Parameter, die mittels Osophagusdruckmessung oder einfacher Manover am Respirator bestimmt werden konnen, sind bei der Entscheidung zur Durchfuhrung und zur Uberwachung von Spontanatmung auch in den akuten Phasen der Lungenschadigung hilfreich. Weiterhin gibt es im Umgang mit hohem Atemantrieb oder erhohter Atemanstrengung therapeutische Moglichkeiten, diesen zu begegnen.

Aufgrund der Neuartigkeit der COVID‑19-Erkrankung existieren keine evidenzbasierten Empfehlungen fur die Beatmung dieser Patienten. Darstellung von Parametern, die eine individualisierte lungen- und diaphragmaprotektive Beatmung ermoglichen. Selektive Literaturrecherche und Diskussion von Expertenempfehlungen. In der aktuellen Literatur wird der Unterschied des ARDS bei COVID‑19 zum klassischen ARDS beschrieben. Evidenzbasierte Empfehlungen zum Umgang mit dieser Diskrepanz gibt es nicht. In der Vergangenheit wurden bereits Parameter und Ansatze fur eine personalisierte Beatmungsstrategie eingefuhrt und erprobt. Unter Verwendung der dargestellten Parameter ist es moglich, die Beatmung von COVID‑19-Patienten zu individualisieren, um so dem heterogenen klinischen Bild des COVID‑19-ARDS gerecht zu werden.

Lophodermium piceae represents the most common Norway spruce needle endophyte. The aim of this study was to find out whether subpopulations of L. piceae in climatically different environments (in which Norway spruce occurs natively) are adapted to local thermal conditions. L. piceae’s ability for thermal adaptation was investigated by determining growth rates of 163 isolates in vitro at four different temperatures: 2, 6, 20 and 25 °C. Isolates were obtained between 1995 and 2010 from apparently healthy needles sampled in Finland, Poland, Switzerland, Italy and southeastern Siberia. The sampling sites represent seven climatically distinct locations. Results were evaluated in relation to the age and geographic origin of the isolate, in addition to the highest and lowest average monthly temperature of the sampling location. We found a significant correlation between the growth rate and the age of the isolate at 25 °C. Variation in growth rates between subpopulations was low compared to within subpopulations. Only at 2 °C did statistically significant differences between the average growth rates of subpopulations emerge. These results suggest that L. piceae covers the whole distribution area of Norway spruce but that generally the thermal reaction norm of its subpopulations has not changed according to local temperature ranges, despite high contrast in thermal conditions across this vast area. Therefore, it would appear that the thermal environment is not a crucial factor in assessing the fitness of this fungal species within the native range of Norway spruce.

COPD patients have a higher risk of experiencing severe COVID-19 illness. The outbreak of COVID-19 on an in-patient ward for non-invasive ventilation (NIV) furthermore demonstrated high mortality (32 %) for COPD patients with ongoing NIV and indicated enhanced contagiousness by used equipment.Prophylactic and therapeutic measures taken against COVID-19 are hereby displayed.Patienten mit COPD haben ein erhöhtes Risiko für schwerwiegende Verläufe einer COVID-19-Erkrankung. Der Ausbruch von COVID-19 auf einer Station für nicht invasive Beatmung (NIV) zeigte darüber hinaus eine hohe Mortalität (32 %) unter COPD-Patienten mit NIV sowie Hinweise für eine verstärkte Infektionsübertragung durch die eingesetzten Therapiegeräte. Maßnahmen zur Prophylaxe und Eindämmung von COVID-19-Infektionen im stationären Setting werden hier aufgeführt.

Diversity of fungi was investigated in Scots pine and Norway spruce stumps showing symptoms of butt rot in managed coniferous forests located in the northernmost distribution area of Heterobasidion butt rot in Finland. During a survey of 101 recently clear-cut stands, a total of 479 stumps showing signs of decay were sampled. Fungi were isolated from wood chips taken at the transition zone between healthy and decayed wood. A subsample of 209 isolates from Norway spruce and nine from Scots pine was selected for sequencing ITS-DNA. In Norway spruce 59 species and in Scots pine six fungal species were detected based on ≥98% similarity and 62 genera based on ≥95% similarity with sequences in GenBank. Three sequences did not match to any identified sequence in GenBank. The majority of the isolates (74%) were Ascomycota while 18% were Basidiomycota and 6% Zygomycota. The dominance of Ascomycota over Basidiomycota was pronounced in spruce stumps of stands with a butt rot incidence above 20% and the decayed area was larger in sample discs from which only Ascomycota were isolated than in discs inhabited by Basidiomycota. The result suggests that there is a high site- and/or tree -specific variation of the mycoflora in the Norway spruce decaying butt. Based on these results no single fungal species can be suspected to act as causal agent of butt rot occurring in Norway spruce nor in Scots pine in Northern Ostrobothnia and Kainuu counties.

