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Bulgaria is a country with an extremely diverse nature. Unlike a number of European countries, Bulgarian nature is relatively well preserved. For the purposes of its protection, a network of protected areas was created, which occupy 5.3% of the country's territory. Bulgaria also participates in a number of international initiatives, which put about 1/3 of the territory of Bulgaria under protection of the natural environment. According to the Protected areas Act in Bulgaria, 6 categories are distinguished - national parks, natural parks, reserves, maintained reserves, protected localities, natural attractions. Among them, important resources for the development of tourism are national parks, natural parks, protected localities and natural attractions. They represent unique sites for the development of alternative forms of tourism such as ecological, cultural-cognitive, route-cognitive tourism, etc. On the other hand, reserves and maintained reserves prohibit tourism activities. The network of protected areas is unevenly developed throughout the country. It is better represented in the mountainous areas, and in the plain parts of the country it is more limited due to the strong anthropogenic changes and the pressure from various human activities. In connection with the preserved nature, the mountains are preferred sites for tourism. The contribution of the protected areas in this regard is significant. Stara planina tourist region is among the country's tourist areas with well-defined mountainous characteristics. This is an important prerequisite both for the preservation of nature and for the formation of a suitable environment for recreation and tourism, and the mentioned directions are mutually bound. The purpose of this article is to valorize the protected areas in Stara Planina tourist region and to highlight the possibilities for their current and future use for the development of tourism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global policies call for connecting protected areas (PAs) to conserve the flow of animals and genes across changing landscapes, yet whether global PA networks currently support animal movement—and where connectivity conservation is most critical—remain largely unknown. In this study, we map the functional connectivity of the world’s terrestrial PAs and quantify national PA connectivity through the lens of moving mammals. We find that mitigating the human footprint may improve connectivity more than adding new PAs, although both strategies together maximize benefits. The most globally important areas of concentrated mammal movement remain unprotected, with 71% of these overlapping with global biodiversity priority areas and 6% occurring on land with moderate to high human modification. Conservation and restoration of critical connectivity areas could safeguard PA connectivity while supporting other global conservation priorities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seychelles is a small island nation with large maritime areas. It has an enviable natural environment and significant endemic biodiversity, both of which are at risk due to environmental pressures. Seychelles has been an active participant at the global level, ratifying a number of environmental treaties and leading blue economy developments. Nevertheless, its size and developing country status calls into question Seychelles' ability to meet its goals. This issue is particularly pressing given the recent debt swap arrangement and commitment to establish marine protected areas across thirty percent of its exclusive economic zone. Relatively little legal research has been published in relation to Seychelles' environmental laws. This article contributes to the literature by examining Seychelles' area-based protection laws focusing particularly on the marine environment. The article analyses the legal frameworks and explores the extent to which these will enable Seychelles to meet its blue economy and marine conservation goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The siting of protected areas to achieve management and conservation objectives draws heavily on biogeographic concepts of the spatial distribution and connectivity of species. However, the marine protected area (MPA) literature rarely acknowledges how biogeographic theories underpin MPA and MPA network design. We review which theories from biogeography have been incorporated into marine spatial planning and which relevant concepts have yet to be translated to inform the next generation of design principles. This biogeographic perspective will only become more relevant as climate change amplifies these spatial and temporal dynamics, and as species begin to shift in and out of existing MPAs. The scale of climate velocities predicted for the 21st century dwarfs all but the largest MPAs currently in place, raising the possibility that in coming decades many MPAs will no longer contain the species or assemblages they were established to protect. We present a number of design elements that could improve the success of MPAs and MPA networks in light of biogeographic processes and climate change. Biogeographically informed MPA networks of the future may resemble the habitat corridors currently being considered for many terrestrial regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Together with a better appreciation for the importance of protected areas, efforts for environmental protection have been increasing both at international and national level. However, when changes in policies related to protected areas are evaluated it is observed that in some countries protected areas administrations highlight utilisation rather than conservation. Turkey is also one of those countries which undergo such discussions. Although there has been no significant increase in the number of protected areas whose protection characteristics are highlighted, there has been an extreme increase in the number of recreation areas and newly established nature parks. In addition, it was found out that significant changes have been made with regards to regulations, administrative approaches, and implementation practices to enable opening of protected areas to non-forestry uses. Moreover, regulations such as the “Resolution for Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Law” are brought forward in this period, which will increase the utilisation of protected areas. Current nature protection policies and administrative approaches that highlight utilisation should be radically changed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine Protected Areas (MPA) are one of the several means of protecting ocean biodiversity and are fundamental to the Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 of 2010. However, many existing reserves are inefficient in meeting current conservation goals and are questioned regarding their habitat representivity. This paper assesses the efficiency of existing Welsh reserves in meeting conservation goals, including implications of changing objectives. Marxan conservation planning software was used to determine 20 broad-scale habitat types found in territorial seas, using data obtained from the European Environment Agency's Level 3 Predicted EUNIS Habitats GIS dataset. Results demonstrated that the current Welsh MPA network, even at the lowest conservation targets (≤10%), fails to suitably represent more than two-thirds of the broad-scale habitats found in its coastal waters. Subsequently, a range of alternative reserve design scenarios was developed to reduce inefficiency opportunity costs. Analysis indicated that an increase of less than 5% in total reserve area, plus a retention of 75% of the current network area, would create a new network to meet or exceed all stated conservation goals. Therefore, existing reserves can be incorporated into an efficient, ecologically representative network that reduces international conservation opportunity costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of total area protected as the predominant indicator of progress in building protected area (PA) networks is receiving growing criticism. Documenting the full dynamics of PA networks, both in terms of the gains and losses in protection, provides a much more informative approach to tracking progress. To this end, documentation of PA downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement (PADDD) has increased. Studies of PADDD events generally fail to place these losses in the context of gains in protection; therefore, they omit important elements of PA network dynamics. To address this limitation, we used a spatially explicit approach to identify every parcel of land added to and excised from the Australian terrestrial PA network and PAs that had their level of protection changed over 17 years (1997-2014). By quantifying changes in the spatial configuration of the PA network with time-series data (spatial layers for nine separate time steps), ours is the first assessment of the dynamics (increases and decreases in area and level of protection) of a PA network and the first comprehensive assessment of PADDD in a developed country. We found that the Australian network was highly dynamic; there were 5233 changes in area or level of protection over 17 years. Against a background of enormous increases in area protected, we identified over 1500 PADDD events, which affected over one-third of the network, which were largely the result of widespread downgrading of protection. We believe our approach provides a mechanism for robust tracking of trends in the world's PAs through the use of data from the World Database on Protected Areas. However, this will require greater transparency and improved data standards in reporting changes to PAs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine ecosystems are exposed to significant anthropogenic pressure mainly due to the exploitation of biotic and abiotic marine resources. Marine protected areas (MPAs) are important tools to achieve local and global marine conservation targets. Marine ecosystems generate goods and services vital for human well-being. Their value can be explored not only from an economic viewpoint based on market and human preferences, but also using a biophysical perspective based on the accounting of environmental costs sustained for the generation of natural capital stocks and ecosystem services flows. In this study, the value of natural capital in the MPA “the Islands of Ventotene and S. Stefano” (Central Italy) was assessed applying a biophysical and trophodynamic environmental accounting model based on emergy accounting. The value of natural capital was estimated for the main habitats of the investigated MPA in terms of the work done by the biosphere for its generation and maintenance. Both the autotrophic and heterotrophic natural capital of the MPA was evaluated. The highest value of emergy density of 4.26∙10 11 sej m −2 was shown by the habitat “ Posidonia oceanica seagrass bed” when investigating the autotrophic natural capital. The sciaphilic hard bottom habitat (coralligenous) showed the highest value of emergy density of 2.76∙10 12 sej m −2 when investigating the heterotrophic natural capital. The high emergy cost of coralligenous confirmed the importance of this habitat that represents one of the most important hot spot of species diversity in the Mediterranean Sea. The total emergy value of natural capital of the MPA was converted to monetary units by using the emergy-to-money ratio for Italy, resulting in 8.26 M€. Finally, a GIS tool was used to show the spatial distribution of natural capital values in relation to different habitats. The outcomes of this study highlighted the usefulness of the applied biophysical and trophodynamic environmental accounting model to explore the ecological value of natural capital in marine ecosystems while supporting local managers and policy makers for the sustainable development of MPAs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wrasse (Labridae) fisheries have increased markedly in Norway since 2010. Wrasse are being used as cleaner fish in salmonid aquaculture to control sea-lice infestations. However, fundamental knowledge on the demography and abundance of the targeted wrasse populations in Norwegian waters is lacking, and the consequences of harvesting at the current intensity have not been assessed. Here, we compared catch per unit effort (CPUE), size, age and sex ratio of goldsinny wrasse (Ctenolabrus rupestris) and corkwing wrasse (Symphodus melops) between marine protected areas (MPAs) and control areas open for fishing at four localities on the Skagerrak coast in Southern Norway. The CPUE of goldsinny larger than the minimum size limit was 33–65% higher within MPAs, while for corkwing three of four MPAs had higher CPUE with the relative difference between MPAs and control areas ranging from −16% to 92%. Moreover, corkwing, but not goldsinny, was significantly older and larger within MPAs than in control areas. Sex ratios did not differ between MPAs and control areas for either species. Our study suggests that despite its short history, the wrasse fisheries have considerable impacts on the target populations and, further, that small MPAs hold promise as a management tool for maintaining natural population sizes and size structure. Goldsinny, being a smaller-sized species, also seems to benefit from the traditional minimum size limit