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While the pig industry is crucial in global meat consumption, accounting for 34% of total consumption, respiratory diseases in pigs can cause substantial economic losses to pig farms. To alleviate this issue, we propose an advanced audio-visual monitoring system for the early detection of coughing, a key symptom of respiratory diseases in pigs, that will enhance disease management and animal welfare. The proposed system is structured into three key modules: the cough sound detection (CSD) module, which detects coughing sounds using audio data; the pig object detection (POD) module, which identifies individual pigs in video footage; and the coughing pig detection (CPD) module, which pinpoints which pigs are coughing among the detected pigs. These modules, using a multimodal approach, detect coughs from continuous audio streams amidst background noise and accurately pinpoint specific pens or individual pigs as the source. This method enables continuous 24/7 monitoring, leading to efficient action and reduced human labor stress. It achieved a substantial detection accuracy of 0.95 on practical data, validating its feasibility and applicability. The potential to enhance farm management and animal welfare is shown through proposed early disease detection.

The aim of this study was to determine whether horses exhibiting unilateral hindlimb lameness unload (rest) the lame limb more than the contralateral limb. The resting/unloading of the hindlimbs and the time spent lying down were measured using accelerometers. Ten non-lame horses and 20 lame horses were recruited for participation and monitored for 11 h overnight with accelerometers (MSR145, sampling rate: 1 Hz, and measuring range: ±15 g) attached to the lateral metatarsal and metacarpal regions of each limb. Metatarsal and metacarpal orientation were used to determine whether the limb was unloaded (rested) or loaded, respectively, or whether the horses were lying down. The relation of resting time between non-lame and lame limbs (non-lame/lame: 0.85 ± 1.2) of the lame horses differed significantly ( p = 0.035) from that of the non-lame horses (right/left: 1.08 ± 0.47). Non-lame horses rested their hindlimbs evenly (left: 15 ± 10%; right: 17 ± 16%). Horses with unilateral hindlimb lameness unloaded the lame limb longer (lame limb: 61.8 ± 25.3%, non-lame limb: 38.2 ± 25.3%) than their contralateral limb. The lame horses (13 ± 11%) lay down longer ( p = 0.012) than the non-lame horses (3 ± 6%). The degree of lameness determined by the participating veterinarians (Vet Score) (r = -0.691, p < 0.01) and the asymmetry evaluated by the lameness locator (ALL) (r = -0.426, p = 0.019) correlated with the resting ratio (rest time ratio). Both factors were also correlated with the time spent lying down (Vet Score (r = 0.364, p = 0.048) and the ALL (r = 0.398, p = 0.03)). The ALL and VET Score were significantly correlated (r = 0.557, p = 0.01). The results of this study provide a good baseline for future research into how individual resting patterns may help to detect pain.

Precision agriculture and the increasing automation efforts in animal husbandry requires continuous and complex monitoring of the animals. Rumen bolus sensors, which are cutting-edge pieces of technology and a rapidly developing research field, present an exceptional opportunity for monitoring the health status, physiological parameters, and estrus of the animals. The objective of this paper is to provide a comprehensive overview of the development process of a new sensor development. We address the issues of conceptual design, an overview of applicable sensor modalities, mechanical design, power supply design, applicable hardware solutions, applicable communication solutions and finally the sensor detection algorithms proved in field tests. In conclusion, we present a summary of the current opportunities in the field and provide an analysis of the foreseeable trends.

Objective: To compare the ability of bioreactance noninvasive cardiac output (BR-NICO) with thermodilution cardiac output (TDCO) for the measurement of cardiac output (CO) in healthy adult horses receiving 2 different IV volume replacement solutions., Design: Prospective randomized crossover study from September to November 2021., Setting: University teaching hospital., Animals: Six university-owned adult horses., Interventions: Horses were randomly assigned to receive 7.2% hypertonic saline solution (HSS) or 6% hydroxyethyl starch (130/0.4) solution (HETA). BR-NICO and TDCO were measured simultaneously at baseline, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 90, and 120 minutes before fluid administration and again at the same times after starting a bolus infusion of IV volume replacers. All solutions were administered within 10 minutes., Measurements and Main Results: BR-NICO and TDCO were strongly correlated (Pearson r 2  = 0.93; P < 0.01). Regression analysis showed the relationship between TDCO and BR-NICO was BR-NICO = 0.48 × TDCO + 0.6. For the corrected BR-NICO values, the Bland-Altman agreement mean bias and lower/upper limits of agreement were -0.62 and -5.3 to 3.9 L/min, respectively. Lin's concordance (95% confidence interval) between methods was 0.894 (0.825-1.097). Compared with baseline, HSS increased the CO at 10 and 20 minutes (TDCO and BR-NICO). Compared with baseline, HETA decreased the CO at 10 and 20 minutes (TDCO and BR-NICO) and increased the CO at 90 (TDCO only) and 120 minutes (TDCO and BR-NICO)., Conclusions: BR-NICO strongly agreed with TDCO in the measurement of CO in healthy unsedated adult horses. HSS administration significantly increased CO in the first 30 minutes, while HETA initially decreased CO at 10 minutes but increased CO to above baseline values by 90 minutes., (© Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Society 2024.)

The aim of this prospective clinical study was to evaluate the efficacy of the Surgical Pleth Index (SPI), a validated nociception monitor in human anaesthesia, in dogs. The technology uses a plethysmographic signal from a specific pulse oximetry probe to analyse pulse wave amplitudes and heartbeat intervals. Twenty-six healthy dogs anaesthetised for castration were included. SPI, invasive mean arterial pressure (MAP) and heart rate (HR) were continuously monitored. The occurrence or resolution of a haemodynamic reaction (HDR), defined as a > 20% increase in HR and/or MAP, was assessed at predefined times: cutaneous incision, testicles' exteriorization, cutaneous suture, and fentanyl administration. Following nociceptive events, the dogs presenting a HDR showed a significant 8% and 10% increase in SPI at 3 and 5 min respectively, whereas after fentanyl administration, a 13% and 16% significant decrease in SPI were noted. Receiver operating characteristic curves analysis indicated a moderate performance for the dynamic variations of SPI over 1 min to predict a HDR (AUC: 0.68, threshold value: +15%) or its resolution after fentanyl administration (AUC of 0.72, threshold value: -15%) within 3 min. The SPI varied according to perioperative nociceptive events and analgesic treatment; however, its performance to anticipate a HDR was limited with high specificity but low sensivity. Refinement of the algorithm to specifically accommodate for the canine species may be warranted. Further studies are required to evaluate the influence of other factors on the performance of this index., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: The author reports equipment, drugs, or supplies was provided by General Electric Healthcare, Limonest, France., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Various systems are available for birth monitoring in horses, whereby a distinction must be made between methods for more accurate prediction of the date of birth in order to intensify monitoring of the mare in a timely manner as well as methods for detecting individuals that are in labor. Basically, it should be noted that there are almost no studies that compare different methods on the same population of mares. As the time of birth approaches, physiological parameters of mare and fetus change, but their variability is too high to predict the exact parturition time point prospectively. The best method currently available is the detection of a decrease in the pH value and an increase in the calcium concentration of the udder secretions.Continuous camera monitoring is currently the method of choice for the detection of the start of the parturition process. However, the downside of this method is that the recordings have to be evaluated by a human.Recent developments based on the use of artificial intelligence could provide significant improvement. Before these methods are ready for practical use, the combination of camera monitoring and a sensor that is sewn into the vulva and activated during the opening phase of parturition is the safest method., Competing Interests: Die Autoren bestätigen, dass kein Interessenkonflikt besteht., (Thieme. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To determine the accuracy of a continuous glucose monitoring system (CGMS) device by comparing glucose concentrations measured over time as determined by the CGMS to those of the chemistry analyzer (reference method)., Animals: 7 healthy goats and 7 dairy calves., Methods: A randomized, crossover design with 3 treatments: control, hypoglycemia, and hyperglycemia. The CGMS device was applied to the neck. Hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia were induced by insulin and xylazine, respectively. Glucose concentrations were measured by the chemistry analyzer CGMS, point-of-care glucometer, and intensive care unit machine at 0 (before treatment), 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 hours. Agreement between the CGMS and the chemistry analyzer was determined by Bland-Altman plots. The analytical and clinical accuracy of the CGMS was determined using the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 15197:2013 criteria and the Parkes error grid analysis., Results: In goats, the CGMS overestimated glucose concentrations during the hypoglycemic, normoglycemia, and hyperglycemia treatments. In calves, the CGMS underestimated glucose concentrations during the hypoglycemic treatment but overestimated glucose concentrations in normoglycemia and hyperglycemic treatments. The CGMS met the ISO clinical accuracy criteria for goats and calves, with > 99% of the glucose measurements in zones A and B of the Parkes grid. However, the CGMS did not meet the ISO 15197:2013 criteria for analytical accuracy., Clinical Relevance: The CGMS evaluated in our study only met the ISO 15197:2013 clinical accuracy criteria, not the analytical accuracy. Therefore, the device might be considered for clinical use.

