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This paper looks at the relationship between child care choices and children's cognitive skills at an early age. The care choices include parental care, center care, relative care and non-relative care. I use children's motor and mental scores at 9 months as a baseline control for their innate ability and their reading and maths scores in kindergarten as outcome measures of cognitive development. My estimates show that non-parental care is related to better scores for children from less-educated households. Further analysis on some parenting activity and parenting style measures shows that reading to children more frequently and a healthy parenting approach have the potential to reduce the parental and non-parental care gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many animal species, including most birds, parental care is performed by both parents, which has important implications for mate choice (good parent hypothesis) and parental investment strategies. Partitioning the variance in measures of parental care into heritable and nonheritable components is important to understand the evolvability of parental investment and its potential role in mate choice. We employed an automated system to monitor provisioning behavior at 817 blue tit nests over 10 years (totaling ~3 million visits). Daily provisioning rates of males and females were moderately repeatable between years (Radj = 0.16 and 0.15, respectively), which was almost entirely explained by additive genetic effects. While this degree of heritability is sufficient for parental investment to respond to selection, we argue that the modest level of repeatability provides limited potential for a "provisioning phenotype" to be used as a criterion in mate choice. Daily visit rates were positively correlated between pair members, but after accounting for shared environmental factors, this relationship became clearly negative, thereby providing support for models of partial compensation. Visit rates also differed substantially between years, and between days within a year. Thus, it is important to account for these variables when comparing the parental investment between individuals. Our results highlight the interplay between genetic, social, and environmental influences on provisioning behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many taxa, young can recognize their parents using olfactory cues. Yet this possibility has been overlooked in birds, because they were long assumed to have a poor sense of smell. While evidence is growing that birds use odours to communicate, olfactory parent recognition has only been documented in two altricial bird species. Whether chicks of precocial species use olfaction to recognize parents is currently unknown. Parent recognition is particularly important in precocial species, as chicks leave the nest shortly after hatching, and may lose contact with their parents and encounter other conspecific adults. We conducted Y-maze trials in the wild to test whether chicks of a precocial shorebird, the white-fronted plover, Anarhynchus marginatus , can recognize parents via olfaction. We tested first whether chicks show a preference for the odour (preen oil) of an unfamiliar adult over a control (no odour), and second whether chicks show a preference for the odour of a parent over that of an unfamiliar adult. Plover chicks spent as much time with the odour of an unfamiliar adult as with the control, and as much time with the odour of a parent as with that of an unfamiliar adult. Therefore, we found no evidence that chicks react to the preen oil odour of a conspecific adult, nor that they can discriminate a parent using preen oil odours. It may be that chicks of this species can discriminate parental and foreign odours but that our experiment failed to detect it, that they rely on other (e.g. auditory) cues, or that they do not need to discriminate between parents and foreign conspecific adults. • Young can recognize their parents using olfactory cues in many taxa. • Plover chicks are precocial and could benefit from parent recognition. • Odour preferences of wild plover chicks were tested using a Y-maze in the field. • Plover chicks did not prefer parental odours (preen oil). • We found no evidence of olfactory parent recognition in white-fronted plovers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Temporal variation in resource availability, amplified by global change, may have strong impacts on species breeding at temperate and high latitudes that cue their reproduction to exploit seasonal resource pulses. This study examines how resource availability and parental care influence niche partitioning between and within age classes in the rufous‐collared sparrow, which provides extensive parental care. We hypothesized juveniles would exhibit narrower niches focused on high‐quality resources compared to adults, regardless of resource availability. We used stable isotope analysis to quantify individual and population niches in juveniles and adults across the breeding season in two cohorts experiencing contrasting resource landscapes. Contrary to our initial hypothesis, juveniles exhibited greater among‐individual diet variation and smaller total niche widths (i.e. higher levels of individual specialization, IS) during periods of high food availability in comparison to periods of food scarcity. Interestingly, total niche width and IS of adults remained stable across seasons despite a shift in trophic level, highlighting their potential role in providing a consistent diet for their young. These findings reveal a dynamic interplay between resource availability, parental care, and IS, with important implications for understanding population resilience under variable resource scenarios. The study also suggests