management tool, which applies outside MPAs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently the Ninth Circuit reached a decision that eliminated nearly 70,000 acres of suitable domestic sheep grazing land, when it held that disease transmission between bighorn sheep and domestic sheep was an extremely relevant factor in assessing the high mortality rates of bighorn sheep. This decision pertained to bighorn and domestic sheep in the Payette National Forest, and could be a pivotal point for agencies to adopt a comprehensive method called tiering. Tiering was created pursuant to the National Environmental Policy Act, and encourages agencies (such as the Bureau of Land Management or the United States Forest Service) to take smaller site specific projects or programs, that require immediate action, and reference a broad Environmentallmpact Statement (EIS) created as a programmatic document or regional assessment created earlier in time. There are a handful of requirements that an agency needs to consider before it tiers to a preexisting document; mainly due to extensive case law and the ambiguous statutory language surrounding the National Environmental Policy Act. The 2010 Supplemental ETS (SEIS) was an endeavor to amend the 2003 Southwest Idaho Ecogroup Land and Resource Management Plan Final EIS (FEIS) for the Payette National Forest. The Land and Resource Management Plan was a regional planning effort to revise the 1988 Payette National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan (Forest Plan), which was required by the Nat ional Forest Management Act. The 2010 SEIS is a product of agency analysis coupled with some of the most recent and pertinent scientific literature addressing disease transmission from domestic sheep to bighorn s heep because it withstood numerous appeals and made it through the litigation process. That document, coupled with the national guidelines and objectives fashioned by the Wild Sheep Working Group, could be used by other agencies in similarly situated circumstances to decrease the extreme workload that those agencies experience when creating an EIS or Environmen tal Assessment (EA) for their own projects that address bighorn sheep viability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sole direction in the Wilderness Act of 1964 concerning commercial livestock grazing in wilderness is forty words long: "Within wilderness areas in the national forests designated by this Art, the grazing of livestock. where established prior to September 3, 1964, shall be permitted to continue subject to such reasonable regulations as are deemed necessary by the Secretary of Agriculture." We discuss just what these words mean in the context of the law and the subsequent so-called Congressional Grazing Guidelines, and examine recent agency misinterpretations of this direction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article talks about guidelines to develop tourism sustainably in protected areas, economic impacts of tourism on country level and protected area level, and approaches by private sector tourism to ensure sustainability and their role in tourism innovation and progress.

This article discusses the impact of the minimization of the protected land of Bears Ears National Monument in Utah by President Donald Trump in 2017. The author comments on the reduced funding of paleontological research projects in the region, which contains a density of fossils from the Triassic period as well as ancient Native American artifacts. The redesignation has opened the land to mining, off-road vehicles, and and other environmentally-damaging activities.

The US National Wilderness Preservation System (NWPS) is the world's largest wilderness protection network, yet within the contiguous United States (CONUS) it does not encompass the diversity nor is it fully representative of ecological systems on federal lands. To potentially increase NWPS diversity and representation, we simulated adding potentially eligible lands within CONUS, in the following sequence, to assess changes in ecological systems: National Park Lands not currently designated wilderness; non-NWPS lands currently managed to not degrade wilderness character; USDA Forest Service Inventoried Roadless Areas; and Bureau of Land Management roadless lands. Inclusion of these categories would increase the NWPS area from 12.8 to 48.3% of federal lands, increase diversity by adding 46 ecological systems, and nearly triple the number of ecological systems on federal lands with >20% representation. Our analysis identifies opportunities to increase diversity and representation of ecological systems within the NWPS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Between 2003 and 2012, the terrestrial area protected for conservation increased slightly, from 11.9 to 12.2 percent globally. Using data from the World Database on Protected Areas and Olson et al.'s (2001) ecological regionalization scheme, we examined the changing distribution of nationally designated protected areas. Over this period, the distribution of protected areas became slightly more even by realm, but biases increased across biomes. Current biases perpetuate long-standing trends, favoring more biodiverse ecosystems (especially tropical rainforests) at the expense of the “less lush” (particularly dry forests and deserts). Ecosystems of high agricultural value, especially temperate grasslands, also remain underrepresented. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We estimate the impact of strict and multiple-use protected areas on forest disturbance in European Russia between 1985 and 2010. We construct a spatial panel dataset that includes five periods of change. We match protected areas to control observations and compare coefficients from fixed-versus random-effects models. We find that protected areas have few statistically significant impacts on disturbance, with little difference across parks closer to or farther from major cities or roads. Random-effects estimates differ qualitatively and quantitatively from those of fixed effects in our study, serving as a cautionary note for evaluations where time-invariant unobservables are important. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The article focuses on the creation of Ejagham Forest Reserve (EFR) in Cameroon and laws that governed the creation of protected areas in Cameroon for conservation of ecological resources, promotion of ecotourism and improvement of the livelihoods of individual communities. It discusses the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Report compiled by the African Centre for Applied Forestry Research and Development (CARFAD) in June 2009 and several species of fauna and flora found in the EFR.