Heterobasidion butt rot causes considerable losses to forestry in coniferous forests in many parts of Europe including southern Fennoscandia. In northern Fennoscandia, including central and northern Finland, both Heterobasidion annosum and H. parviporum are rare. This study aimed to determine the incidence of butt rot in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) north of the area commonly infested by Heterobasidion spp. in Finland. The incidence of butt rot in these conifers was investigated in Northern Ostrobothnia and Kainuu using two data sets: stump inspections in 101 regeneration cutting sites and the Finnish National Forest Inventory (NFI) data. According to stump inspections butt rot occurred in 1% of Scots pine trees and 10% of Norway spruce trees. In the most recent NFI data from 2009 to 2011 the incidence of trees with rot in mature managed stands of these two counties was 1% and 5% for Scots pine and Norway spruce, respectively. According to NFI, these values are nearly equal to the average incidence of butt rot in mature pines and spruces of the whole of Finland. Consequently, the low incidence of Heterobasidion butt rot in these parts of Finland does not mean lower occurrence of butt rot. Butt rot incidence varied greatly between sites: 0–24% of Norway spruce stumps in spruce dominated sites and 0–13% of Scots pine stumps in pine dominated sites were infected. High butt rot incidence in Norway spruce was associated with high site fertility, stand age, low organic matter content of soil and low temperature sum of the site. In Scots pine butt rot appeared after stand age exceeded 120 years while decay occurred already in 40–80 years old Norway spruces. High butt rot incidence in Scots pine was associated also with high flow accumulation of the site. Precipitation, plot slope, plot aspect, ditches, stand density and elevation were insignificant variables in models explaining decay incidence. During 1991–2013 butt rot incidence in Scots pine or Norway spruce has not changed in the study area. Similarly, to the more southern areas with high Heterobasidion risk, butt rot control in the North should focus especially on fertile mineral soil sites.

Heterobasidion parviporum and H. annosum are the most damaging root and butt rot pathogens of conifers in southern Fennoscandia where their distribution and frequency are reasonably well described in literature. However, in the most northern boreal forests of Europe the occurrence and significance of these pathogens is poorly known. In the future global warming may increase root and butt rot damages in the North. In this research the distribution of Heterobasidion spp. in northern Finland was compiled from literature and various available databases and from a field study in two counties of northern Finland, Northern Ostrobothnia and Kainuu. Conifer stumps from 101 regeneration cutting sites were inspected and sample discs from stumps with signs of decay were investigated for the presence of Heterobasidion spp. In all, 11,846 stumps were investigated. Decay was found in 429 Norway spruce stumps and 50 Scots pine stumps. H. parviporum was isolated from five spruce discs, each from a different site. H. annosum was not detected. According to previous records H. annosum has been identified only twice in northern Finland and these locations are over 600 km south of the northernmost Scots pine stands in Fennoscandia. Instead, H. parviporum occurs sporadically in the whole distribution area of Norway spruce in northern Finland. Most probably H. parviporum can be found in overmature dense stands at fertile sites but even there only at low frequencies. In northern Finland butt rot of conifers is caused mainly by other decay fungi than Heterobasidion. Low pH of the organic soil layer is probably a significant factor hampering H. parviporum from spreading in the North.

Red band needle blight of pines caused by Mycosphaerella pini (anamorph Dothistroma septosporum) has recently been recorded on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) at 14 rural districts in southern and central Finland. Scots pine is the most common and commercially most important tree species in Finland. Red bands with aggregations of conidial stromata on otherwise brown attached needles were frequently encountered on saplings and young trees in dense stands and sporadically on lower twigs of mature trees within 2 m of the ground. These symptoms and signs, typical for M. pini (1), were also observed on needles of P. contorta and P. cembra, which occur in Finland in low frequency. Symptoms of red band needle blight and abundant conidial stromata were found in March and April of 2008 after a mild and rainy winter. After this time, the frequency at which fresh acervuli were observed decreased. Conidia were isolated after squeezing conidial stromata into a drop of sterile water and rinsing out the drop onto water agar from where single conidia were picked up from under the microscope with a modified Pasteur pipette. The conidia were hyaline, smooth, thin walled, filiform, 2.0 to 2.7 (2.4) μm wide, and 15 to 37 (29.4) μm long. Germination of the conidia on water agar was 100%. The cultures grew slowly and reached a diameter of 4 to 10 mm within 3 weeks on modified orange serum agar (2) at 20°C and abundantly produced conidia. Complete sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region including the 5.8S rRNA gene were obtained for three isolates from different rural districts: Hartola (61°34′N, 26°01′E), Kangasniemi (61°59′N, 26°39′E), and Suonenjoki (62°37′N, 27°07′E). These sequences are deposited in GenBank with Accession Nos. EU834294, EU834295, and EU834296 and are identical to each other and to more than 50 M. pini sequences in GenBank, including those of several Estonian and Austrian isolates. These isolates are deposited in the culture collection of the Finnish Forest Research Institute with identifiers Dot1, Dot2, and Dot8. Symptoms were reproduced after inoculation of 1-year-old Scots pine seedlings growing in seedling trays with 115 cm3 cavities. A conidial suspension (5 to 6·× 103 conidia ml–1) was prepared from two single-conidial cultures (Dot10 and Dot15), combined, and sprayed during July 2008 onto 192 seedlings until needles looked completely wet. Sixty-four seedlings were sprayed with distilled water as a control treatment. Seedlings were incubated outdoors in Suonenjoki and covered with a transparent plastic hood for the first 5 days after inoculation. The first symptoms (brown segments and red bands on needles) appeared on inoculated seedlings 1 month later, and conidial stromata appeared after another 2 to 4 weeks. M. pini was reisolated from the acervuli of 10 sample needles. Three months after inoculation, all inoculated seedlings showed symptoms while all noninoculated seedlings were healthy. It is possible that M. pini has spread recently from the south since it was identified for the first time in Estonia 2 years earlier (3). Although the Gulf of Finland separates Finnish pine forests from Estonian pine forests by approximately 50 to 100 km, spores may have been aerially disseminated over this distance. Alternatively, introduction of M. pini to Finland may have occurred on imported seedlings. References: (1) Anonymous. OEPP/EPPO Bull. 35, 303, 2005. (2) M. Hanso and R. Drenkhan. Plant Pathol. 57:170, 2008. (3) M. M. Müller et al. Mycol. Res. 98:593, 1994.