that adult sparrows modify their provisioning strategies based on resources, potentially buffering offspring from environmental fluctuations. Understanding age‐specific responses to resource variation is crucial for predicting species responses to ecological conditions, particularly in regions like central Chile where seasonal resource limitation is expected to become more variable in response to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Settlement patterns of juvenile fish shape coral reef communities. During the recruitment process, predation rates are extremely high. However, the role that parental care plays in reducing mortality, especially by cryptic natural enemies such as parasites, remains largely unstudied. We investigated whether parental care in the spiny chromis damselfish (Acanthochromis polyacanthus) protects juveniles from parasite-induced mortality by gnathiid isopods (Gnathia aureamaculosa). Using laboratory experiments, we found that survival of recently hatched juveniles when exposed to gnathiids was higher when parents were present (77%) than when parents were absent (25%). Investigation of their faeces in the field and laboratory indicates that adults consume gnathiids. Together, our data suggest that parental care plays a key role in reducing parasite-induced mortality of juvenile spiny chromis via parental consumption of gnathiids. This highlights the overlooked role of parasites as a source of high mortality in juvenile coral reef fishes and the composition of coral reef fish communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extant birds stand out among vertebrates in the diversity of parental care types they present, spanning absence of care to uniparental care by either sex, biparental care, or even cooperative care. Despite years of research, key questions remain regarding parental care evolution in birds. Firstly, the parental care type in the most recent ancestor of extant birds is a matter of controversy, with proposed ancestral states including no care, uniparental male or female care, and biparental care. Another unsolved question is the direction, order, and frequency of transitions between parental care types. We address these key questions using a database of 5,438 bird species (~50% of extant diversity) and modern phylogenetic comparative methods controlling simultaneously for model and phylogenetic uncertainty as well as potential confounding effects of state-dependent diversification. Our results indicate that the most likely ancestral state for extant birds is male-only care, with a posterior probability of 0.8. Transition rates across parental care types were generally low and heterogeneous; loss of parental care virtually never occurs and transitions away from female-only or cooperative care most often lead to biparental care. Given the low transition rates, future research should analyze the factors favoring the maintenance of care types. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among vertebrates, ray-finned fishes (Actinopterygii) display the highest diversity in parental care, and their diversification has been hypothesized to be related to phylogenetic changes in fertilization modes. Using the most comprehensive, sex-specific data from 7,600 species of 62 extant orders of ray-finned fishes, we inferred ancestral states and transitions among care types and caring episodes (i.e. the stage of offspring development). Our work has uncovered 3 novel findings. First, transitions among different care types (i.e. male-only care, female-only care, biparental care, and no care) are common, and the frequencies of these transitions show unusually diverse patterns concerning fertilization modes (external, or internal via oviduct, mouth, or brood pouch). Second, both oviduct and mouth fertilization are selected for female-biased care, whereas fertilization in a brood pouch is selected for male-biased care. Importantly, internal fertilization without parental care is extremely unstable phylogenetically. Third, we show that egg care in both sexes is associated with nest building (which is male-biased) and fry care (which is female-biased). Taken together, the aquatic environment, which supports considerable flexibility in care, facilitated the diversification of parenting behavior, creating the evolutionary bases for more comprehensive parenting to protect offspring in semiterrestrial or terrestrial environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Avian brood parasitism is an evolutionarily derived behavior for which the neurobiological mechanisms are mostly unexplored. We aimed to identify brain regions that have diverged in the brood‐parasitic brain using relative transcript abundance of social neuropeptides and receptors. We compared behavioral responses and transcript abundance in three brain regions in the brown‐headed cowbird (BHCO), a brood parasite, and a closely related parental species, the red‐winged blackbird (RWBL). Females of both species were treated with mesotocin (MT; avian homolog of oxytocin) or saline prior to exposure to nest stimuli. Results reveal that MT promotes approach toward nests with eggs rather than nests with begging nestlings in both species. We also examined relative transcript abundance of the five social neuropeptides and receptors in the brain regions examined: preoptic area (POA), paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST). We found that MT‐treated cowbirds but not blackbirds exhibited lower transcript abundance for two receptors, corticotropin‐releasing factor 2 (CRFR2) and prolactin receptor (PRLR) in BST. Additionally, MT‐treated cowbirds had higher PRLR in POA, comparable to those found in blackbirds, regardless of treatment. No other transcripts of interest exhibited significant differences as a result of MT treatment, but we found