Objective: To systematically review evidence on and devise treatment recommendations for patient monitoring before, during, and following CPR in dogs and cats, and to identify critical knowledge gaps., Design: Standardized, systematic evaluation of literature pertinent to peri-CPR monitoring following Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) methodology. Prioritized questions were each reviewed by Evidence Evaluators, and findings were reconciled by Monitoring Domain Chairs and Reassessment Campaign on Veterinary Resuscitation (RECOVER) Co-Chairs to arrive at treatment recommendations commensurate to quality of evidence, risk:benefit relationship, and clinical feasibility. This process was implemented using an Evidence Profile Worksheet for each question that included an introduction, consensus on science, treatment recommendations, justification for these recommendations, and important knowledge gaps. A draft of these worksheets was distributed to veterinary professionals for comment for 4 weeks prior to finalization., Setting: Transdisciplinary, international collaboration in university, specialty, and emergency practice., Results: Thirteen questions pertaining to hemodynamic, respiratory, and metabolic monitoring practices for identification of cardiopulmonary arrest, quality of CPR, and postcardiac arrest care were examined, and 24 treatment recommendations were formulated. Of these, 5 recommendations pertained to aspects of end-tidal CO 2 (ETco 2 ) measurement. The recommendations were founded predominantly on very low quality of evidence, with some based on expert opinion., Conclusions: The Monitoring Domain authors continue to support initiation of chest compressions without pulse palpation. We recommend multimodal monitoring of patients at risk of cardiopulmonary arrest, at risk of re-arrest, or under general anesthesia. This report highlights the utility of ETco 2 monitoring to verify correct intubation, identify return of spontaneous circulation, evaluate quality of CPR, and guide basic life support measures. Treatment recommendations further suggest intra-arrest evaluation of electrolytes (ie, potassium and calcium), as these may inform outcome-relevant interventions., (© 2024 The Author(s). Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Society.)

Objective: To evaluate the effect of increased respiratory system resistance (R RS ) on dynamic compliance (C dyn ) assessed by the NM3 monitor (C dyn(NM3) ) and the E-CAiOV module (C dyn(ECAiOV) )., Study Design: Prospective laboratory study., Methods: A training test lung (TTL) simulated the mechanical ventilation of a mammal with 50 and 300 mL tidal volumes in three conditions of R RS [normal (R BL ), moderately increased (R 1 ) and severely increased (R 2 )] and a wide range of clinically relevant C dyn . Simulations at increased R RS were paired with simulations at R BL with the same static compliance for comparisons. Pearson's correlation coefficient and concordance correlation coefficient between the measurements at R BL with the ones with increased R RS were calculated. Bland-Altman plots were also used to evaluate the agreement of C dyn(ECAiOV) and C dyn(NM3) at R BL (control values) with their paired values at R 1 and R 2 . Relative bias and limits of agreement (LOAs) were calculated and LOAs larger than 30% were considered unacceptable. Trending ability of C dyn(NM3) and C dyn(ECAiOV) were evaluated by polar plots. Values of p < 0.05 were considered significant., Results: The effect of increased R RS was more pronounced for C dyn(ECAiOV) than for C dyn(NM3) . Unacceptable agreement was only observed in C dyn(NM3) at R 2 in the 300 mL simulation (bias = -18.3% and lower LOA = -45%). For C dyn(ECAiOV) , agreement was unacceptable for all tested R RS in both simulations, being the worst at R 2 in the 300 mL simulation (bias = -54.7% and lower LOA = -100.2%). Both levels of increased R RS caused poor trending ability for C dyn(ECAiOV) , whereas the same effect was only observed for C dyn(NM3) at R 2 ., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: In the presence of increased R RS , C dyn estimated by the NM3 monitor presented better capability to distinguish between changes in R RS from changes in respiratory system compliance., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Arrhythmia detection is essential when assessing the safety of novel drugs and therapies in preclinical studies. Many short-term arrhythmia monitoring methods exist, including non-invasive ECG and Holter. However, there are no reliable, long-term, non-invasive, or minimally invasive methods for cardiac arrhythmia follow-up in large animals that allows free movement with littermates. A long follow-up time is needed when estimating the impact of long-lasting drugs or therapies, such as gene therapy. We evaluated the feasibility and performance of insertable cardiac monitors (ICMs) in pigs for minimally invasive, long-term monitoring of cardiac arrhythmias that allows free movement and species-specific behavior. Multiple implantation sites were tested to assess signal quality. ICMs recognized reliably many different arrhythmias but failed to detect single extrasystoles. They also over-diagnosed T-waves, resulting in oversensing. Muscle activity and natural startles of the animals caused noise, leading to a heterogeneous signal requiring post-recording evaluation. In spite of these shortcomings, the ICMs showed to be very useful for minimally invasive long-term monitoring of cardiac rhythm in pigs., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

The sleep-wake cycle represents a crucial physiological process essential for maintaining homeostasis and promoting individual growth. In dogs, alterations in sleep patterns associated with age and dog's correlation with temperament factors, such as nervousness, have been reported, and there is an increasing demand for precise monitoring of sleep and physical activity in dogs. The present study aims to develop an analysis method for measuring sleep-wake patterns and physical activity in dogs by utilizing an accelerometer and a smartphone. By analyzing time series data collected from the accelerometer attached to the dog's collar, a comprehensive sleep and activity analysis model was constructed. This model classified the activity level into seven classes and effectively highlighted the variations in sleep-activity patterns. Two classes with lower activity levels were considered as sleep, while other five levels were regarded as wake based on the rate of occurrence. This protocol of data acquisition and analysis provides a methodology that enables accurate and extended evaluation of both sleep and physical activity in dogs.

Interstitial glucose monitoring systems are commonly being used in diabetic dogs. The aim of this study was to document the incidence of complications associated with the use of a flash glucose monitoring system (FGMS) in dogs. Medical records of dogs that had placement of a 14-day FGMS during a 1-year period were reviewed. Data retrieved included the number of days the sensor remained attached and functional, sensor detachment, sensor failure prior to the end of the 14-day monitoring period, and dermatologic changes at the sensor site. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize the data. Thirty-four dogs had FGMSs placed. Most [32/34 (94%)] sensors were placed over the dorsolateral aspect of the thorax caudal to the scapula. Twenty-four sensors (71%) remained attached for the full 14 days. Incidence of complications associated with FGMS use was 13/34 (38%). The most frequent complication was mild dermatologic changes at the sensor site [6/34 (18%)]. Erythema and crusting at the attachment site were common and could be related to contact dermatitis, hypersensitivity, or skin preparation prior to placement. Flash glucose monitoring systems are safe in dogs, although there are some potential complications that should be discussed with dog owners., (Copyright and/or publishing rights held by the Canadian Veterinary Medical Association.)