Initial reports of SARS-CoV-2 infection indicate only mild disease in 81% of symptomatic cases [1]. Nearly half of the infected individuals do not seem to develop clinical symptoms at all depending on the cohort investigated [2]. Comorbidities and older age were identified early during the pandemic as predictors for severe or critical disease [3] which is found in about 19% [1]. Independently from disease severity, little is known about longer-term outcomes as well as resolution of symptoms. We therefore set out to systematically evaluate residual symptoms and lung function impairment in patients after SARS-CoV-2 infection., About half of the patients recovering from SARS-CoV-2 have persistent symptoms and reduced lung function as long as 2 months after infection. This is common even in younger SARS-CoV-2 convalescents with few comorbidities.

Alien invasive pathogens have caused numerous disastrous epidemics around the globe during the last two centuries. The frequency of these catastrophes has increased in parallel with the increase of international plant trade. Effective control of the risks requires understanding of factors governing vulnerability of indigenous plants. We tested whether the threat caused by alien pathogens of Asian origin is random among various tree species in Europe or whether it relates to their distribution range. A database including distribution ranges of 75 European tree species and literature-derived information on their susceptibility to invasive forest pathogens (IFPs) of Asian origin was compiled. Analysis on this database indicated that the susceptibility to Asian pathogens is significantly more common among tree species that occur only within Europe than among species with distributional ranges from Europe to Siberia (disease susceptibility percentage, DSP, 52 and 19 %, respectively). Notably, all severely attacked tree species are strictly European while tree species with distribution ranges extending from Europe to Siberia show at most only mild or moderate symptoms of Asian IFPs. Furthermore, the proportion of European broadleaf tree species susceptible to Asian IFPs is significantly higher than that of conifer species. Our results suggest that in Europe, Asian pathogens cause a higher risk to temperate and Mediterranean forests, largely composed of broadleaved species with distributional ranges restricted to Europe, than to boreal forests dominated by conifers distributed to Siberia.

Most plant species harbour a diverse community of endophytic, but their role is still unknown in most cases, including ecologically and economically important tree species. This study describes the culturable fungal endophytic community of Pinus sylvestris L. twigs in northern Spain and its relationship with diametric growth of the host. In all, 360 twig samples were collected from 30 Scots pines in fifteen stands. Isolates were obtained from all twig samples and 43 fungal taxa were identified by morphogrouping and subsequent ITS rDNA sequencing. All isolates were Ascomycetes, being Dothideomycetes and Sordariomycetes the most abundant classes. Half of the species were host generalists while the others were conifer or pine specialists. We found three new endophytic species for the Pinaceae: Biscogniauxia mediterranea, Phaeomoniella effusa and Plectania milleri, and additional six new species for P. sylvestris: Daldinia fissa, Hypocrea viridescens, Nigrospora oryzae, Ophiostoma nigrocarpum, Penicillium melinii and Penicillium polonicum. The endophytic community of fast and slow growing trees showed differences in species composition, abundance and evenness, but not in diversity. Phoma herbarum was associated to fast growing trees and Hypocrea lixii to those growing slow. Our results support the hypothesis that some endophytic species may affect growth of P. sylvestris.

Summary Trees are known to have adapted to local climatic conditions, but the adaptation of their pathogenic associates is poorly understood. Heterobasidion parviporum causes root and butt rot in spruce. In this work, the respiration of H. parviporum subpopulations from climatically diverse environments was examined at various temperatures. Isolates were obtained from three areas in Europe (southern Finland, Denmark and northern Italy) and from two locations in Central Siberia (Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk). Respiration rates were measured in gas tight vials at eight temperatures from 0 to 33°C, using spruce saw dust as the sole substrate. Strains from Siberian locations with cold winters had higher activity at low temperatures (2–15°C) than strains from European locations with mild winters. Respiration rates of Siberian subpopulations increased more than those of European strains when the temperature rose from 0 to 6°C, but the increase was greater with the European subpopulations when the temperature increased further from 6 to 20°C. Only small differences were found among European as well as Siberian subpopulations. Variation in respiration rates between subpopulations was low compared to variation within subpopulations. Using strains isolated 2–18 years ago and thereafter stored at 5°C, we found lower respiration rates at 20°C in older isolates, independent of geographical origin, suggesting phenotypic plasticity of H. parviporum in regard to responses to temperature. Based on these findings, we propose that subpopulations of H. parviporum have the potential to adapt to global warming.