a significant effect of species in the three regions. Together, these results indicate that POA, PVN, and BST represent neural nodes that have diverged in avian brood parasites and may serve as neural substrates of brood‐parasitic behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mortality generally is higher around birth and then progressively declines through the juvenile stage. In species where offspring depend upon their parents during maturation, a factor behind this mortality decline could be sibling replacement: offspring sacrifice their survival to benefit future or present siblings as early as possible in order to minimize losses in parental investment. Here, we propose a kin-selection model of sibling replacement. Theoretical analysis of the model and its application to demographic data of mammals suggest that sibling replacement consistently generates a selective incentive for increasing juvenile mortality at early ages when this mortality increment is the result of positive selection for juvenile altruism within the nuclear family. The model highlights how sibling replacement goes beyond optimal allocation of parental resources into dependents and can provoke greater mortality closer to birth also in response to a more favorable ratio of actors to recipients of altruism among siblings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In species with biparental care, coordination of parental activities can have important fitness consequences. However, specific behavioral mechanism allowing the coordination of breeding partners remains largely unexplored. Prevalence of biparental care in seabirds makes this group particularly interesting for investigation of behavioral underpinnings of parental coordination. Here, we examined vocal behavior at the nest site of breeding partners and its role in shaping their parental share during incubation in the little auk (Alle alle). We evaluated two hypotheses related to the mechanisms involved in parental coordination: (1) behavioral adjustment, where a parent adjusts its effort according to the preceding effort of its partner and (2) vocal negotiation, where effort is adjusted based on information exchanged during the preceding vocal interaction. We found that little auk partners equally share their incubation time, although, duration of nest attendance is highly variable. No immediate reciprocity between partners in the time allocated to parental activity was observed as predicted by behavioral adjustment. However, nest attendance appeared to be related to the vocal interaction between partners during turn-taking. The duration of a given attendance was positively associated to the pair's vocal activity and amount of vocal overlap occurring during turn-taking at the nest. Our results suggest a role of vocalization for coordinating between breeding pairs, providing a potential mechanism for the communication of information enabling this complex interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs) are thought to be more abundant in males than in females owing to higher fitness variance in males and higher female investment in reproduction, but there are no strong empirical or theoretical studies that support this. Whereas male ARTs tend to act pre-mating (focusing on fertilization), female ARTs can occur at various stages of reproduction (from mate finding to brood care) and form complex networks of decision points. The evolutionary dynamics of female ARTs can be condition- and frequency-dependent, and can be influenced by factors including sexual antagonism and intralocus tactical conflict. Evidence for female ARTs is abundant, and they are more common than is often appreciated. However, their eco-evolutionary drivers are not well understood, calling for future research. It is often argued that anisogamy causes alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs) to be more common in males than females. We challenge this view by pointing out logical flaws in the argument. We then review recent work on the diversity of female ARTs, listing several understudied types such as solitary versus communal breeding and facultative parthenogenesis. We highlight an important difference between male and female ARTs that caused female ARTs to be overlooked: male ARTs tend to focus on successful fertilization, whereas female ARTs occur at many stages of reproduction and often form complex networks of decision points. We propose to study correlated female ARTs as a whole to better understand their drivers and eco-evolutionary dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The provision of care to offspring is a costly endeavour that can be hijacked by others—known as brood parasitism. Females can choose to lay eggs in the nest of a conspecific female, resulting in extra‐pair maternity (EPM).Burying beetles of the genus Nicrophorus use small vertebrate carcasses for reproduction and provide biparental care to their offspring. Carcasses are a rare resource; thus, competition often occurs among adults of the same sex.A previous study examined the outcomes of competition and subsequent parental care of Nicrophorus vespilloides using laboratory experiments. Larvae of losing females were sometimes cared for by the winning females, which is generally an evidence of EPM.However, the presence of EPM in burying beetles under natural conditions has not yet been well established. Here, we focused on the reproduction of N. quadripunctatus in the field. To examine the presence of EPM, maternity analysis was performed on 149 offspring and their caring females in 10 broods, using 8 microsatellite DNA loci.Seven larvae originating from three broods were unrelated to their caring females. There were one to three unrelated larvae in each of the three broods. Thus, EPM occurs in N. quadripunctatus reproduction