Cattle behaviour is fundamentally linked to the cows' health, (re)production, and welfare. The aim of this study was to present an efficient method to incorporate Ultra-Wideband (UWB) indoor location and accelerometer data for improved cattle behaviour monitoring systems. In total, 30 dairy cows were fitted with UWB Pozyx wearable tracking tags (Pozyx, Ghent, Belgium) on the upper (dorsal) side of the cow's neck. In addition to the location data, the Pozyx tag reports accelerometer data as well. The combination of both sensor data was performed in two steps. In the first step, the actual time spent in the different barn areas was calculated using location data. In the second step, accelerometer data were used to classify cow behaviour using the location information of step 1 (e.g., a cow located in the cubicles cannot be classified as feeding, or drinking). A total of 156 hours of video recordings were used for the validation. For each hour of data, the total time each cow spent in each area and performing which behaviours (feeding, drinking, ruminating, resting, and eating concentrates) were computed using the sensors and compared against annotated video recordings. Bland-Altman plots for the correlation and difference between the sensors and the video recording were then computed for the performance analysis. The overall performance of locating the animals into the correct functional areas was very high. The R 2 was 0.99 (P < 0.001), and the root-mean-square error (RMSE) was 1.4 min (7.5% of the total time). The best performance was obtained for the feeding and lying areas (R 2  = 0.99, P < 0.001). Performance was lower in the drinking area (R 2  = 0.90, P < 0.01) and the concentrate feeder (R 2  = 0.85, P < 0.05). For the combined location + accelerometer data, high overall performance (all behaviours) was obtained with an R 2 of 0.99 (P < 0.001) and a RMSE of 1.6 min (12% of the total time). The combination of location and accelerometer data improved the RMSE of the feeding time and ruminating time compared to the accelerometer data alone (2.6-1.4 min). Moreover, the combination of location and accelerometer enabled accurate classification of additional behaviours that are difficult to detect using the accelerometer alone, such as eating concentrates and drinking (R 2  = 0.85 and 0.90, respectively). This study demonstrates the potential of combining accelerometer and UWB location data for the design of a robust monitoring system for dairy cattle., (Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Monitoring cardiovascular and respiratory measurements corresponds to the precision livestock farming (PLF) objective to continuously monitor and assess dairy cows' welfare and health. Changes in heart rate, breathing rate, and oxygen saturation (SpO2) are valuable metrics in human and veterinary medicine to assess stress, pain, illness, and detect critical conditions. The common way to measure heart rate is either manually or with a stethoscope. Under research conditions, heart rate is usually measured with a sports watch chest belt. Breathing rate is obtained by counting the cow's flank movements which is a time-consuming and labor-intensive method that requires training and is prone to human error. No devices are available on the market that enable practical and easy pulse oximetry in farm animals. This study presents a wireless nose ring sensor system (NoRS) composed of thermal and photoplothysmography sensors that attach to the nostrils of four Holstein dairy cows. The NoRS's thermocouple measured the cow's nasal cavity air temperature; an optic sensor measured the IR (660 nm) and RED (660 nm) signals reflected from the cow's nasal septum. Breathing was calculated from the thermocouple signal's center frequency with a fast Fourier transformation or the signal peak count (i.e., oscillations). The breathing rate was compared to breathing observed by concurrently counting the flank movements. Heart rate and SpO2 were measured by integrated pulse oximetry and heart rate monitor module (MAX30101 TinyCircuit) assembled on the NoRS circuit. Heart rate was also measured with FFT and by counting the number of peaks from the optic sensor's raw IR and RED signals. These measures were compared to an off-the-shelf hand-held pulse oximeter's heart rate and SpO2 readings during the same time. The comparisons revealed highly significant correlations for the heart rate readings where the strength of the correlation was sensitive to the method. The correlation between breathing rate and the veterinarian's visual observations was low, albeit significant. Thus, inhale-exhale cycle counting constitutes a more precise approach than flank movement counts. The hand-held device's 96% SpO2 is compatible with near-saturation values expected in healthy cows. The mean NoRS SpO2 reading was 3% less. After further piloting under field conditions, the NoRS will require no animal restraining to automatically and continuously record cows' breathing rate, heart rate, and SpO2., (© The Author(s) 2022. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society of Animal Science. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Objectives: The objective of this study was to compare waveforms obtained with a new device for the non-invasive monitoring of intracranial pressure (ICP) in dogs with and without neurological disease., Materials and Methods: This prospective study was conducted on both neurologically normal dogs and dogs with neurological diseases. First, non-invasive ICP waveforms were recorded in normal dogs using the Braincare® BcMM 2000 monitor while the dogs were under general anaesthesia induced for procedures unrelated to this study. The dogs were positioned in lateral recumbency, and the sensor was placed over the skin of the parietal region. Secondly, non-invasive ICP waveforms were monitored in dogs with brain and spinal disease until waveforms with characteristic peaks were acquired. All the recorded signals were amplified, filtered and digitalized, by the device, and then transferred to a computer for analysis., Results: Normal pulse waveforms indicating normal brain complacency were observed in eight neurologically normal dogs. In six dogs with brain disease, abnormal pulse waveforms were observed suggesting increased ICP and decreased brain complacency. Four dogs with spinal disease undergoing myelography, had normal waveforms before contrast medium injection and abnormal pulse waveforms during contrast medium injection, indicating a potential increase in ICP., Clinical Significance: Based on these preliminary observations, this method was capable of detecting abnormal pulse waveforms that suggested increased ICP., (© 2022 British Small Animal Veterinary Association.)

Objective: To determine the accuracy of 2 interstitial glucose-monitoring systems (GMSs) for use in horses compared with a point-of-care (POC) glucometer and standard laboratory enzymatic chemistry method (CHEM)., Animals: 8 clinically normal adult horses., Procedures: One of each GMS device (Dexcom G6 and Freestyle Libre 14-day) was placed on each horse, and blood glucose concentration was measured via POC and CHEM at 33 time points and compared with simultaneous GMS readings. An oral glucose absorption test (OGAT) was performed on day 2, and glucose concentrations were measured and compared., Results: Glucose concentrations were significantly correlated with one another between all devices on days 1 to 5. Acceptable agreement was observed between Dexcom G6 and Freestyle Libre 14-day when compared with CHEM on days 1, 3, 4, and 5 with a combined mean bias of 10.45 mg/dL and 1.53 mg/dL, respectively. During dextrose-induced hyperglycemia on day 2, mean bias values for Dexcom G6 (10.49 mg/dL) and FreeStyle Libre 14-day (0.34 mg/dL) showed good agreement with CHEM., Clinical Relevance: Serial blood glucose measurements are used to diagnose or monitor a variety of conditions in equine medicine; advances in near-continuous interstitial glucose monitoring allow for minimally invasive glucose assessment, thereby reducing stress and discomfort to patients. Data from this study support the use of the Dexcom G6 and Freestyle Libre 14-day interstitial glucose-monitoring systems to estimate blood glucose concentrations in horses.

In this study accumulation has been determined of several per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from ingested water to steady state serum concentration for adult beef cattle and sheep raised on a hobby farm impacted by PFAS contamination. PFAS concentrations in stock water were stable for more than a year, they were non-measurable in grass but present at very low levels in soil which equated to just 1% of the intake from water. Prior to quantifying PFAS in cattle serum there had been no breeding for 18 months. Although there were high concentrations of several PFAS in the water, only perfluorooctane sulphonate (PFOS) and perfluorohexane sulphonate (PFHxS) were in cattle serum in appreciable amounts; perfluoroheptane sulphonate (PFHpS), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) and perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA) were much lower. Transfer factors (TFs) for cattle were calculated by dividing steady state serum concentration (ng PFAS/mL) by water concentration (µg PFAS/L). Average and upper estimate TF values for cattle were calculated; the former were 140 (total PFOS, i.e. tPFOS), 130 (PFHpS), 65 (PFHxS), 170 (PFNA), and 120 (PFDA). Previous investigation campaigns at the farm provided relative steady state serum PFAS concentrations for sheep and cattle that allowed adjustment of the cattle TFs. The resulting average estimate TFs for ewes (non-pregnant and not lactating) were 20 (tPFOS) and 30 (PFHxS), other PFAS were not measurable in sheep serum. Discussion on using these TFs in human health risk assessments is provided. With certain assumptions/caveats the TFs allow estimations of PFAS steady state serum concentrations for use in preliminary human health risk assessments (HHRAs) when only PFAS in stock water is known.

Heart rate is evaluated in exercising horses to monitor the level of fitness to exercise, and it is usually acquired using heart rate monitors (HRM) or telemetric electrocardiograms (ECG). While HRM are commonly available and easy-to-use for horse's owners, ECG is a more expensive equipment requiring user's experience. Interest for heart rate variability (HRV) in horses is increasing for both research and clinical purposes. HRV is usually calculated from interbeat intervals (IBI) obtained by ECG. The aim of this study was to determine the accuracy of an HRM to detect IBI for the calculation of HRV in both resting and exercising horses. Simultaneous ECG and HRM recordings were performed on 13 horses and ponies under normal training conditions for at least 45 minutes. IBI from ECG were corrected using a dedicated software. IBI from HRM were exported without correction. Two HRV-parameters were calculated on both recordings for resting and exercising periods: the standard deviation of R-R intervals (SDRR) and the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD). Agreement and concordance between the two systems were determined using Bland-Altman plot and Lin's correlation coefficient, respectively. Effects of variables were consequently assessed. For both HRV-parameters during resting and exercising periods, the means of the differences between the two systems were lower than 0.47 ms with a correlation coefficient higher than 0.999. Height, weight and body condition score had no effect on the results. The studied HRM could be of interest as easy-to-use device for obtaining HRV-parameters SDRR and RMSSD in resting and exercising horses., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Chemical immobilisation is essential for veterinarians to perform medical procedures in wild African ungulates. Potent opioids combined with neuroleptic drugs are most often used for this purpose. The present study aimed at comparing the quality of immobilisation and effects on physiological variables between a high (high etorphine-azaperone [HE]: 0.09 mg kg-1) and low etorphine dose (low etorphine-azaperone [LE]: 0.05 mg kg-1), both combined with azaperone (0.35 mg kg-1), in 12 adult female boma-acclimatised blesbok. It was hypothesised that a reduction in etorphine's dose in combination with azaperone would result in less cardiorespiratory impairment but likely worsen the quality of immobilisation. Both treatments resulted in rapid induction and recovery times. Overall inter-treatment differences occurred in pulse rate (HE and LE: 52 ± 15 and 44 ± 11 beats minute-1, p 0.0001), respiratory rate (HE and LE: 15 ± 4 and 17 ± 4 breaths minute-1, p 0.006), partial pressure of exhaled carbon dioxide (HE and LE: 62.0 ± 5.0 and 60.0 ± 5.6 millimetre of mercury [mmHg], p 0.028) and arterial carbon dioxide (HE and LE: 58.0 ± 4.5 and 55.0 ± 3.9 mmHg, p 0.002). Both HE and LE led to bradycardia, hypertension and marked hypoxia to a similar extent. Furthermore, quality of induction, immobilisation and recovery were similar in both treatments. The role of azaperone in the development of cardiorespiratory compromise and gas exchange impairment that occurred when these combinations were used is still unclear. Further studies are recommended to elucidate drug- and dose-specific physiological effects in immobilised antelope.