The type species of the genus Tiarosporella, T. paludosa, is epitypified and confirmed as a member of the Botryosphaeriaceae.Based on morphology and DNA sequence data of the large subunit nuclear ribosomal RNA gene (LSU, 28S) andthe internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and 5.8S rRNA gene of the nrDNA operon, the genus Tiarosporella is shown to bepoly- and paraphyletic. A group of isolates morphologically similar to T. paludosa cluster to the Phacidiaceae (Phacidiales,Leotiomycetes) and we accommodated them in Darkera, a genus associated with needle diseases of conifers, with D. piceaintroduced as a novel taxon. This new taxon includes isolates occurring on needles of Picea spp. in Europe (Finland, Norwayand Switzerland) and differs from D. parca according to a five-locus alignment consisting of ITS, LSU, partial 18Snuclear ribosomal RNA, translation elongation factor 1-alpha and beta-tubulin genes. Four novel genera are introduced fortiarosporella-like fungi, namely Eutiarosporella based on E. tritici on Triticum aestivum from South Africa, Marasasiomycesbased on M. karoo on Eriocephalus sp. from South Africa, Mucoharknessia based on M. cortaderiae on Cortaderia selloanafrom Argentina, and Sakireeta based on S. madreeya on Aristida setacea from India. Together with the genus Botryobambusa,these genera represent a subclade in the Botryosphaeriaceae that is ecologically diverse, occurring on Poaceae, as wellas woody hosts, including endophytes, saprobes, and plant pathogens. Fil: Crous, Pedro W.. Utrecht Univeristy; Países Bajos. Fungal Biodiversity Centre; Países Bajos. University of Pretoria; Sudáfrica Fil: Müller, Michael M.. Natural Resources Institute Finland ; Finlandia Fil: Sanchez, Romina Magali. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Bahía Blanca. Centro de Recursos Naturales Renovables de la Zona Semiárida(i); Argentina Fil: Giordano, Lucrecia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Bahía Blanca. Centro de Recursos Naturales Renovables de la Zona Semiárida(i); Argentina Fil: Bianchinotti, Maria Virginia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Bahía Blanca. Centro de Recursos Naturales Renovables de la Zona Semiárida(i); Argentina Fil: Anderson, Freda E.. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Bahía Blanca. Centro de Recursos Naturales Renovables de la Zona Semiárida(i); Argentina Fil: Groenewald, Johannes Z.. Fungal Biodiversity Centre; Países Bajos

Dothistroma septosporum, a notorious pine needle pathogen with an unknown historical geographic origin and poorly known distribution pathways, is nowadays found almost in all areas inhabited by pines (Pinus spp.). The main aim of this study was to determine the relationship between North European and East Asian populations. In total, 238 Eurasian D. septosporum isolates from 11 countries, including 211 isolates from northern Europe, 16 isolates from Russian Far East and 11 isolates from Bhutan were analysed using 11 species-specific microsatellite and mating type markers. The most diverse populations were found in northern Europe, including the Baltic countries, Finland and European Russia. Notably, D. septosporum has not caused heavy damage to P. sylvestris in northern Europe, which may suggest a long co-existence of the host and the pathogen. No indication was obtained that the Russian Far East or Bhutan could be the indigenous area of D. septosporum, as the genetic diversity of the fungus there was low and evidence suggests gene flow from northern Europe to Russian Far East. On the western coast of Norway, a unique genetic pattern was observed, which differed from haplotypes dominating other Fennoscandian populations. As an agent of dothistroma needle blight, only D. septosporum was documented in northern Europe and Asia, while D. pini was found in Ukraine and Serbia.

A silica-based propagation medium was developed for large-scale production of ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungal inoculum by solid state fermentation. Development of the medium was started by screening for an optimal growth medium among six different semisynthetic agar media traditionally used in cultivation of ECM fungi. The majority (65 %) of the twenty tested ECM fungal strains that typically colonize Norway spruce (Picea abies) seedlings grew best on modified Melin-Norkrans (MMN) medium with reduced sugar content (½MMN). In order to develop a nutritionally similar medium for large-scale cultivation of the ECM fungi, we chose silica to form a solid matrix and light brewery malt extract to provide nutrients. The medium was supplemented with a commercial humic acid product that was shown to boost fungal growth. The optimal concentration of the constituents was screened for in two assays by determining the growth rates of seven potential inoculant ECM fungal strains (Amphinema sp., Cenococcum geophilum, Hebeloma sp., Meliniomyces bicolor, Paxillus involutus, Piloderma byssinum, and Tylospora asterophora). As a result, we composed a silica-based mass propagation medium (pH 5.8) containing 2.5 % brewery malt extract and 0.5 g/l humic acid product Lignohumate AM. This medium is easily produced and supported good growth of even the slowly growing and rarely studied Athelioid ECM strains. Furthermore, root systems of Norway spruce nursery seedlings were colonized by the tested ECM fungi by using solid inoculum formulated from the silica medium.

Summary We studied the effect of climate warming on Heterobasidion root rot in boreal forests by measuring respiration activity of pure cultures of Heterobasidion parviporum in Norway spruce (Picea abies) sawdust and by linking these data to temperature data obtained from three spruce forests located along a north-south transect stretching from northern Germany to northern Finland. The pure cultures applied in this investigation were homokaryotic, but in a separate investigation, we found no significant difference between the activity of homo- and heterokaryotic isolates. We also found that the temperature response curves of growth and respiration rates of this fungus were similar and propose that respiration reflects the general activity of H. parviporum. The respiration data were scaled up to annual cumulative respiration activity using daily temperature measurements from soil and air in the spruce forest sites. The annual respiration activity of H. parviporum showed a linear relationship with the average annual air temperature. An increase in the annual air temperature by 5°C would raise the annual activity of H. parviporum in spruce roots in northern Finland, southern Finland and northern Germany by 91%, 53% and 40%, respectively. This increase remains below the predicted increase in forest growth in northern Finland but exceeds considerably the predictions for southern Finland. According to the previous literature, a number of other decay fungi show a similar activity response to temperature as H. parviporum, suggesting that this result can be generalized to decay fungi with similar ecological habits.

Context The European black poplar (Populus nigra) is considered one of the most seriously endangered indigenous tree species. However, the total area covered by monoclonal plantations of hybrid poplar is growing, because of the high profitability of these trees.

The trade of plants and plant products is globally the most important pathway for alien pests and pathogens causing considerable damage to plant health. The introductions have increased exponentially in Europe, and continued even in Australia, where extreme quarantine efforts are implemented. The commercial actors in international plant trade lack a strong motive to reduce pest and pathogen risks as the true costs of the practiced trade are not internalized in the pricing of the products but footed to taxpayers and land owners. Therefore a shared responsibility of international plant traders is suggested to complement the current legislative restrictions in controlling exotic pests and pathogens.