The Portuguese National Ecological Reserve (NER) was created in 1983, with the aim of preserving, in certain areas, the biophysical structure necessary to maintain exploitation of natural resources and land use without jeopardizing their sustainability. For the first time, issues related to groundwater resources were addressed. Since then, this legal tool has been revised for a better integration of the new national and European legislation and new scientific and technical knowledge. In the latest NER, the concept of 'strategic areas of protection and aquifer recharge (SAPAR)' was created, being now necessary to define which are the methodologies and criteria to be applied for its delimitation. This paper summarizes the strategic guidelines that were established from debates held in several meetings with land-use planners, water resources managers, specialists and other stakeholders concerning the development of harmonized definitions and criteria of NER. As a result of those contributions a report was elaborated where guidelines and criteria for the NER delimitation were defined at national level, in accordance with national legislation and other relevant sector plans. In this work, the articulation and integration of SAPAR-protected areas in Portuguese Water Act and the expected difficulties of its application at operative level are evaluated since the SAPAR are important for the control of urban sprawl and therefore to preserve groundwater resources and dependent ecosystems. A brief explanation about the Portuguese main hydrogeological features is given for a better understanding of the groundwater resources and dependent ecosystems. Finally, the key guidelines for a good NER delimitation are compiled. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the continuing legal complexities and challenges that exist in balancing the interests of mining and conservation in protected areas, through an exploration and critical analysis of the law relating to mining and protected areas in South Australia, and a case study of the recent controversy over mining in the Arkaroola Wilderness Sanctuary. The analysis of the legal regime demonstrates a hierarchy in procedural protection, with areas of public land with very high conservation values at the top of the hierarchy, and private land generally at the bottom. The resolution of the conflict over mining in Arkaroola, and reforms subsequently proposed to South Australia’s system of protected areas, suggest new ways to better protect conservation from mining on private land. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article focuses on the development and management of various protected areas (PAs) in China. Topics discussed include the history of the development of a legislative framework for PAs in China in 1950s as well as the development of PA legislation and the role of protected areas in biodiversity conservation in China. Other topics include the approval of the Forest Law by the National People's Congress in 1984 and the biodiversity conservation policy in China.

An introduction is presented which discusses articles within the issue on topics such as the use of protected areas as a biodiversity conservation tool in China, development of Protected Areas Law and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)/Global Environment Facility (GEF) project in China.

This paper focuses on the Turkish legislation regarding protection of nature and biological diversity. As it is known, biological resources are vital for the humanity's survival and for the economic and social development of nations. However, biological diversity is under threat around the world. Nevertheless issues regarding food, clean water, healthy environment, production and consumption are rising globally and efforts towards finding solutions to these problems are ongoing. Turkey also has the responsibility to protect and use this important wealth rationally for the welfare of the future generations. Turkey fulfils its responsibilities and commitments arising from the conventions signed as a result of the efforts that Turkey has supported for many years in the field of nature and biological diversity protections. In this context, this paper includes nature protection legislation in Turkey and examines the protected areas. Turkish national legislation will be harmonised with the legislation adopted by the European Community, strictly in connection with the accession process, particularly the Bird and Habitat Directives. These directives will be transposed through the Draft Law on the Conservation of Nature and Biological Diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses wildlife conservation and protected areas with respected to the Birds and Habitats Directives of European Union (EU). Topics discussed include the directive being mandatory rather than hortatory in the obligations imposed on EU Member States, reporting and deadline requirements constituting effective international wildlife law, and globally adopted 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

Harvesting pressure on Asian freshwater turtles is severe, and dramatic population declines of these turtles are being driven by unsustainable collection for food markets, pet trade, and traditional Chinese medicine. Populations of big-headed turtle (Platysternon megacephalum) have declined substantially across its distribution, particularly in China, because of overcollection. To understand the effects of chronic harvesting pressure on big-headed turtle populations, we examined the effects of illegal harvesting on the demography of populations in Hong Kong, where some populations still exist. We used mark-recapture methods to compare demographic characteristics between sites with harvesting histories and one site in a fully protected area. Sites with a history of illegal turtle harvesting were characterized by the absence of large adults and skewed ratios of juveniles to adults, which may have negative implications for the long-term viability of populations. These sites also had lower densities of adults and smaller adult body sizes than the protected site. Given that populations throughout most of the species' range are heavily harvested and individuals are increasingly difficult to find in mainland China, the illegal collection of turtles from populations in Hong Kong may increase over time. Long-term monitoring of populations is essential to track effects of illegal collection, and increased patrolling is needed to help control illegal harvesting of populations, particularly in national parks. Because few, if any, other completely protected populations remain in the region, our data on an unharvested population of big-headed turtles serve as an important reference for assessing the negative consequences of harvesting on populations of stream turtles. Evidencia Demográfica de la Captura Ilegal de una Tortuga Asiática en Peligro [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goals of nature conservation have changed over the last decades, but setting aside areas for nature protection is still a major part of environmental efforts globally. Protected areas often include traditional lands of indigenous peoples, and although indigenous rights have been strengthened through international treaties, conflicts over land entitlement are still common. I analyse indigenous peoples' role in nature conservation, focusing on the discursive construction of indigenous subject position in the UN Convention on Biological Diversity and using post-colonial theory to situate the discussion in its historical and political context, discussing what subject positions are made available to indigenous people, and what political agency they can be assumed to entail. The analysis shows that limits to