In this Research Communication we investigate the motivations of Brazilian dairy farmers to adopt automated behaviour recording and analysis systems (ABRS) and their attitudes towards the alerts that are issued. Thirty-eight farmers participated in the study distributed into two groups, ABRS users (USERS, n = 16) and non-users (NON-USERS, n = 22). In the USERS group 16 farmers accepted being interviewed, answering a semi-structured interview conducted by telephone, and the answers were transcribed and codified. In the NON-USERS group, 22 farmers answered an online questionnaire. Descriptive analysis was applied to coded answers. Most farmers were young individuals under 40 years of age, with undergraduate or graduate degrees and having recently started their productive activities, after a family succession process. Herd size varied with an overall average of approximately 100 cows. Oestrus detection and cow's health monitoring were the main reasons given to invest in this technology, and cost was the most important factor that prevented farmers from purchasing ABRS. All farmers in USERS affirmed that they observed the target cows after receiving a health or an oestrus alert. Farmers believed that they were able to intervene in the evolution of the animals' health status, as the alerts gave a window of three to four days before the onset of clinical signs of diseases, anticipating the start of the treatment.The alerts issued by the monitoring systems helped farmers to reduce the number of cows to be observed and to identify pre-clinically sick and oestrous animals more easily. Difficulties in illness detection and lack of definite protocols impaired the decision making process and early treatment, albeit farmers believed ABRS improved the farm's routine and reproductive rates.

Background: Monitoring blood glucose concentrations is common in critically ill neonatal foals, especially septic foals and those receiving naso-esophageal feedings or IV parenteral nutrition. Glucose typically is measured using a point-of-care (POC) glucometer but requires repeated restraint and blood collections, which may cause irritation at venipuncture sites and increased demands on nursing staff. Continuous glucose monitoring systems (CGMS) may provide an accurate alternative for monitoring blood glucose concentration., Objectives: To determine the correlation and accuracy of a CGMS to monitor neonatal foals' blood glucose concentrations as compared to a POC glucometer and laboratory chemistry analysis (CHEM)., Animals: Samples from 4 healthy and 4 ill neonatal foals., Methods: A CGMS was placed on each foal, and glucose measurements acquired from this device were compared to simultaneous measurements of blood glucose concentration using a POC glucometer and CHEM., Results: Two-hundred matched glucose measurements were collected from 8 neonatal foals. The mean bias (95% limits of agreement) between CGMS and CHEM, CGMS and POC glucometer, and POC glucometer and CHEM was 3.97 mg/dL (-32.5 to 40.4), 18.2 mg/dL (-28.8 to 65.2), and 22.18 mg/dL (-9.3 to 53.67), respectively. The Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) was significantly correlated among all devices: GCMS and CHEM (r = 0.81), CGMS and POC glucometer (r = 0.77) and POC glucometer-CHEM (r = 0.92)., Conclusions and Clinical Importance: Within the blood glucose concentration ranges in this study (78-212 mg/dL), CGMS measurements were significantly correlated with CHEM, suggesting that it is an acceptable method to provide meaningful, immediate, and continuous glucose concentration measurements in neonatal foals while eliminating the need for repeated restraint and blood collection., (© 2021 The Authors. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.)

Objective: To determine whether an association exists between direct intracranial pressure (ICP) measurement and ultrasonographic measurement of optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) in anesthetized and standing horses., Design: Cross-sectional study performed on a convenience sample of healthy adult horses., Setting: University teaching hospital., Animals: Eight adult horses donated to the University. Enrolled horses were free of abnormalities on physical examination, CBC, neurological evaluation, and ophthalmological examination., Measurements and Main Results: Horses were anesthetized in lateral recumbency for placement of an ICP transducer. Three head positions (neutral, elevated, and lowered) were used to alter ICP. ICP and ONSD in 2 directions (D1 and D2) were recorded at 5 and 10 minutes after position change to elevated and lowered. ICP and ONSD measurements were repeated in standing sedated horses 24-36 hours after recovery from anesthesia. Linear regressions were performed with ICP as the dependent variable and ONSD as the independent variable by head position and times. Linear regressions were also performed for change from neutral under anesthesia, with ONSD as the independent variable and ICP as the dependent variable, by head position and times. Significance was set at P < 0.05. There was a moderate association between ICP and ONSD in horses with head lowered at 5 and 10 minutes (R 2 values = 63%-78%) and weak association in head elevated at 10 minutes (R 2 values = 56%-63%). There was a weak association between change from neutral ICP and change from neutral ONSD in the elevated anesthetized position at 10 minutes for summed D1 + D2 (R 2  = 33%)., Conclusions: Consistent associations between direct ICP and ONSD in anesthetized or standing horses were not observed. This inconsistency limits the clinically utility of transpalpebral ultrasonographic ONSD measurement for ICP monitoring in horses., (© Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Society 2021.)

General anesthesia induces many systemic effects, including thermoregulatory impairment and subsequent perioperative hypothermia. Due to the animals' small size, monitoring and maintaining body temperatures in laboratory rodents during anesthesia is important for successful surgical outcomes and prompt anesthetic recovery. Draping materials have the potential to aid in thermal support during surgical anesthesia. In this study, rectal and surface (infrared) temperatures were measured in C57BL/6 mice under isoflurane anesthesia every 5 min for the duration of a 35-min sham surgery. In addition to placement on a circulating water bath, mice ( n = 6/group) were draped with commercial cling film (CF; Press'n Seal, Glad, Oakland, CA), a conventional paper drape (PD), or no drape (ND) during surgery. Results demonstrated that CF-draped animals had significantly higher rectal temperatures than nondraped animals. Furthermore, surface temperatures of CF-draped mice were considerably higher than those of both paper-draped and undraped animals. The data indicate that cling film is an effective material to help minimize hypothermia in mice and potentially in other laboratory rodents requiring general anesthesia.

This study assessed the feasibility of using camera image analysis to detect behavioral changes as an indicator of the onset of calving in Japanese Black cattle. Thirty-five pregnant cattle individually housed in pens were used and were continuously monitored using a digital camera system. For the automatic determination of the x and y coordinates of a cow, trajectory analysis was conducted using thermal image and analysis software, and the distances moved were calculated using coordinate data. Further, the frequency of postural changes and the time spent tail raising per hour were measured for 14 cows using visible images. The measurement data were used to calculate hourly data for 12 h prior to amniorrhexis (first rupture of the allantoic sac). The hourly distances moved tended to increase at the time of amniorrhexis, with significantly longer distances measured 3-0 h before amniorrhexis than those at 12-8 h before amniorrhexis (P < 0.05). In all cows, amniorrhexis occurred within 11 h of hourly distances moved by more than 50% compared with distance moved the previous hour. The overall average elapsed time before amniorrhexis was 9 h 30 min (range: 5-11 h). Tail raising time and the frequency of postural changes significantly increased at 1-0 h and 2-0 h before amniorrhexis, respectively. This suggests that predicting the time of calving is possible by measuring the activity of Japanese Black cows during late pregnancy using camera image analysis as a non-invasive technique.

We aimed to determine the effectiveness of estrus detection based on continuous measurements of the ventral tail base surface temperature (ST) with supervised machine learning in cattle. ST data were obtained through 51 estrus cycles on 11 female cattle (six Holsteins and five Japanese Blacks) using the tail-attached sensor. Three estrus detection models were constructed with the training data (n = 17) using machine learning techniques (random forest, artificial neural network, and support vector machine) based on 13 features extracted from sensing data (indicative of estrus-associated ST changes). Estrus detection abilities of the three models on test data (n = 34) were not statistically different among models in terms of sensitivity and precision (range 50.0% to 58.8% and 60.6% to 73.1%, respectively). The relatively poor performance of the models might indicate the difficulty of separating estrus-associated ST changes from estrus-independent fluctuations in ST.