under natural conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parental practices and stress are associated with both CU and autistic traits, with parents of children with these traits facing challenges that other parents do not encounter. However, the majority of available studies focused mainly on the unique effects of CU and autistic traits with parental stress and practices without exploring their interaction. The current study examines the distinct associations and interactions between CU and autistic traits with parental practices (parental involvement, poor monitoring, inconsistent discipline, and corporal punishment), care, and distress after considering the effect of conduct problems (CPs), age and sex in a Greek-Cypriot sample (N = 146, Mage = 7.30, SD = 1.43). Hierarchical multiple regression analysis revealed that children with CU traits were more likely to experience negative parenting, while parents showed heightened levels of distress. Notably, the study found no association between CU traits and positive parental practices. Further analysis indicated no significant relation between autistic traits and interactions with the target variables, signifying that these traits are not associated with difficulties in parenting and distress. No sex differences were found in all analyses. Age was negatively significant only in relation to parental distress These findings provide valuable insights into the impact of CU traits and underscore the need for additional studies investigating the impact of autistic traits, possibly within clinical samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Adolescence is a period characterized by rapid biological and psychological change, and adolescents have a heightened risk of depression. Parental rearing is an important influencing factor for depression in adolescence. However, the mechanism of influence needs further exploration. Methods: A total of 1839 adolescents were recruited from a junior and a senior high school in Zhongshan City, Guangdong Province, China. They were requested to completed the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), Self-Compassion Scale (SCS), and Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale-21(DASS-21). Results: Adolescents recalled their mothers as being more caring and controlling than their fathers. Parental care (maternal care, paternal care) and parental encouragement of autonomy (maternal encouragement of autonomy, paternal encouragement of autonomy) were both negative predictors of depression, while parental control (maternal control, paternal control) was positive predictor of depression. Self-compassion mediated all relationships between parental rearing styles (parental care, parental encouragement of autonomy, and parental control) and depression but played different mediating roles (complete or incomplete mediating role) in different relationships. Conclusion: Self-compassion plays a mediator role in all relationships between perceived parental rearing styles (parental care, parental encouragement of autonomy, and parental control) and depression. Adolescents who grown up with less parental care, less parental encouragement of autonomy, and high parental control deserve special attention. Educators and clinicians could help those adolescents reduce the occurrence of depression by increasing their level of self-compassion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Nest defence is one component of parental investment by which individuals can increase the survival of their offspring. Aggressive behaviours and the time spent protecting nests are determining factors in the reproductive success of cichlid species. The Mexican mojarra is the only cichlid native to the Balsas River Basin in Mexico. At least four invasive cichlids have been introduced, including the convict cichlid and the spotcheek cichlid. These three species establish their nests in the River and defend them aggressively. We quantified the number of nests, aggressive behaviours and time spent in the nest by parents of the native species and these two invasive species. We expected that the invasive parents would be more aggressive during defence, spent more time protecting the eggs, and would have a higher density of nests. We also explored differences in nest defence between the sexes within each species. We found that invasive cichlids had a greater number of nests than the Mexican mojarra. In the two invasive species, there was no difference between males and females in the time spent in the nest or the number of aggressive behaviours. In contrast, male Mexican mojarras spent less time in the nest and performed fewer aggressive behaviours than their mates. The smaller number of nests and nest defence behaviour of this native species could compromise its reproductive success and population size. This differential nest defence between the Mexican mojarra and the invasive cichlids could have negative implications for the physiology, reproduction, and health of this native cichlid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is driving both higher mean temperatures and a greater likelihood of heatwaves, which are becoming longer and more intense. Previous work has looked at these two types of thermal stressors in isolation, focusing on the effects of either a small, long-term increase in temperature or a large, short-term increase in temperature. Yet, a fundamental gap in our understanding is the combined effect of chronic and acute thermal stressors and, in particular, its impact on vital processes such as reproduction. Here, we investigated the independent and interactive effects of higher constant temperatures and short-term heatwave events on reproductive success and offspring fitness in an insect study system, the burying beetle Nicrophorus vespilloides. We