indigenous space for agency are embedded in the Convention on Biological Diversity discourse – the analysed texts present a narrow recognition of indigenous people's role in the context of the Convention on Biological Diversity, with a heavy focus on indigenous subjects as holders of traditional knowledge, and a clear influence from colonial notions and post-colonial power relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nature's monuments, the areas presenting a particular biodiversity or the ones remarked by unicity or rarity, represent the last vestiges of the natural ecosystems. Treating them indifferently their degradation continues, due to the negative impact upon the environment, constitutes an act of major gravity, irreparable in the future and which will not be considered with clemency by the generations to come. Romania holds a 197 % percentage of protected areas from the total world area, and the Arad County holds 1.92% (starting with 1995, when a series of protected areas were placed under official protection, which in the past weren't granted this status). It's a percentage far from pleasing us, due to the existence (happily) of numerous areas which should be put under official protection as the significant percentages representing the protected areas from the existent overall area in the neighboring countries (Hungary 6.6%, Poland 7.1%, former Yugoslavia 2.8%, Austria 19.7%, Germany 16.5% and the former Tchechoslovaquia 16.6%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tiger conservation in India represents an excellent case study of the many challenges facing conservation programs internationally. It is well understood that tigers are sensitive to human disturbances and large areas of habitat need to be protected for their conservation. Such protected areas in India are managed by the governments using an exclusionary approach. However, this approach is known to create several issues with local communities, including historical, legal, livelihood and management issues; with a volume of literature suggesting the inclusion of local communities in management. Yet, other evidence suggests that inclusion of communities in tiger conservation may lead to anthropogenic disturbances that can jeopardize tigers. The gravity of the situation is reflected in the recent disappearance of tigers from two key protected areas in India, the Sariska and Panna Tiger Reserves. This review paper connects the key literature from conservation biology, environmental history, management sciences, policy and political sciences to underline the gridlock of tiger conservation: it needs exclusive protected areas that antagonize communities, and it depends on the support of the same communities for success. We examine the possibility of reconciliation between these disciplines, and assert that research on tiger conservation needs to allow for an increasingly interdisciplinary approach. We call for a more integrated approach to tiger conservation, to examine the values inherent in conservation and to shed more light on the social factors that affect tiger conservation schemes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Legal innovation is responsible for major transformations in societies. Taking the press as a mediator between the national and local levels, this article addresses the role it plays in the presentation of new laws governing protected areas. A content analysis comparing the representation in the national and the regional presses of both the Natura 2000 laws and the conservation of the Iberian lynx shows two distinct and pragmatic reconstructions of these themes. The national press is more aligned with sustainability goals, while overlooking the difficulties of implementing the law in concrete contexts. The regional press emphasizes the practical difficulties the laws create for the protected areas, using emotionally charged arguments. The conclusions discuss how a social psychology of legal innovation may be relevant to understanding the psychosocial processes involved in the progress of legal innovation and how identity and group processes are involved in the re-signification and contestation of laws. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Many consider the 1973 Endangered Species Act (ESA) to be the workhorse of environmental protection in the United States (US). The 1973 ESA was passed by Congress with nearly unanimous support and was part of President Richard M. Nixon's far-reaching environmental agenda. Much has changed in ESA political and public support. In 2010, the Western Governors Association referred to the “nonsensical policy” in implementing the ESA (Silva, 2010), and Congress delisted a population segment—the western gray wolf (Canis lupus)—by amendment (US House of Representatives, 2011, p. 290). It is nothing short of astonishing to compare how different the discussion was at the genesis of the three ESAs as compared to now (Doremus, 2010). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract: The Azores Marine Park (AMP) proposal, developed by the Geographical Information and Territorial Planning Centre (Centro de Informação Geografica e Planeamento Territorial; CIGPT) at University of the Azores (Ponta Delgada), was submitted in 2010 by the Azores Environment Agency to the Azores Parliament and will be implemented upon approval. This is the most recent effort towards establishing a Portuguese legal entity for consolidating and creating a coherent Azorean network of offshore marine protected areas (MPAs). The proposal included seven existing designated MPAs: four offshore habitats located within the Azorean Economic Exclusive Zone (EEZ; Banco Dom João de Castro seamount, Sedlo seamount, Lucky Strike hydrothermal vent field and Menez Gwen hydrothermal vent field), one located beyond the Azorean EEZ (Rainbow hydrothermal vent field), and two Marine Important Bird Areas (North of Corvo Offshore, and North of Corvo and Faial Offshore). These MPAs had been nominated by various conservation organizations and site-specific legally binding recommendations have been developed. AMP recommendations were created for each site according to strict protection objectives and management objectives adapted from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Protected Area Management Categories. Since its submission, three additional high seas MPAs in areas beyond national jurisdiction and subject to Portuguese continental shelf extension claims (Altair seamount, Antialtair seamount and an area of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge north of the Azores) were nominated in September 2010 by the OSPAR Commission. These MPAs have subsequently been proposed for inclusion in the AMP. With intensifying efforts to protect biodiversity, an increase in offshore Azorean MPAs is likely. Consequently, the AMP will likely extend its spatial limit to include new high seas MPAs and develop legally binding regulations for each new MPA as an on-going process. The full-scale “one-stop agency” AMP is envisioned to provide a representative offshore MPA network for the Azores that will protect all major ecosystem features in relation to their habitats and species, at an appropriate scale, within and across each bioregion. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article discusses a dispute on the marine protected area around Chagos Archipelago. It cites the proceedings initiated by Mauritius against Great Britain on December 20, 2010 under the dispute settlement provisions of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC) on the creation by Great Britain of a marine protected area (MPA) made up of the whole exclusive economic zone around Chagos Archipelago. It indicates the role of LOSC in the protection of the marine environment.