Disease and stress can disrupt the circadian rhythm of activity in animals. Sensor technologies can automatically detect variations in daily activity, but it remains difficult to detect exactly when the circadian rhythm disruption starts. Here we report a mathematical Fourier-Based Approximation with Thresholding (FBAT) method designed to detect changes in the circadian activity rhythm of cows whatever the cause of change (typically disease, stress, oestrus). We used data from an indoor positioning system that provides the time per hour spent by each cow resting, in alleys, or eating. We calculated the hourly activity level of each cow by attributing a weight to each activity. We considered 36-h time series and used Fourier transform to model the variations in activity during the first and last 24 h of these 36-h series. We then compared the Euclidian distance between the two models against a given threshold above which we considered that rhythm had changed. We tested the method on four datasets (giving a cumulative total of ~120000 cow*days) that included disease episodes (acidosis, lameness, mastitis or other infectious diseases), reproductive events (oestrus or calving) and external stimuli that can stress animals (e.g. relocation). The method obtained over 80% recall of normal days and detected 95% of abnormal rhythms due to health or reproductive events. FBAT could be implemented in precision livestock farming system monitoring tools to alert caretakers to individual animals needing specific care. The FBAT method also has the potential to detect anomalies in humans to guide healthcare intervention or in wild animals to detect disturbances. We anticipate that chronobiological studies could apply FBAT to help relate circadian rhythm anomalies to specific events., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The physiology of hyperthermia or heat stress in mammals is complex. It is a totally systemic condition that in varying degrees involves all organs, tissues and body fluid compartments. The nature and magnitude of the response is influenced by animal specific characteristics (e.g. age, diet, body condition, gender, reproductive stage), environment and animal management. Given the multifaceted nature of heat stress, and the varied ruminant production systems based in varied geoclimatic zones, it has been difficult to find appropriate measures of heat stress for production ruminants. This has become an urgent challenge as production systems intensify globally in a warming climate. Bioclimatic indices such as the Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) have evolved to incorporate some measure of animal physiology. However, these indices do not have strong relationships with core temperature trajectories and altered respiratory dynamics of animals with excessive heat load. In recent decades, the careful physiology studies of the 1950-80s, have given way to numerous studies trialling a plethora of new technologies and computational approached to measure heat stress. Infrared thermography of body surface temperatures, automated measures of respiration rate and radiotelemetry of internal body temperatures are the most intensively researched. The common goal has been to find the 'holy grail' decision-making threshold or timepoint as to the animal's wellbeing. Are we making any progress?, (Crown Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Hibernation is a physiological and behavioural adaptation that permits survival during periods of reduced food availability and extreme environmental temperatures. This is achieved through cycles of metabolic depression and reduced body temperature (torpor) and rewarming (arousal). Rewarming from torpor is achieved through the activation of brown adipose tissue (BAT) associated with a rapid increase in ventilation frequency. Here, we studied the rate of rewarming in the European hamster (Cricetus cricetus) by measuring both BAT temperature, core body temperature and ventilation frequency., Results: Temperature was monitored in parallel in the BAT (IPTT tags) and peritoneal cavity (iButtons) during hibernation torpor-arousal cycling. We found that increases in brown fat temperature preceded core body temperature rises by approximately 48 min, with a maximum re-warming rate of 20.9℃*h -1 . Re-warming was accompanied by a significant increase in ventilation frequency. The rate of rewarming was slowed by the presence of a spontaneous thoracic mass in one of our animals. Core body temperature re-warming was reduced by 6.2℃*h -1 and BAT rewarming by 12℃*h -1 . Ventilation frequency was increased by 77% during re-warming in the affected animal compared to a healthy animal. Inspection of the position and size of the mass indicated it was obstructing the lungs and heart., Conclusions: We have used a minimally invasive method to monitor BAT temperature during arousal from hibernation illustrating BAT re-warming significantly precedes core body temperature re-warming, informing future study design on arousal from hibernation. We also showed compromised re-warming from hibernation in an animal with a mass obstructing the lungs and heart, likely leading to inefficient ventilation and circulation.

Objective: This study aims to identify the correlation between bispectral index (BIS) value and modified Glasgow Coma Scale (MGCS) score in dogs with altered level of consciousness (ALOC)., Design: This prospective, observational, clinical study was conducted from February 2016 to March 2017, and follow-up was conducted until the death of dogs or their discharge from the hospital., Setting: This study was performed at the Small Animal Teaching Hospital., Animals: A total of 31 client-owned dogs (males, 20; females, 11) with ALOC and MGCS score <18 with no restrictions for age, breed, sex, and body weight were included. Dogs that received neuromuscular blocking agents before MGCS score evaluation were excluded., Interventions: BIS values were measured using the Covidien BIS Loc 2 Channel OEM module and a pediatric 4 sensor with a bifrontal application pattern., Measurements and Main Results: Minimal databases of initial neurological assessment, blood profiles, and chest and skull radiographs were developed. In addition, MGCS scores and BIS values were recorded. The mean BIS values for mild, moderate, and severe brain injuries were 89.14 ± 6.52, 77.21 ± 9.82, and 50.58 ± 27.04, respectively. Correlation analysis revealed a significantly positive relationship between BIS values and MGCS scores (r = 0.75; P < 0.001)., Conclusions: The significant correlation observed between MGCS scores and BIS values in dogs with ALOC demonstrated the usefulness of BIS as an alternative to MGCS for monitoring consciousness in patients with ALOC caused by traumatic brain injury, encephalitis, etc., (© Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Society 2020.)

Several studies have demonstrated that the intensity of estrous expression is associated with ovulation, ovarian and uterine function, and fertility, and is dependent on social hierarchy and the housing system used. Data from recent studies involving spontaneous and induced estrus have shown that a greater relative increase and longer estrus (captured by different automated activity monitors; AAM) are both associated with improved pregnancy per artificial insemination (AI; around 10 to 14% increase) and decreased pregnancy losses. Intensity and duration of estrus were surprisingly weakly associated with preovulatory follicle diameter and concentrations of plasma estradiol at estrus, whereas ovulation failure was associated with low estrus intensity. Studies have also shown that the display of estrous behavior near AI was associated with the modification of expression of genes related to the immune system, adhesion molecules, and prostaglandin synthesis in the endometrium. Transcripts in leukocytes and in the conceptus tissue associated with maternal recognition of pregnancy as well as conceptus elongation were all associated with differences in the intensity of estrous expression. Most recently, studies from the United States and Canada have demonstrated that reproductive programs emphasizing detection of estrus using AAM can be successful and comparable to intensive timed AI protocol-based programs that incorporate GnRH and PGF 2α treatments. Further, one study concluded that the administration of GnRH at AI for spontaneous estrus events greatly improved pregnancy per AI, but only for cows with reduced intensity of estrous expression, showing the potential to use AAM data as a tool in targeted reproductive programs. Quantitative information from estrus events could be used to improve estrus detection and develop decision-making strategies at the farm level. Future studies in this field should aim to better understand ovarian, conceptus, and endometrial mechanisms associated with either the expression or the intensity of estrus, and to refine the identification of phenotypes related to estrus (relative increase, absolute increase, baseline levels, duration, and repeatability within cow) to improve data usage, estrus detection, and possibly genetic selection., (Copyright © 2021 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Understanding the mechanisms behind critical thermal maxima (CTmax; the high body temperature at which neuromuscular coordination is lost) of organisms is central to understanding ectotherm thermal tolerance. Body size is an often overlooked variable that may affect interpretation of CTmax, and consequently, how CTmax is used to evaluate mechanistic hypotheses of thermal tolerance. We tested the hypothesis that body size affects CTmax and its interpretation in two experimental contexts. First, in four Sceloporus species, we examined how inter- and intraspecific variation in body size affected CTmax at normoxic and experimentally induced hypoxic conditions, and cloacal heating rate under normoxic conditions. Negative relationships between body size and CTmax were exaggerated in larger species, and hypoxia-related reductions in CTmax were unaffected by body size. Smaller individuals had faster cloacal heating rates and higher CTmax, and variation in cloacal heating rate affected CTmax in the largest species. Second, we examined how body size interacted with the location of body temperature measurements (i.e., cloaca vs. brain) in Sceloporus occidentalis, then compared this in living and deceased lizards. Brain temperatures were consistently lower than cloacal temperatures. Smaller lizards had larger brain-cloacal temperature differences than larger lizards, due to a slower cloacal heating rate in large lizards. Both live and dead lizards had lower brain than cloacal temperatures, suggesting living lizards do not actively maintain lower brain temperatures when they cannot pant. Thermal inertia influences CTmax data in complex ways, and body size should therefore be considered in studies involving CTmax data on species with variable sizes., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Buffalo breeding is common in Southern Italy. Dystocia compromises dam's and newborn health and welfare. Difficult parturition could be solved through prompt calving assistance, even if the identification of the beginning of delivery is challenging. Herein, we aimed to evaluate a remote calving alarm system in 15 Mediterranean buffalo heifers. An intravaginal probe was placed close to the external cervical os once premonitory signs of delivery were observed. No vaginal discharge nor signs of discomfort were notified in the days following the insertion of the probe. Heifers calved from 48 to 72 hr after the alarm was activated. The system correctly warned the farm personnel at the beginning of stage II of parturition, except for 2 cases. In the former, the intravaginal probe was expelled but the poor carrier network coverage negatively affected phone's signal quality; in the latter, recurrent vaginal prolapse was responsible for non-retention of the probe. Overall median expulsive phase was 68 ± 8 min, while the expulsion of a female calf took 54 ± 22.0 min and 90 ± 34.0 min in males, with significant difference (p =.02). Deliveries were homogeneously distributed across a 24-hr interval. No retention of foetal membranes nor metritis was identified at postpartum clinical examination. The calving alarm system used in this work was well tolerated in buffalo heifers. The introduction of smart technology in buffalo farming could contribute to the overall farm net return by reducing calf losses, especially for calves born from sexed-sorted semen, and by increasing animal welfare through quick resolution of dystocia. Further studies will be necessary to evaluate the net return in buffalo farms which will implement a remote calving alarm system on a wider population., (© 2020 Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