found a substantial reduction in key fitness traits (fecundity, hatching success and offspring size) after exposure to both a heatwave and higher constant temperatures, but not after exposure to only one of these thermal stressors. This indicates that the effects of chronic and acute thermal stressors are amplified when they act in combination, as is very likely to occur in natural populations. Our findings, therefore, suggest that, by not considering the potential multiplicative effects of different types of thermal stressors, we may be underestimating the effects of climate change on animal fertility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The modern zoo relies on the persistence of genetically and physiologically healthy populations of endangered species, which is enabled through breeding programmes globally and regionally. Many species commonly held in zoos are poorly studied in the wild, leading to a lack of in-depth knowledge surrounding breeding behaviours and subsequent parental behaviours and early life development of young. Knowledge of this information is critical to make informed management decisions which promote successful rearing of young in zoos. While the critically endangered Sumatran tiger is popular in zoos, rates of cub survival in the first 5 months are lower than 50%, highlighting the need for scientific evidence driving management decisions. This study monitors nursing and cub grooming behaviours in a first-time mother Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) and her cubs throughout four stages of cub development. The social proximity of cubs and dam were recorded to describe social interactions within the group throughout cub aging. A series of Friedman tests and post-hoc tests found significant decreases in both cub grooming (c2 (3, N = 96) = 14.20, p < 0.01) and nursing (c2 (3, N = 96) = 25.77, p < 0.001) behaviours between the birth and weaning of the cubs, as well as within different phases of cub development between those times. Cub-to-cub proximity was maintained from birth to weaning, with cubs spending significant amounts of time in close proximity (within one adult body length) of each other (c2 (3, N = 96) = 15.231, p = 0.001) throughout the study. The dam was found to spend significantly less time with the cubs as they reached weaning age (c2 (3, N = 96) = 27.88, p < 0.001). These results are thought to be the first of their kind to detail timings of cub development and early life socialisation, providing evidence for timing of first food provision to young and promote the provision of space for the dam to spend time away from the cubs, while allowing the cubs to become confident, mobile, and independent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chemical cues and signals, especially in insects, play a pivotal role in mediating interactions between individuals. Past studies have largely focused on adult semiochemicals and have neglected those of juvenile stages. Especially in the context of parental care, the larval odor might have a profound impact on parenting behavior, guiding parents in how much resources they should allocate to the different developmental stages. However, whether ontogenetic changes occur in subsocial species and whether larval-emitted scents influence parent–offspring interactions is largely unknown. Using 3 different sampling techniques, we analyzed the cuticular and VOC profile of the 3 larval instars of the burying beetle Nicrophorus vespilloides , which is known for its elaborate parental care. We found distinct differences in the cuticular and VOC profiles across the 3 larval stages. Second-instar larvae, which receive more frequent feedings from parents than the other larval stages, released greater amounts of acetophenone, methyl geranate, and octanoic acid isopropyl ester than the first and third instar. Additionally, using a newly developed bioassay with automated video tracking, we found that adding the odor of second-instar larvae to first-instar larvae increased the number of maternal feeding trips. Our results suggest that the odor produced by larvae plays an important role in mediating parent–offspring interactions. Given these findings, burying beetles might emerge as a promising candidate for identifying a potential begging pheromone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The giant gourami (Osphronemus goramy Lacepede, 1801), a popular aquaculture species in Southeast Asia, exhibits unique cooperative biparental care behaviour. To support captive breeding efforts, this study aimed to visually document the reproductive activity of giant gourami, elucidate each stage in detail, and provide insights into the distinct parenting roles of males and females. Underwater cameras were used to observe a breeding pair of gourami in a pond for five days, conducted three times with different pairs during different spawning periods. The male and female contributions to nest building were quantitatively analysed using the T-test, while their parental care involvement was qualitatively assessed and statistically analysed using the Mann-Whitney U test. The results revealed three main phases of giant gourami reproduction: pre-spawning (including adaptation, nest building, and courtship), spawning and fertilisation, and post-spawning with parental care. Our observation confirmed the biparental tendency, with males being more involved in prespawning activities and females taking on a prominent role in post-spawning care. In conclusion, males focused on mating preparations and courtship, while females invested more in parental care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abandoning a brood to maximize lifetime reproductive success may result from the current costs affecting future reproductive opportunities. In certain contexts, clutch abandonment