The Permanent Preservation Area (PPA), the main protected area established by law in Brazil, was established by the Forest Code (Law 4771) in 1965. Due to their ecological importance and provision of environmental goods and services to humans, the PPAs are recognized for their technical functions as areas that should be preserved. Many of these differing interpretations of the spirit of the law occur depending on the language preciosism and the distorted use of hermeneutics. The objective of this research was to analyze the main points of conflict in the interpretation, understanding and establishment of permanent preservation areas. It was concluded that there is in literature interpretations contrary to the spirit of the legal rule establishing the PPAs; the PPAs should be preserved and, in case of degradation, the legislation makes it clear that environmental liabilities should be corrected; the untouchability of the PPA is not inexorable, as the CONAMA, in some cases, may establish criteria for its use; intervention in PPA permitted by law in cases of public interest, social interest and activity and low potential environmental impact need better regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author aims at identifying under which situations public Administration is compelled to indemnify singular deprivations carried out in application of the Spanish regulatory regime of natural protected areas. To that purpose, starting from an analysis of the concerned regulation, case law and bibliography, as well as the disadvantages of the diverse positions, the research identifes as a typical case of liability the one characterized by the simultaneous concurrence of two requirements: that the administrative action afects uses and activities which are permited over rural land and that it restricts the efective faculties and rights of their owners over the land. However an in-depth analysis of these requirements refects the defciencies of such typical case, which needs to be completed by means of a general clause of administrative responsibility in order to comprehend the remaining singular deprivations that may occur in natural protected areas within the situations of public liability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Area-based management is an important tool to improve integrated conservation of high seas biodiversity. While States clearly support the need to protect high seas biodiversity, some States remain reluctant to adopt internationally binding measures that may have an impact on high seas freedoms. Since there is limited experience to date with the application of area-based management tools on the high seas, this article examines the practical implications of establishing such measures through an analysis of the International Maritime Organization's (IMO) particularly sensitive sea area concept. After providing an overview of the legal complexities associated with the designation of high seas marine protected areas, this article introduces the PSSA concept and identifies the unique features that make it appropriate as a measure for protecting high seas biodiversity. The core of the analysis is an examination of State practice within the IMO in the context of the potential designation of a PSSA in the Southern Ocean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parks and Protected Areas (PPA) have become increasingly important for societal well-being in Europe and the United States. Urbanization, detachment from nature, and demographic changes are fostering discussions about strengthening the social and cultural dimensions of management. The complexities and subtleties of incorporating PPAs into existing government and societal contexts are explored with a focus on institutional and governance principles and an emerging paradigm that might deal with some conflicts. We present two examples, in their respective institutional contexts, that illustrate different ways to address one PPA aspect, recreation management. One example, from the Black Forest of southern Germany, has management principles that were developed jointly by public and agency representatives. Notable among the principles were shifts in management objectives, permanent participative planning approaches, and the assessment of institutional fit. A second example, from California, addressed recreation in a typical forestwide plan. People were engaged through public comment on, and reactions to, proposed directions prepared by forest staff. Specific recreation conflict potentials were left to emerge in later, more specific programmatic plans. The examples show how the suggested new governance principles are addressed in practice and how they might contribute to a better scientific understanding of the social functions of recreation. The challenges of moving from existing planning models to this new paradigm are also recognized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mountains occupy 24% of the global land surface area and are home to 12% of the world’s population. They have ecological, aesthetic, and socioeconomic significance, not only for people living in mountain areas, but for those living beyond. Mountains need specific attention for their contribution to global goods and services, especially by developing and implementing mountain specific policies. Conservation policies have evolved from the protection of charismatic species, to habitat and ecosystem/landscape conservation, and, finally, to people-oriented conservation approaches. This paper, with particular reference to paradigm shifts in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan (HKH) region, discusses the evolution of conservation policies, developments in conservation practices, the status of protected area management, wetland conservation initiatives and the landscape approach, community-based conservation initiatives, and the convergence of policies and practices. In the HKH region, conservation efforts now adopt participatory approaches, implement policies of decentralised governance for biodiversity management, and empower local communities in biodiversity management. The paradigm shift in the policies and practices related to conservation has been gradual and has included the acceptance of communities as an integral part of national level conservation initiatives, together with the integration of many global conventions. There are many successful pilots in the HKH region that deserve upscaling by the countries from the region. Realising the importance of mountains as hotspots of biodiversity, and due to their role as providers of global goods and services, the Convention on Biological Diversity adopted the Programme of Work on Mountain Biodiversity. Such a decision