A large number of studies have shown that the baboon is one of the most commonly used non-human primate (NHP) research model for the study of immunometabolic complex traits such as type 2 diabetes (T2D), insulin resistance (IR), adipose tissue dysfunction (ATD), dyslipidemia, obesity (OB) and cardiovascular disease (CVD). This paper reports on innovative technologies and advanced research strategies for energetics and translational medicine with this NHP model. This includes the following: measuring resting energy expenditure (REE) with the mobile indirect calorimeter Breezing®; monitoring daily body temperature using subcutaneously implanted data loggers; quantifying metabolic heat with veterinary infrared thermography (IRT) imaging, and non-viral non-invasive, tissue-specific ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction (UTMD) gene-based therapy. These methods are of broad utility; for example, they may facilitate the engineering of ectopic overexpression of brown adipose tissue (BAT) mUCP-1 via UTMD-gene therapy into baboon SKM to achieve weight loss, hypophagia and immunometabolic improvement. These methods will be valuable to basic and translational research, and human clinical trials, in the areas of metabolism, cardiovascular health, and immunometabolic and infectious diseases., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Until recently, animal behavior has been studied through close and extensive observation of individual animals and has relied on subjective assessments. Wearable technologies that allow the automation of dairy cow behavior recording currently dominate the precision dairy technology market. Wearable accelerometers provide new opportunities in animal ethology using quantitative measures of dairy cow behavior. Recent research developments indicate that quantitative measures of behavior may provide new objective on-farm measures to assist producers in predicting, diagnosing, and managing disease or injury on farms and allowing producers to monitor cow comfort and estrus behavior. These recent research developments and a large increase in the availability of wearable accelerometers have led to growing interest of both researchers and producers in this technology. This review aimed to summarize the studies that have validated lying behavior derived from accelerometers and to describe the factors that should be considered when using leg-attached accelerometers and neck-worn collars to describe lying behavior (e.g., lying time and lying bouts) in dairy cows for research purposes. Specifically, we describe accelerometer technology, including the instrument properties and methods for recording motion; the raw data output from accelerometers; and methods developed for the transformation of raw data into meaningful and interpretable information. We highlight differences in validation study outcomes for researchers to consider when developing their own experimental methodology for the use of accelerometers to record lying behaviors in dairy cows. Finally, we discuss several factors that may influence the data recorded by accelerometers and highlight gaps in the literature. We conclude that researchers using accelerometers to record lying behaviors in dairy cattle should (1) select an accelerometer device that, based on device attachment and sampling rate, is appropriate to record the behavior of interest; (2) account for cow-, farm-, and management-related factors that could affect the lying behaviors recorded; (3) determine the appropriate editing criteria for the accurate interpretation of their data; (4) support their chosen method of recording, editing, and interpreting the data by referencing an appropriately designed and accurate validation study published in the literature; and (5) report, in detail, their methodology to ensure others can decipher how the data were captured and understand potential limitations of their methodology. We recommend that standardized protocols be developed for collecting, analyzing, and reporting lying behavior data recorded using wearable accelerometers for dairy cattle., (© 2020, The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. and Fass Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).)

In this study, the utility of a commercial intravaginal thermometer was evaluated as an automated method for the prediction of calving in a total of 257 healthy pregnant Holstein-Friesian female cattle. The accuracy and the sensitivity of predicting calving within 48 hr before calving were also evaluated. The intravaginal temperature changes from 72 hr before and up to calving were significantly (p ≤ .001) affected by parity, season (summer vs. autumn), the time of day (8 a.m. or 8 p.m.) and the 6-hr time intervals (38.19°C: first interval 0 to 6 hr before calving vs. 38.78°C: twelfth interval 66 to 72 hr before calving), while the gender (p = .943), and the weight of the calf (p = .610), twinning (p = .300), gestation length (p = .186), foetal presentation (p = .123), dystocia (p = .197) and retention of foetal membranes (p = .253) did not affect it significantly. The sensitivity of the SMS of expecting calving within 48 hr and the positive predictive value were 62.4% and 75%, respectively, while the sensitivity and the positive predictive value for the SMS of expulsion reached 100%. It can be concluded that the investigated thermometer is not able to predict calving within 48 hr accurately; however, imminent calving can be accurately alerted., (© 2020 The Authors. Reproduction in Domestic Animals published by Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Assessing and treating cardiovascular disease (or heart disease) is a growing concern for institutions housing great apes, as it is a major cause of mortality in all four taxa managed in human care. As part of a proactive monitoring plan, zoological managers and veterinarians often elect to perform electrocardiograms (ECGs) on their great ape populations. ECGs noninvasively evaluate cardiac electrical activity, and are thereby capable of providing information regarding heart function. This electrical signature is transcribed as a visual display of waveforms, referred to as telemetry strips, and can detect irregularities in heart rhythm, also known as arrhythmia. While traditional 6- or 12-lead ECGs are recommended periodically as part of a thorough heart performance evaluation, here we discuss the KardiaMobile (KM) device as an additional primate welfare tool. KM is a small, Food and Drug Administration-cleared, clinical-grade mobile ECG monitor that requires only 30 s of pressure to flag heart rate or arrhythmic abnormalities. We detail the training process and applicability to great apes in human care., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Accurate tracking and analysis of animal behavior is crucial for modern systems neuroscience. However, following freely moving animals in naturalistic, three-dimensional (3D) or nocturnal environments remains a major challenge. Here, we present EthoLoop, a framework for studying the neuroethology of freely roaming animals. Combining real-time optical tracking and behavioral analysis with remote-controlled stimulus-reward boxes, this system allows direct interactions with animals in their habitat. EthoLoop continuously provides close-up views of the tracked individuals and thus allows high-resolution behavioral analysis using deep-learning methods. The behaviors detected on the fly can be automatically reinforced either by classical conditioning or by optogenetic stimulation via wirelessly controlled portable devices. Finally, by combining 3D tracking with wireless neurophysiology we demonstrate the existence of place-cell-like activity in the hippocampus of freely moving primates. Taken together, we show that the EthoLoop framework enables interactive, well-controlled and reproducible neuroethological studies in large-field naturalistic settings.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the net return of the implementation of a remote calving monitoring system for obstetrical and neonatal assistance on the herd economy in a dairy farm model. A total of 680 parturitions over a 7-yr period were evaluated. Age at first calving was restricted from 23 to 27 mo for primiparous cows to be included. Among groups of cows that were ready to calve in a 15-d interval, primiparous and multiparous were randomly assigned to the experimental group and monitored through a calving alarm system, whereas the others accounted for controls. Final parturition groups were as follows: control primiparous (CPP, n = 218), control multiparous (CM, n = 345), monitored primiparous (MPP, n = 56), and monitored multiparous (MM, n = 61). Monitored groups received prompt calving assistance and first neonatal care, whereas the presence of farm personnel was discontinuous for controls. A biological model was built considering significant differences in calf loss, early culling, milk production, and days open between groups. Then, a partial budget model was used to estimate costs and net return on a simulated herd of 100 lactating cows. Incidence of calf death was greater in control groups (11.06% and 10.73% in CPP and CM, respectively) compared with monitored cows (0.00% and 1.69% in MPP and MM, respectively). Multiparous cows with calf loss had increased relative risk (relative risk = 3.487) for early culling compared with multiparous counterparts with no neonatal loss. Daily milk production in the first 2 mo was 3.79 kg greater in multiparous cows with no dead calf, compared with their counterparts. A significant difference in median days open was found in MPP and CPP (118 and 148 d, respectively). In the final economic model, different simulations were analyzed. They were created assuming different prices or hypothesizing calving monitoring only in primiparous animals. The model estimated different, but always positive, net return. In conclusion, implementing a calving alarm system led to a net return from €37 to 90 per cow per year (€1 = US$1.15 at the time of the study). However, the device alone is not sufficient: it must be supported by qualified calving monitoring and assistance. Optimized personnel presence in the calving area at the right time leads to prompt calving and neonatal calf assistance and colostrum feeding within the first hours of life, thus reducing calf death and days open, and increasing milk production., (The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. and Fass Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).)