Summary Fruiting of Heterobasidion on cull pieces and stumps of Norway spruce was investigated in cutting areas and mature spruce stands located in southern Finland. Cull pieces of variable size and showing butt rot were left on three clear-cut areas and in one thinned stand. Additionally, a part of the cull pieces was transported to mature forest sites with closed canopy. During the succeeding 3–4 years the cull pieces were investigated annually for sporocarps of Heterobasidion, and the area of actively sporulating pore layer of each sporocarp was measured. Root bases of spruce stumps in the logging areas were excavated and sporocarps found on the stumps also measured. At the onset of the experiment, Heterobasidion spp. were isolated from 76% of the cull pieces showing butt rot; 85% of the isolates were identified as H. parviporum and 15% as H. annosum s.s. During the following 3–4 years sporocarps were found on 20% of the 1938 cull pieces where Heterobasidion butt rot was initially detected visually. Sporocarp formation was promoted by advancement of butt rot, increasing cull piece diameter and end-to-end ground contact, but restricted by the colonization of the cull piece by Stereum sanguinolentum. Between-site differences were significant but could not be explained by differences in tree cover. At the end of the investigation period the average sporulating area of Heterobasidion sporocarp per metre of cull piece was higher than the average sporulating area per stump at three of four logging sites. Hence, leaving cull pieces containing Heterobasidion butt rot at logging areas in southern Finland can considerably increase local production of Heterobasidion spores.

The fungal species involved in the decomposition of needle litter and their response to intraspecific genetic variation of trees are poorly known. First, we compared the needle decomposition and fungal decomposers underneath eight different Norway spruce clones in situ. This experiment revealed 60-70% loss of needle mass in two years. Although spruce clones differed considerably in growth (twofold height difference) and their needles differed in chemical composition, no significant difference was found for loss of needle mass under the spruce clones. Furthermore, the spruce clones did not affect the community structure of the fungal decomposers. Fungi inhabiting needle litter were identified by extracting ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and sequencing complementary DNA (cDNA) of internal trascribed spacer 1 (ITS1) region. The most frequent identifications were Lophodermium, Pezizales, Mycena, and Marasmius, suggesting that endophytic fungi were involved in the decomposition process. Second, we evaluated the potential of endophytes to decompose needle material in a microcosm experiment in which all other fungi than endophytes were excluded. Within 2 years, the endophytes had decomposed 35-45% of the needle mass. Sequences of Mollisia, Lophodermium, Lachnum, and Phialocephala were most frequently found in rRNA and rDNA extracted from the needles at the end of the microcosm experiment. The dominant needle endophyte in fresh, green needles was Lophodermium piceae, and this species was also found frequently in the needle material after 2 years of decay both in the field and laboratory experiments. Moreover, the relative abundance of Lophodermium-derived denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) bands correlated positively with the decomposition in the microcosm experiment. Hence, our results suggest a significant role of endophytic fungi, and particularly L. piceae, in the process of needle decomposition in boreal forests.

Summary Lophodermium piceae, the dominant needle endophyte of Norway spruce (Picea abies), is known to be extremely diverse. This work aimed to test the possible occurrence of cryptic species within the morphological species L. piceae. Genetic variation in 36 South Finnish L. piceae isolates originating from six localities was investigated by comparing DNA sequences of three genetic markers. One of the markers was the internal transcribed sequence (ITS) of the ribosomal DNA and the other two (LP1 and LP2) were based on sequence characterized amplified regions designed for L. piceae. The LP2 marker could be detected only from isolates of L. piceae but not from 20 other ascomycete species tested. This sequence, therefore, is considered as a species-specific marker for L. piceae. For comparison, ITS sequences of isolates representing two other Lophodermium species, L. pinastri and L. seditiosum, were also investigated. In a neighbor-joining analysis of ITS sequences all L. piceae isolates fell into one cluster, which was clearly separate from those of L. pinastri and L. seditiosum. Dendrograms of the three markers were incongruent indicating that the L. piceae population examined consisted of a single phylogenetic species. No geographical differentiation was observed. Our results confirm that L. piceae is a genetically highly diverse endophytic species.

Die invasive Elektrophysiologie und Katheterablation hat seit der Einführung von hochfrequentem Wechselstrom und steuerbarer Katheter eine enorme Entwicklung erfahren. Seit Anfang der 90er Jahre stellt sie vor allem für supraventrikuläre Rhythmusstörungen (SVT), die eine anatomisch gut definierbare Erregungskreisbahn aufweisen, die Therapie der ersten Wahl dar. Sie hat in vielen Bereichen die medikamentöse Therapie nahezu vollkommen ersetzt.Durch die Entwicklung neuer dreidimensionaler Bildgebungsverfahren, sowie neuer Ablationsformen (gekühlte Elektrodenspitze, Kryo, Mikrowelle, Laser) kann die individuelle Anatomie des Patienten und dessen elektrophysiologische Erregungsabläufe dargestellt und dadurch auch komplexere Rhythmusstörungen erfolgreich abladiert werden. In diesem Zusammenhang sind derzeit die größten Fortschritte in der Behandlung von Vorhofflimmern zu verzeichnen.