specific to mountains provides enormous opportunities for both conservation and development. Recent challenges posed by climate change need to be integrated into overall biodiversity conservation and management agendas, especially in mountain areas. The HKH region has been identified as a blank spot for data by the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change, indicating the need to develop regional database and sharing mechanisms. This is a tall task, but one that holds enormous opportunity for the HKH countries and institutions with regional mandates to address the emerging challenges of climate change on biodiversity conservation by reducing scientific uncertainty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protected areas are an effective tool for reducing biodiversity loss. Current legislation distinguishes various types of marine protected areas, each allowing different levels of resource extraction. However, almost all of the theory for spatial conservation planning is focused on identifying no-take reserves. The current approaches to zoning for multiple types of protected areas could result in suboptimal plans in terms of protecting biodiversity and minimizing negative socioeconomic impacts. We overcame these limitations in the first application of the multizone planning tool, Marxan with Zones, to design a network of four types of protected areas in the context of California's Marine Life Protection Act. We have produced a zoning configuration that entails mean value losses of less than 9% for every fishery, without compromising conservation goals. We also found that a spatial numerical optimization tool that allows for multiple zones outperforms a tool that can identify one zone (ie marine reserves) in two ways: first, the overall impact on the fishing industry is reduced, and second, a more equitable impact on different fishing sectors is achieved. Finally, we examined the tradeoffs between representing biodiversity features and impacting fisheries. Our approach is applicable to both marine and terrestrial conservation planning, and delivers an ecosystem-based management outcome that balances conservation and industry objectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The implementation of Natura 2000, Ecological Network of protected areas established in the European territory under Council Directive 92/43/EEC, has encountered serious problems in many European States. This is proven by conspicuous juridical interventions initiated by the European Union against Member States failing to comply with the Directive's requirements; by the aversion of stakeholders involved in the use of protected areas and by the criticisms that environmental non-governmental organizations expressed about the governmental approaches towards the network's realization. This paper presents a critical reflection on the problems in the realization of Natura 2000 Network, by analysing and comparing the experiences of two Member States: the Netherlands and Italy. Despite the differences in national natural heritages and nature conservation policy traditions, the two Natura 2000 implementation processes present interesting similarities. These allowed the authors to identify theoretical and practical obstacles that are making the network's implementation problematic and to reflect on the most important challenges to the realization of Natura 2000 Network in the two countries, as well as in other Member States that experienced similar implementation problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the key factors enabling integration and participation of local communities in conservation policies is the legal foundation for this relationship. Brazilian law has developed novel solutions to reconcile the presence of local communities and traditional populations with environmental conservation in protected areas. The logic underlying the law that created the National System of Conservation Units (Law 9985/2000) rests on the valuation of both biodiversity and of the cultural diversity associated with that biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes some of the effects climate change is having on the oceans and some of the resulting implications for international oceans governance. It describes short- and medium-term measures that could be taken to meet the challenges posed by a changing climate, while sustaining the vitality of the marine environment and protecting the lives and livelihoods of humans dependent on the oceans. Improvements to ensure effective, adaptable, transparent, and flexible oceans governance are required. These include: 1. An intergovernmental panel of scientists should conduct research and report developments in ocean science, including the provision of advice to institutions. 2. Regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) need to ensure that climate change is taken into account when managing fisheries and carrying out functions, in the context of the ecosystem and precautionary approaches, that models should be updated and, where necessary, that constitutions should be amended and/or conservation and management measures amended. 3. Stressors such as overfishing, pollution, and invasive species acting on marine ecosystems need to be urgently reduced to increase resilience to the impacts of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide (CO2). 4. Marine protected areas and environmental impact assessments have an important role to play in addressing climate change impacts in the oceans and should be used where appropriate. 5. A further implementing agreement to the Law of the Sea Convention could ensure that a representative network of marine protected areas is established and managed in the oceans, including the high seas, that environmental assessments are required and carried out, and that conservation and management measures are implemented for a broad range of activities in the ocean. 6. With respect to ongoing climate negotiations, a new climate regime should consider significant impacts of climate change and CO2 on the global oceans and should take into account not only the radiative forcing effects of CO2 but also its direct polluting effects, particularly through ocean acidification. 