The objective of this study was to evaluate estrous detection using a physical activity and rumination monitoring system in a seasonal calving organic grazing (GRAZ) and a low-input conventional (ZEROGRAZ) dairy herd. The study was conducted from June 2014 to August 2017. During each breeding season, physical activity and rumination were monitored electronically using an activity and rumination monitoring system (HR-LD tags; SCR Engineers Ltd., Netanya, Israel). Signals resulting from the activity and rumination monitoring system for individual cows were used to determine consistency of the values using this system with the breeding date of cows. Breeding dates were determined using Estrotect TM patches. The study included 1,463 breeding dates from 531 cows. Within the GRAZ herd, during the summer breeding season the monitoring system was less sensitive for estrous detection (33.8 %) than during the winter breeding season (79.8 %).The activity and rumination monitoring system had a sensitivity of 56.7 %, specificity of 99.3 % and positive predictive value of 59.8 % for the GRAZ herd, and sensitivity of 70.1 %, specificity of 99.2 % and positive predictive value of 66.3 % for the ZEROGRAZ herd. For cows that were determined to be pregnant and subsequently calved as a result of the mating, the sensitivity for estrous detection was slightly greater for the GRAZ (60.7 %) and ZEROGRAZ (72.5 %) herds. The activity and rumination monitoring system evaluated in this study has potential for estrous detection in grazing herds during the winter breeding season and in small-input dairy herds during both, winter and summer breeding seasons., (Copyright © 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The chicken embryo is a widely used experimental animal model in many studies, including in the field of developmental biology, of the physiological responses and adaptation to altered environments, and for cancer and neurobiology research. The embryonic heart rate is an important physiological variable used as an index reflecting the embryo's natural activity and is considered one of the most difficult parameters to measure. An acceptable measurement technique of embryonic heart rate should provide a reliable cardiac signal quality while maintaining adequate gas exchange through the eggshell during the incubation and embryonic developmental period. In this paper, we present a detailed design and methodology for a non-invasive photoplethysmography (PPG)-based prototype (Egg-PPG) for real-time and continuous monitoring of embryonic heart rate during incubation. An automatic embryonic cardiac wave detection algorithm, based on normalised spectral entropy, is described. The developed algorithm successfully estimated the embryonic heart rate with 98.7% accuracy. We believe that the system presented in this paper is a promising solution for non-invasive, real-time monitoring of the embryonic cardiac signal. The proposed system can be used in both experimental studies (e.g., developmental embryology and cardiovascular research) and in industrial incubation applications.

This Research Reflection addresses the possibilities for Welfare Quality® to evolve from an assessment method based on data gathered on punctual visits to the farm to an assessment method based on sensor data. This approach could provide continuous and objective data, while being less costly and time consuming. Precision Livestock Farming (PLF) technologies enabling the monitorisation of Welfare Quality® measures are reviewed and discussed. For those measures that cannot be assessed by current technologies, some options to be developed are proposed. Picturing future dairy farms, the need for multipurpose and non-invasive PLF technologies is stated, in order to avoid an excessive artificialisation of the production system. Social concerns regarding digitalisation are also discussed.

The growth in wirelessly enabled sensor network technologies has enabled the low cost deployment of sensor platforms with applications in a range of sectors and communities. In the agricultural domain such sensors have been the foundation for the creation of decision support tools that enhance farm operational efficiency. This Research Reflection illustrates how these advances are assisting dairy farmers to optimise performance and illustrates where emerging sensor technology can offer additional benefits. One of the early applications for sensor technology at an individual animal level was the accurate identification of cattle entering into heat (oestrus) to increase the rate of successful pregnancies and thus optimise milk yield per animal. This was achieved through the use of activity monitoring collars and leg tags. Additional information relating to the behaviour of the cattle, namely the time spent eating and ruminating, was subsequently derived from collars giving further insights of economic value into the wellbeing of the animal, thus an enhanced range of welfare related services have been provisioned. The integration of the information from neck-mounted collars with the compositional analysis data of milk measured at a robotic milking station facilitates the early diagnosis of specific illnesses such as mastitis. The combination of different data streams also serves to eliminate the generation of false alarms, improving the decision making capability. The principle of integrating more data streams from deployed on-farm systems, for example, with feed composition data measured at the point of delivery using instrumented feeding wagons, supports the optimisation of feeding strategies and identification of the most productive animals. Optimised feeding strategies reduce operational costs and minimise waste whilst ensuring high welfare standards. These IoT-inspired solutions, made possible through Internet-enabled cloud data exchange, have the potential to make a major impact within farming practices. This paper gives illustrative examples and considers where new sensor technology from the automotive industry may also have a role.

The objectives of the 2 studies reported herein were to validate the accuracy of an automated monitoring device (AMD) to detect side lying, resting, activity, rumination, eating, walking, and panting in nonlactating and lactating dairy cows. Additionally, we aimed to determine whether the total time per cow-state recorded by the AMD within a 30-min interval corresponds to the total time per cow-state recorded simultaneously by visual observation. Study personnel (n = 2) observed pregnant nonlactating Holstein cows (n = 10) for 30 min in the morning and 30 min in the afternoon for 6 consecutive days and recorded continuously each cow-state. In study 2, study personnel (n = 2) observed lactating Holstein cows (n = 10) for 30 min in the morning and 30 min in the afternoon for 6 consecutive days. In both studies, cow-state was recorded every second, and within 1 min, the most prevalent cow-state was considered to be the behavior presented by the cow during that interval. Using the observer as the gold standard, test characteristics were calculated for the minute-by-minute interval analyses. For the 30-min interval analyses, the concordance correlation coefficient (p c ) and the coefficient of determination (R 2 ) between the total minutes for each cow-state recorded by the observer and the AMD were calculated. In study 1, for the minute-by-minute interval analyses, test characteristics were high for rumination (≥90.1%) and eating (≥73.8%), moderate for resting (≥62.9%), but negligible for medium activity (≥17%). For the 30-min interval analyses, the correlations between the total time of visual observations compared with the total time recorded by AMD for rumination (R 2 = 0.97, p c = 0.98) and eating (R 2 = 0.91, p c = 0.94) were very high, for resting (R 2 = 0.77, p c = 0.79) was high, and for medium activity (R 2 = 0.41, p c = 0.41) was low. In study 2, for the minute-by-minute interval analyses, test characteristics were high for rumination (≥79.4%), eating (≥74.2%), and resting (≥73.0%), but they were low for panting (≥31.3%) and negligible for medium activity (≥22.2%). For the 30-min interval analyses, the correlations were similar to study 1 (rumination: R 2 = 0.85, p c = 0.91; eating: R 2 = 0.95, p c = 0.97; resting: R 2 = 0.84, p c = 0.90; medium activity: R 2 = 0.44, p c = 0.57; and panting: R 2 = 0.21, p c = 0.42). In summary, the AMD used in this study provided accurate data regarding resting, rumination, and eating of pregnant nonlactating and lactating Holstein cows., (Copyright © 2020 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Diversity of production systems and specific socio-economic barriers are key reasons explaining why the implementation of new technologies in small ruminants, despite being needed and beneficial for farmers, is harder than in other livestock species. There are, however, helpful peculiarities where small ruminants are concerned: the compulsory use of electronic identification created a unique scenario in Europe in which all small ruminant breeding stock became searchable by appropriate sensing solutions, and the largest small ruminant population in the world is located in Asia, close to the areas producing new technologies. Notwithstanding, only a few research initiatives and literature reviews have addressed the development of new technologies in small ruminants. This Research Reflection focuses on small ruminants (with emphasis on dairy goats and sheep) and reviews in a non-exhaustive way the basic concepts, the currently available sensor solutions and the structure and elements needed for the implementation of sensor-based husbandry decision support. Finally, some examples of results obtained using several sensor solutions adapted from large animals or newly developed for small ruminants are discussed. Significant room for improvement is recognized and a large number of multiple-sensor solutions are expected to be developed in the relatively near future.

Osteoarthritis in cats is more prevalent because cats are living longer with advancement in veterinary medicine. Objective evaluation of behavioral changes in cats with osteoarthritis can facilitate an early diagnosis. The objective of this study was to investigate the utility of a novel activity monitor for analyzing physical activities and sleep quality in cats. First, a novel activity monitor (Plus Cycle®; JARMeC, Kanagawa, Japan), with a built-in three-directional accelerometer and an air pressure sensor specifically designed for cats, was compared to a human activity monitor (Actical®; Philips Respironics, OR, USA) previously used in cats (n = 10). Second, the validity of the measurement accuracy of the amount of physical activity, the number of vibrations, the number of jumps, and the resting and sleeping time was evaluated using Plus Cycle® in healthy cats (n = 6). Finally, the effects of gender and age of cats and time of day on the amount of physical activity, the number of vibrations, the number of jumps, and the resting and sleeping time were investigated in client-owned cats (n = 61). There were strong correlations between Plus Cycle® and Actical® in total activity (p < 0.05) and activity intensity (p < 0.05). When the physical activities were measured using Plus Cycle® in healthy cats, those data were quantified with high accuracy. In addition, it was also found to be very accurate in discriminating the resting and sleeping conditions of cats. In client-owned cats, there were no significant differences with respect to gender in any measured traits. The amount of physical activity and the number of jumps significantly decreased with the age of the cat. In contrast, the resting and sleeping times significantly increased with the age of the cat. In conclusion, Plus Cycle® can accurately and objectively assess physical activities and sleep quality with age of the cat, suggesting that this novel activity monitor can be used to manage the feline musculoskeletal health., Competing Interests: Plus Cycle® devices were lent to Nihon University from Japan Animal Referral Medical Center (JARMeC) in this study. JARMeC explained the usage of Plus Cycle® device and cooperated on the access to raw data of the server for borrowed Plus Cycle® devices. MY and HH are employees of JARMeC. The authors would like to declare the following patents/patent applications associated with this research: Japan Animal Referral Medical Center is applying for a patent (Status: Pending, Patent No. JP2017-514095). This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.