can be an evolved breeding strategy rather than a generalized response to stressors such as inclement weather and predation. Obligate brood parasitism, a reproductive strategy in which a parasitic species relies solely on other species to raise its young, imposes fitness costs to hosts and could serve as a trigger for clutch abandonment. This cost, and the resulting clutch abandonment strategy, may vary according to contact with the parasite, sensitivity to parasitism and the value of the current reproductive effort (i.e. brood value). We conducted a phylogenetically controlled meta-analysis covering 85 host species of the three generalist cowbird species (Molothrus sp.) in which we examined the following effects on the abandonment (nest desertion and egg burial) of parasitized versus unparasitized clutches: habitat at a small scale (higher host–parasite encounter frequency in open versus forested habitats) and at a large scale (longer interaction between parasites and hosts in prairie versus nonprairie regions), brood value (relative value of a clutch) and host species sensitivity to brood parasitism (relative body mass). Parasitism increased clutch abandonment overall. This increase was strongest in open nonforested habitats, with smaller, more sensitive hosts being more likely to abandon their clutch. Brood value and occurrence in prairie regions did not affect clutch abandonment, indicating that recent, more fine-scale host–parasite interactions were more important than coevolutionary history. Therefore, the abandonment of a brood can be used in diverse parental care strategies, including antiparasitic defences of brood-parasitic hosts. • We examined responses of hosts to parasitism by cowbirds (Molothrus sp.). • Parasitism increased clutch abandonment overall. • Abandonment strongly affected host sensitivity and current exposure to parasitism. • We found no effect of brood value or coevolutionary history. • Host behavioural plasticity may modulate host defences more than previously thought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Through the effort required to construct them, the microenvironmental conditions they impose on the family and their indirect influence on posthatching care, nests play a key role in influencing family life. We combined experimental evolution with cross-fostering experiments on laboratory populations of Nicrophorus vespilloides to investigate three ways in which the nest can contribute more broadly to parental investment. We used replicate populations of N. vespilloides that had evolved for 42 generations under contrasting regimes of care. Populations were either able to supply posthatching care ('Full Care') or prevented from supplying any posthatching care ('No Care'). Research on these populations has previously shown that the No Care populations evolved to build rounder nests, more rapidly, by Generation 14. Here we found (1) larvae raised by Full Care parents on nests prepared by parents from the No Care population did not attain a higher mass by the end of larval development than larvae in other treatments. However, we did discover that (2) cross-fostering nests between families consistently reduced larval mass, and to a similar extent whether nests were cross-fostered between or within the populations. We suggest that cross-fostering disrupted the chemical environment on and around the nest since we found no evidence that (3) nests mediate interactions between males and females. The duration of paternal care was consistently shorter than the duration of maternal care, and even shorter for males from the No Care populations than males from the Full Care populations. Nevertheless, the duration of male care did not predict variation in duration of female care. In short, although the nest is the substrate for burying beetle family life, we found little evidence that it had evolved divergently in our experimental populations to influence parental investment. • Do nests contribute to offspring performance, independent of posthatching care? • We evolved lab populations of burying beetles with and without posthatching care. • Brood performance was reduced when nests were switched between families. • Switching nests between populations did not worsen brood performance. • Chemical or microbial cues might cause broods to perform best in their home nest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biparental care can be favoured when offspring care by both parents provides a stronger fitness incentive to parents than deserting their offspring. In species with precocial offspring, the burden of care is expected to be comparatively low, facilitating desertion by one parent and uniparental care by the abandoned partner. However, care patterns can vary widely between and within precocial species, with some parents deserting their offspring, while other families remain biparental. Understanding the details of the care delivered by males and females in families before desertion is important to provide insight into the mechanisms that influence the stability of biparental care. Here we used detailed behavioural observations from the brood care period to investigate the balance of care between male and female parents in a well-studied precocial shorebird, the Kentish plover, Charadrius alexandrinus , both within families where females subsequently deserted and within families that remained biparental until the offspring were independent. We found that both males and females expressed all care behaviours (brooding, vigilance and brood defence) characteristic of precocial species, and we utilized quantitative mutual entropy analyses to show that the division of parental labour (i.e. care task specialization) was unrelated to the maintenance of biparental care. We also found that while males and females provided broadly