7. Financing and adaptation mechanisms should be established to protect and restore important carbon sinks such as mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrasses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wadi Wurayah, in the Emirate of Fujairah, United Arab Emirates, lies within a priority WWF Global 200 Ecoregion (Ecoregion 127, Arabian Highlands and Shrublands), sheltering a rich diversity of rare and endangered mountainous and freshwater habitats and species, and providing opportunities for the sustenance and revival of local livelihoods. Emirates Wildlife Society-World Wide Fund for Nature in collaboration with the Fujairah Municipality initiated a project to declare the whole catchment basin as officially protected with the aims to help establish a sustainable protected area integrating local tradition and lifestyle with the conservation of inimitable biodiversity and habitat by providing a model of unique economical incentives to the region. Over 300 species of plants grow in the area, including the country's unique orchid, Epipactis veratrifolia, as well as wetland species. Twelve species of mammals were observed, including the Arabian Tahr, Mountain Gazelle, Blanford's Fox and, possibly, Arabian Leopard, all considered Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). So far, 74 species of bird (of which 25% are considered of national conservation interest) have been recorded, including the Bonelli's Eagle, Barbary Falcon, Asian Houbara Bustard and probably Hume's Tawny Owl. The wadi hosts thirteen reptile and amphibian species of which five are endemic to UAE and northern Oman mountains: Blue-tailed Lizard, Jayakar's Oman Lizard, Bar-tailed Semaphore Gecko, Banded Ground Gecko, and Oman Carpet Viper. Endemic to the Arabian Peninsula and considered endangered by IUCN, the Garra fish is found in the wadi. The collection of insect samples revealed 74 invertebrate families, including 19 arthropod species new to science. So far, 29 heritage sites have been recorded and mapped, including bedu settlements, ancient Islamic graveyards, pre-Islamic tombs, 15th to 18th centuries AD porcelain and pottery fragments and one petroglyph (rock carving) site. Social surveys of resident .and non-resident local people were conduced as well showing a positive response to the creation of a protected area. Because of its unique hydrogeological system with permanent pools and streams, the Wadi Wurayah area has a strong potential in the Fujairah Emirate for (1) management and conservation of fresh water resources, (2) conservation of its unique fauna and flora, (3) conservation of its cultural heritage, (4) opportunity of local capacity building and involvement of several departments of Fujairah Municipality around the same project, (5) involving local communities in the management and (6) proposing an alternative and complementary tourism activity to the coastal development in progress in the Emirate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The design of an environment and its legal basis should make a harmonious whole. However, to realize this idea is not so easy. It can be perceived in the Lithuanian legal regulations. The Lithuanian law gives two different definitions of landscape. It puts designers and planners into a contradictory situation. It is noty the only problem. The terms, used in the Law on Protected Territories (one of the laws, giving the definition) are relatively rare and unusual. The laws do not describe them. The Lithuanian laws do not describe even such an important term as "ecological balance". The task of design and planning of landscape is even more difficult when you try to understand the legal formulations of the tasks of landscape design and planning. All these features of laws open the possibility of different interpretations and discussions. They are especially active in planning practice. It is proposed in the paper to check the language of the laws and harmonize the Lithuanian regulations of landscape design and planning with the European Landscape Declaration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The legislation governing protected areas in Ontario, Canada, had not been significantly revised in more than half a century - since its introduction in 1954. During this time, the number of protected areas under the jurisdiction of the Government of Ontario increased from eight to 631 sites, now covering approximately 94,000 ~2 or 9% of the province. In recent decades, many different stakeholders, independent experts, and government panels and agencies have called for new legislation with a mandate to conserve biodiversity and maintain ecological integrity. This paper discusses recent legislative changes that guide the planning and management of protected areas in Ontario, Canada. This paper concludes that the Provincial Parks and Conservation Reserves Act, 2006 is a significant improve- ment to the legislative framework governing Ontario's protected areas, but that concerns remains with regard to adequate government funding and the overall approach to Crown land management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

National parks throughout the world are increasingly challenged to accommodate the dual mandates of protecting natural and cultural resources while providing positive recreation experiences for park visitors. This is particularly true for China's national forest parks (NFPs), now important destinations for both the domestic and international tourist markets. The sustainable management of the NFPs requires an understanding of park visitors' attitudes. This paper examines how visitors perceive the roles and functions, policies and appropriate uses relating to China's NFPs, based on data from an important NFP. Results suggest that visitors' attitudes towards NFPs are positive. The majority of study participants placed higher priority on the protection of the ecological integrity of NFPs than on their development and use for recreation and tourism. They were supportive of NFP policies for limiting visitor numbers and phasing out inappropriate uses. Non-consumptive activities were viewed as highly appropriate while religious activities and dancing/karaoke lounges were seen as highly inappropriate. Visitors who placed higher priority on the protection of ecological integrity were less likely to compromise protection with use, and more likely to support non-consumptive activities. Future research needs are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information on the importance of integrated ecosystem conservation in attaining sustainable management of marine biodiversity. It is mentioned that lack on data and methodological means for marine conservation affects the integration of scientific knowledge and international cooperation. A species-based conservation planning tool, Landscape Species (LS), is applied to the Marine Patagonian Marine Ecosystem (E-PME) in the Southwest Atlantic. Details concerning thirty-three species being studied to build conservation efforts is presented, followed by discussion on the application of focal species approach in an ecosystem framework that may lead to a more efficient planning of marine protected areas.