Objective: To investigate the incidence and management of postoperative complications after neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by extrapleural pneumonectomy for malignant pleural mesothelioma. Methods: Patients with histologically proven mesothelioma of clinical stages T1—3, N0—2, M0 and considered to be completely resectable received neoadjuvant chemotherapy (cisplatin + gemcitabine or cisplatin + pemetrexed) followed by extrapleural pneumonectomy and postoperative radiotherapy. The incidence and management of postoperative complications in general and of bronchopleural fistula and postpneumonectomy-empyema in particular were analyzed. Univariate analysis was performed toidentifyprognosticfactors[sex,age,sideofoperation,weightloss,smoking,chemotherapy, EORTC-score(EuropeanOrganizationforResearch and Treatment of Cancer-classification) and duration of operation]. Results: Between 1st May 1999 and 15th August 2005, 63 patients underwent complete extrapleural pneumonectomy after neoadjuvant chemotherapy. Postoperative complications were observed in 39 cases (62%) and 2 patients died within 30 days (3.2%). Postpneumonectomy-empyema occurred in 15.8% of the patients (n = 10), six with a bronchopleuralfistula on the right side. All empyemas were treated successfully. Five patients developed chylothorax (7.9%) and four patients had complications due to a patch failure: cardiac herniation (n = 2), restriction of cardiac output (n = 1) or gastric herniation (n = 1). Patients with higher EORTC-score presentedsignificantly morepostoperativecomplications (p = 0.03). A longer duration of surgery tended to be associatedwith a higher incidence of postoperative complications, especially of empyemas. Conclusions: Extrapleural pneumonectomy after neoadjuvant chemotherapy can be performed with mortality rates comparable to standard pneumonectomies. Complications are frequent but can be successfully managed; the EORTC-score seems to be a predictor for postoperative complications.

Bei Patienten mit ventrikularen Ausflusstrakt-Arrhythmien kann die Indikation zur Katheterablation als kurative Therapieform gestellt werden. Es gibt jedoch nur wenige Daten uber das dreidimensionale elektroanatomische Mapping in Kombination mit der gekuhlten Radiofrequenzstrom-(RF-)Katheterablationstechnik, vor allem in der Behandlung nichtanhaltender Arrhythmien, die mittels konventioneller Strategie allein nur eingeschrankt behandelt werden konnen. 17 symptomatische und therapierefraktare Patienten wurden in die Studie eingeschlossen. Mittels elektroanatomischen Mappings (CARTO™) erfolgte bei zwolf Patienten unter laufender ventrikularer Tachykardie (VT) oder wahrend ventrikularer Extrasystolen die Erstellung eines Aktivierungsmaps. In funf Fallen wurde bei nichtanhaltenden Tachykardien ausschlieslich im Sinusrhythmus ein Pace-Map durchgefuhrt. Ziel war eine prazise Identifikation des Fokus mit nachfolgender Terminierung der Aktivitat mittels gekuhlter RF-Impuls-Abgaben. Die Untersuchungszeit betrug 117 ± 35 min, die Durchleuchtungszeit 17 ± 13 min. Die Anzahl der Ablationsimpulse lag bei 7 ± 5. In 15 Fallen (88%) war die Ablation der klinischen VT akut erfolgreich. Im Follow-up von 9 ± 9 Monaten gab es zwei Rezidive, wobei in einem Fall eine erfolgreiche Reablation durchgefuhrt wurde. Es wurden keine Komplikationen beobachtet. Elektroanatomisches Mapping kombiniert mit einer fokalen gekuhlten Ablationsstrategie stellt eine sichere Methode dar, um ventrikulare Ausflusstrakt-Arrhythmien effektiv zu supprimieren.

The Gram-positive soil bacterium Bacillus subtilis transports glucose by the phosphotransferase system. The genes for this system are encoded in the ptsGHI operon. The expression of this operon is controlled at the level of transcript elongation by a protein-dependent riboswitch. In the absence of glucose a transcriptional terminator prevents elongation into the structural genes. In the presence of glucose, the GlcT protein is activated and binds and stabilizes an alternative RNA structure that overlaps the terminator and prevents termination. In this work, we have studied the structural and sequence requirements for the two mutually exclusive RNA structures, the terminator and the RNA antiterminator (the RAT sequence). In both cases, the structure seems to be more important than the actual sequence. The number of paired and unpaired bases in the RAT sequence is essential for recognition by the antiterminator protein GlcT. In contrast, mutations of individual bases are well tolerated as long as the general structure of the RAT is not impaired. The introduction of one additional base in the RAT changed its structure and resulted in complete loss of interaction with GlcT. In contrast, this mutant RAT was efficiently recognized by a different B.subtilis antitermination protein, LicT. peerReviewed

Insects are known to disseminate fungal propagules to decaying wood. Their effect on the diversity of the decomposer mycota is so far unexplored. Sixteen Norway spruces (Picea abies) were felled and cut into 50 cm long bolts which were placed in four managed and four natural stands in southern Finland. The bolts were covered with net cages to prevent insect access. Half of the net cages were opened during each spring for 3 weeks. After 28–30 months, the bolts were investigated for insect marks, dry weight loss, and a batch of them was taken for fungal isolations. The fungal isolates were first divided into morphologically distinguishable taxonomic genera or species and further into operational chemotaxonomical units (OCTUs) by their combined fatty acid and sterol profiles (FAST-profiles). The number of insect marks (holes and gnawings) found on the bolts after 28–30 months varied from 0 to 6400/m2 depending on the site and on whether the net cage was opened during spring or not. The bolts were attacked mainly by two bark beetle species, Trypodendron lineatum and Hylurgops palliatus. Boring and gnawing marks of these beetles were significantly more common on bolts in managed than in natural sites. Bolt dry weight loss correlated positively (r=0.461, P The fungal isolates (737) were divided into 145 OCTUs and the number of OCTUs per bolt varied from 1 to 12 with a mean of 8.1. The fungal diversity of the bolts (i.e. number of OCTUs per bolt or the Shannon–Wiener index) varied according to the number of H. palliatus gnawings, stand management and between tree individuals. The number of OCTUs per bolt correlated negatively with the number of H. palliatus marks, but even though more beetle marks were found on bolts of managed forest sites, the fungal diversity of the spruce bolts there was not lower than in natural stands. Forest management appears to increase fungal diversity in decaying spruce bolts but the effect is low. The results stress the importance of insect attacks to the decomposition process and fungal diversity of fresh woody debris.