Economic losses due to dystocia or neonatal death as well as animal welfare and ethical concerns demand a reliable prediction of parturition with the aim to improve survival of the dam and her offspring. In this review, estimation of gestational age by ultrasound and prediction of parturition based on clinical signs, behaviour changes and changes in body temperature, composition of mammary gland secretions as well as hormonal changes are discussed in comparison between horses and cattle. Based on the physiological changes associated with the end of gestation and onset of labor, several systems and methods to predict parturition in horses and cattle have been developed. Physiological differences related to breed, maternal age and parity, pathological changes due to intrauterine growth retardation, placental problems or general illness of the dam but also housing and management systems bias a reliable prediction of parturition. This may be acceptable in cattle as long as birth alarm systems give satisfying results at herd level. The situation is different in the horse where the economic and emotional value of an individual mare and her foal usually reaches different dimensions than in cows. The possibilities for prediction of parturition can thus be discussed together, the consequences, however, may differ considerably between the two species., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Feed intake and time spent eating at the feed bunk are important predictors of dairy cows' productivity and animal welfare, and deviations from normal eating behavior may indicate subclinical or clinical disease. In the current study, we developed a random forests algorithm to predict dairy cows' daily eating time (of a total mixed ration from a common feed bunk) using data from a 3-dimensional accelerometer and a radiofrequency identification (RFID) prototype device (logger) mounted on a neck collar. Models were trained on continuous focal animal observations from a total of 24 video recordings of 18 dairy cows at the Danish Cattle Research Centre (Foulum, Tjele, Denmark). Each session lasted from 21 to 48 h. The models included both the present time signal and observations several seconds back in time (lag window). These time-lagged signals were included with the purpose of capturing changes over time. Because of the high costs of installing an RFID antenna in the feed bunk, we also investigated a model based solely on 3-dimensional accelerometer data. Furthermore, to address the trade-off between prediction accuracy and reduced model complexity and its implications for battery longevity, we investigated the importance of including observations back in time using lag window sizes between 8 and 128 s. Performance was evaluated by internal leave-one-cow-out cross-validation. The results indicated that we obtained accurate predictions of daily eating time. For the most complex model (a lag window size of 128 s), the median of the balanced accuracy was 0.95 (interquartile interval: 0.93 to 0.96), and the median daily eating time deviation was 7 min 37 s (interquartile interval: -6 to 15 min). The median of the average daily eating time during sessions was 3 h 41 min with an interquartile interval of 2 h 56 min to 4 h 16 min. Exclusion of RFID data resulted in a considerable decrease in prediction accuracy, mainly due to a decreased sensitivity of locating the cow at the feed bunk (median balanced accuracy of 0.87 at a lag window size of 128 s). In contrast, prediction accuracy only slightly decreased with decreasing lag window size (median balanced accuracy of 0.94 at a lag window size of 8 s). We suggest a lag window size of 64 s for further development of the prototype logger. The methodology presented in this paper may be relevant for future automatic recordings of eating behavior in commercial dairy herds., (Copyright © 2020 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Cardiac output, stroke volume, and measurement of other hemodynamic parameters can be useful in the management of critical patients. Given the broad size disparity of veterinary patients, the raw values can vary widely. Their indexed values, however, allow for quick assessment of hemodynamic status and a more standardized target setting by the veterinary care team. Monitors such as lithium dilution cardiac output (LiDCO) and pulse contour cardiac output (PICCO) can display and record the data using indexed values as long as the correct body surface area (BSA) is used. In people, the BSA is calculated using the DuBois formula by entering the patient's weight and height; however, it does not apply to animals because the equivalent relationship is not represented by this formula. Given that the hemodynamic monitors are manufactured for use in human patients, the calculations need to the adapted for veterinary use. As such, the Dubois formula has been rearranged to calculate an assumed height to be entered in the monitor software along with the patient's weight. Once the information is entered, a correct BSA will be calculated by the monitor, and indexed data will be readily available for analysis., Key Findings: Tables with the calculated heights for dogs and cats were generated. The weights and calculated heights were computed into the LiDCO and PICCO monitors for verification, and the correct BSAs were displayed as a result., Significance: The information supplied here allows clinicians and researchers to quickly input patient data into the hemodynamic monitor and obtain indexed data. Indexed data facilitates advanced hemodynamic monitoring by standardizing targets (goal-directed therapy) and allowing for quicker comparison between patients. The table could be used with any monitor that utilizes the DuBois formula for BSA calculation, but the resulting BSA should be validated before proceeding with hemodynamic monitoring., (© Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Society 2020.)

Worldwide, there is a trend towards increased herd sizes, and the animal-to-stockman ratio is increasing within the beef and dairy sectors; thus, the time available to monitoring individual animals is reducing. The behaviour of cows is known to change in the hours prior to parturition, for example, less time ruminating and eating and increased activity level and tail-raise events. These behaviours can be monitored non-invasively using animal-mounted sensors. Thus, behavioural traits are ideal variables for the prediction of calving. This study explored the potential of two sensor technologies for their capabilities in predicting when calf expulsion should be expected. Two trials were conducted at separate locations: (i) beef cows (n = 144) and (ii) dairy cows (n = 110). Two sensors were deployed on each cow: (1) Afimilk Silent Herdsman (SHM) collars monitoring time spent ruminating (RUM), eating (EAT) and the relative activity level (ACT) of the cow, and (2) tail-mounted Axivity accelerometers to detect tail-raise events (TAIL). The exact time the calf was expelled from the cow was determined by viewing closed-circuit television camera footage. Machine learning random forest algorithms were developed to predict when calf expulsion should be expected using single-sensor variables and by integrating multiple-sensor data-streams. The performance of the models was tested using the Matthew's correlation coefficient (MCC), the area under the curve, and the sensitivity and specificity of predictions. The TAIL model was slightly better at predicting calving within a 5-h window for beef cows (MCC = 0.31) than for dairy cows (MCC = 0.29). The TAIL + RUM + EAT models were equally as good at predicting calving within a 5-h window for beef and dairy cows (MCC = 0.32 for both models). Combining data-streams from SHM and tail sensors did not substantially improve model performance over tail sensors alone; therefore, hour-by-hour algorithms for the prediction of time of calf expulsion were developed using tail sensor data. Optimal classification occurred at 2 h prior to calving for both beef (MCC = 0.29) and dairy cows (MCC = 0.25). This study showed that tail sensors alone are adequate for the prediction of parturition and that the optimal time for prediction is 2 h before expulsion of the calf.

Objective: To assess agreement between oscillometric noninvasive blood pressure (NIBP) measurements using LifeWindow monitors (LW9xVet and LW6000V) and invasive blood pressure (IBP). To assess the agreement of NIBP readings using a ratio of cuff width to mid-cannon circumference of 25% and 40%., Study Design: Prospective, randomized clinical study., Animals: A total of 43 adult horses undergoing general anesthesia in dorsal recumbency for different procedures., Methods: Anesthetic protocols varied according to clinician preference. IBP measurement was achieved after cannulation of the facial artery and connection to an appropriately positioned transducer connected to one of two LifeWindow multiparameter monitors (models: LW6000V and LW9xVet). Accuracy of monitors was checked daily using a mercury manometer. For each horse, NIBP was measured with two cuff widths (corresponding to 25% or 40% of mid-cannon bone circumference), both connected to the same monitor, and six paired IBP/NIBP readings were recorded (at least 3 minutes between readings). NIBP values were corrected to the relative level of the xiphoid process. A Bland-Altman analysis for repeated measures was used to assess bias (NIBP-IBP) and limits of agreement (LOAs)., Results: The 40% cuff width systolic arterial pressure [SAP; bias 7.9 mmHg, LOA -26.6 to 42.3; mean arterial pressure (MAP): bias 4.9 mmHg, LOA -28.2 to 38.0; diastolic arterial pressure (DAP): bias 4.2 mmHg, LOA -31.4 to 39.7)] performed better than the 25% cuff width (SAP: bias 26.4 mmHg, LOA -21.0 to 73.9; MAP: bias 15.7 mmHg, LOA -23.8 to 55.2; DAP: bias 10.9 mmHg, LOA -33.2 to 54.9)., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Using the LifeWindow multiparameter monitor in anesthetized horses, the 40% cuff width provided better agreement with IBP; however, both cuff sizes and both monitor models failed to meet American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine Consensus Statement Guidelines., (Copyright © 2020 Association of Veterinary Anaesthetists and American College of Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)