The diversity of endophytic fungi within single symptomless Norway spruce needles is described and their possible role as pioneer decomposers after needle detachment is investigated. The majority (90%) of all 182 isolates from green intact needles were identified as Lophodermium piceae. Up to 34 isolates were obtained from single needles. Generally, all isolates within single needles had distinct randomly amplified microsatellite (RAMS) patterns. Single trees may thus contain a higher number of L. piceae individuals than the number of their needles. To investigate the ability of needle endophytes to act as pioneer decomposers, surface-sterilized needles were incubated on sterile sand inoculated with autoclaved or live spruce forest humus layer. The dry weight loss of 13–17% found in needles after a 20-week incubation did not significantly differ between the sterilized and live treatments. Hence, fungi surviving the surface sterilization of needles can act as pioneer decomposers. A considerable portion of the needles remained green during the incubation. Brown and black needles, in which the weight loss had presumably taken place, were invaded throughout by single haplotypes different from L. piceae. Instead, Tiarasporella parca, a less common needle endophyte, occurred among these invaders of brown needles. Needle endophytes of Norway spruce seem thus to have different abilities to decompose host tissues after needle cast. L. piceae is obviously not an important pioneer decomposer of Norway spruce needles. The diversity of fungal individuals drops sharply when needles start to decompose. Thus, in single needles the decomposing mycota is considerably less diverse than the endophytic mycota.

Assessment of diversity (including both species richness and intraspecific variation) within a habitat may often be difficult when morphological criteria are used for identification and classification of isolates. Here we describe how combined fatty acid and sterol profiles (FAST-profiles) can be used for classification of fungal isolates into FAST-groups (i.e. operational chemotaxonomic units) according to a defined upper variation limit. Data analysis includes a two stage statistical approach. First, the isolates are grouped into taxonomic species using a discriminant model based on well identified ‘model’ isolates. These species groups together with one group that includes isolates which could not be identified with the discriminant model are further divided into operational chemotaxonomic units using a FAST-profile mismatch threshold. This method is demonstrated with Norway spruce needle endophytes.

Isolates of Tiarosporella parca from needles of Picea abies growing in Lapland, southern Finland, southern Norway and Switzerland were compared with each other by using their combined fatty acid and sterol profiles (FAST) and randomly amplified microsatellite (RAMS) markers. Nineteen fatty acids and four sterols were recorded, nine of which appeared only at low amounts (

Variation in Gremmeniella abietina var. abietina was studied in three stands of Scots pine in northern Finland and in the Kola Peninsula. Eighty-four isolates of large- and small-tree types of G. abietina var. abietina (LTT and STT, respectively) were identified on the basis of tentative characteristics (spore morphology, disease type and host size), fatty acid and sterol profiles (FAST), and random amplified microsatellite technique (RAMS). Both LTT and STT occurred in all three stands. In general the classifications obtained using the three methods agreed with one another, although a few contradicting results were observed. Variation in fatty acids and sterols in G. abietina var. abietina was rather low, although the amounts of some individual extractives showed statistically significant differences between the stands. All pathogenic and asymptotic G. abietina var. abietina isolates originating from branches located at heights above the annual snow cover were identified as LTT based on RAMS, but some were grouped to STT according to their FAST profiles. Both STT and LTT were detected among the isolates obtained from seedlings according to both FAST and RAMS. In addition, in two cases RAMS markers thought to be STT- or LTT-specific were found in the same isolate. The results presented here suggest that LTT of G. abietina var. abietina caused the devastating epidemics on pines in the first-thinning stage or middle age similar to pines in this study reported in northern Finland and in the Kola Peninsula during the 1980s.

Sixty-seven European isolates of Heterobasidion annosum belonging to intersterility groups S, P and F were cultivated on agar plates and their fatty acids and sterols were extracted and analysed. Fifteen fatty acids, five sterols, one naphthalenone and two unidentified extractives were detected in glc. The amount of octadecanoic acid in 13 of the strains decreased considerably during successive cultivations and contents of this fatty acid were not used for statistical calculations. Multivariate discriminant analysis revealed distinct differences between contents of fatty acids and sterols (= FAST-profiles) of the three intersterility groups but not between geographical origins of the strains. Type S strains generally contained more hydroxy fatty acids and sterols than type P strains and type F strains were characterized by a high total amount of extractives. Group F, according to averaged FAST-profiles, is more closely related to S than P. Several ‘outlier’ strains having exceptional FAST-profiles were found in all three intersterility groups. Only a small part of the FAST-profile diversity of the investigated strains could be explained by intersterility group or geographical origin: FAST-profile mismatch values between all strains were on average only slightly higher (16·4) than those within intersterility groups of various geographical origin (14·9).

Endophytic fungi show no symptoms of their presence but can influence the performance and vitality of host trees. The potential use of endophytes to indicate vitality has been previously realized, but a standard protocol has yet to be developed due to an incomplete understanding of the factors that regulate endophyte communities. Using a culture-free molecular approach, we examined the extent to which host genotype influences the abundance, species richness, and community composition of endophytic fungi in Norway spruce needles. Briefly, total DNA was extracted from the surface-sterilized needles of 30 clones grown in a nursery field and the copy number of the fungal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal DNA was estimated by quantitative PCR. Fungal species richness and community composition were determined by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and DNA sequencing. We found that community structure and ITS copy number varied among spruce clones, whereas species richness did not. Host traits interacting with endophyte communities included needle surface area and the location of cuttings in the experimental area. Although Lophodermium piceae is considered the dominant needle endophyte of Norway spruce, we detected this species in only 33% of samples. The most frequently observed fungus (66%) was the potentially pathogenic Phoma herbarum. Interestingly, ITS copy number of endophytic fungi correlated negatively with the richness of ectomycorrhizal fungi and thus potential interactions between fungal communities and their influence on the host tree are discussed. Our results suggest that in addition to environmental factors, endophyte communities of spruce needles are determined by host tree identity and needle surface area.

Forty two strains of fungi belonging to 16 species and 11 genera within Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes were cultivated on agar plates and analysed for their fatty acids by a slightly modified method commonly used in the investigation of bacteria. Several fungal sterols were also detected in the fatty acid extracts following an extended gas chromatographic separation. Differences between fatty acid profiles and combined fatty acid+sterol profiles of the fungi were evaluated by multivariate discriminant analysis. Not all genera could be separated on the basis of their fatty acid profiles alone. Considerable improvement was achieved when the sterol profiles were included in the statistical analysis. This enabled even the differentiation of two sibling species of Heterobasidion annosum (type S and P). The ergosterol and ergosta-7,22-dien-3-ol content proved to be especially valuable for grouping of these fungi. Compared to untreated mycelia, better recovery of sterols was obtained when fungal mycelial samples were frozen in liquid nitrogen and homogenized in a ball mill prior to extraction. Small temperature deviations (±3 °C) during cultivation of fungi may affect fungal identification using this method. There are no earlier reports on the fatty acid composition of four genera ( Ascocoryne, Gremmeniella, Neobulgaria and Amylostereum ) investigated.

The heavy metal bismuth induces a new type of selective neuronal degeneration that shares some common aspects with that seen following hypoxia and ischemia. Continuous application of 3 microns bismuth to organotypic cultures of rat hippocampus resulted after 2-3 weeks in selective degeneration of CA1 pyramidal cells, while CA3 pyramidal cells, dentate granule cells, and subicular neurons were resistant. With 10 microns bismuth, the majority of hippocampal neurons degenerated. The addition of 20 microns MK-801, a noncompetitive NMDA-antagonist, during the entire culturing period failed to prevent neuronal degeneration induced by 3 microns bismuth. GABA-immunoreactive interneurons were also affected by bismuth, but were generally less sensitive than CA1 pyramidal cells. Acute application of up to 100 microns bismuth did not change the electrophysiological properties of CA1 pyramidal cells.

The diversity of Ascocoryne cylichnium, Nectria fuckeliana and Neobulgaria premnophila isolates expressed as variation in their fatty acid and sterol composition was investigated. Despite high within-species variation, distinct differences in the fatty acid and sterol composition between species were evident.

In insects and vertebrates, clusters of Antennapedia class homeobox (HOM-C) genes specify anteroposterior body pattern. The nematode C. elegans also contains a small cluster of HOM-C genes, one of which has been shown to specify positional identity. Here we show that two additional C. elegans HOM-C genes also specify positional identity and that together these three HOM-C genes function along the anteroposterior axis in the same order as their homologs in other organisms. Thus, HOM-C-based pattern formation has been conserved in nematodes despite the many differences in morphology and embryology that distinguish them from other phyla. Each C. elegans HOM-C gene is responsible for a distinct body region; however, where their domains overlap, two HOM-C genes can act together to specify the fates of individual cells.

Suomeen kulkeutui 1990-luvun alussa Phytophthora cactorum -mikrobi, jota voidaan kutsua jo vakiintuneeksi vieraslajiksi. Sata vuotta aiemmin Eurooppaan levisi strobusmäntyjen mukana Cronartium ribicola, joka aiheuttaa valkomännyn tervasroson 5-neulasmännyillä. Aikanaan maahamme on tullut taimien mukana kaksi, Amerikasta kotoisin olevaa sientä Neofabrea populi ja Entoleuca mammata, jotka aiheuttavat lähinnä hybridihaavalla kuoripoltteeksi ja haavanrosoksi nimetyt taudit. Eviran kasvintarkastuslaboratorio löysi Amerikassa tammenäkkikuolemaa ja Euroopassa heiden ja varpukasvien versopoltetta aiheuttavaa P. ramorum -mikrobia ensimmäisen kerran vuonna 2004. Sitä löytyi paitsi tuontitaimista, myös Suomessa tuotetuilta alppiruusuilta. Uusin vieraslaji on P. plurivora, joka tartutuskokeissa on osoittautunut erittäin haitalliseksi monille kasveille. Lepänruosteen aiheuttava Melampsoridium hiratsukanum on tuhonnut Suomessa lepän lehtiä vuodesta 1997. Muita tulokaslajeja ovat Dothistroma septosporum ja Chalara fraxinea. Ensinmainittu aiheuttaa punavyökariste-taudin, jonka esiintyminen meillä varmennettiin 2008. C. fraxinea puolestaan liitetään saarnensurmaksi nimettyyn tautiin.