similar levels of care, there were subtle differences: females typically delivered slightly more care than males across offspring development, suggesting that sex differences in self-maintenance may underlie sex differences in care. Together our results indicate minor differences in the care patterns of males and females, consistent with theoretical predictions that the division of labour should be limited in populations with frequent desertion and uniparental care. • A division of labour between parents should promote biparental care. • We assessed patterns of brood care in a wild population of Kentish plovers. • Male and female care patterns were similar but females cared slightly more. • The division of labour was not associated with female brood desertion. • Sex differences in care are linked with differences in rates of self-maintenance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parental care is a behavioral strategy observed in many living organisms, where parents devote time and resources to ensuring their offspring's survival, growth, and well-being. Such care can be in various forms and involve different levels of investment, depending on the species and its ecological context. This study examines how parental care among prey contributes to the coexistence of prey and predator in an ecosystem. For this, we proposed a three-dimensional prey-predator system with the following factors–(i) stage structure and parental care in prey population, (ii) linear functional response for the interaction between immature prey and predators, whereas Holling type II functional response for the case of mature prey. We examined the conditions for the existence of equilibrium points, and their local and global stability for our proposed model. We observed the switching of stability of equilibria via transcritical bifurcation concerning the maturation rate and attack rate on adult prey. We examined all three possible existence scenarios for the maturation rate, e.g., extinction of both populations, prey-only existence, and coexistence of both prey and predator. We also investigated the appearance and disappearance of the limit cycle via Hopf-bifurcation concerning the predation rate and saturation constant of adult prey. We observed that parental care has a stabilizing effect on the system dynamics. Numerical simulations and graphical representations have been done to verify our theoretical findings. Sensitivity analysis is conducted to illustrate the importance of parental care in a stage-structure model. With the introduction of parental care parameter in prey species, we observe a more realistic dynamics of stage structured model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is increasing evidence that competent handling of social interactions among conspecifics has positive effects on individual fitness. While individual variation in social competence has been appreciated, the role of long‐term experience in the acquisition of superior social skills has received less attention. With the goal of promoting further research, we integrate knowledge across disciplines to assess social expertise, defined as the characteristics, skills and knowledge allowing individuals with extensive social experience to perform significantly better than novices on a given social task. We focus on three categories of social behaviour. First, animals can gain from adjusting social behaviour towards individually recognised conspecifics that they interact with on a regular basis. For example, there is evidence that some territorial animals individually recognise their neighbours and modify their social interactions based on experience with each neighbour. Similarly, individuals in group‐living species learn to associate with specific group members based on their expected benefits from such social connections. Individuals have also been found to devote considerable time and effort to learning about the spatial location and timing of sexual receptivity of opposite‐sex neighbours to optimise reproduction. Second, signallers can enhance their signals, and receivers can refine their response to signals with experience. In many birds and insects, individuals can produce more consistent signals with experience, and females across a wide taxonomic range can adaptively adjust mating preferences after perceiving distinct male signals. Third, in many species, individuals that succeed in reproducing encounter the novel, complex task of caring for vulnerable offspring. Evidence from a few species of mammals indicates that mothers improve in providing for and protecting their young over successive broods. Finally, for social expertise to evolve, heritable variation in social expertise has to be positively associated with fitness. Heritable variation has been shown in traits contributing to social expertise including social attention, empathy, individual recognition and maternal care. There are currently limited data associating social expertise with fitness, most likely owing to sparse research effort. Exceptions include maternal care, signal refinement, and familiarity with neighbours and group members. Overall, there is evidence that individuals in many species keep refining their social skills with experience throughout life. Hence we propose promising lines of research that can quantify more thoroughly the development of social expertise and its effects on fitness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Parental care benefits offspring but comes with costs. To optimize the trade-off of costs and benefits, parents should adjust care based on intrinsic and/or extrinsic conditions. The harm to offspring hypothesis suggests that parents should invest more in younger offspring than older offspring because younger offspring are more vulnerable. However, this hypothesis has rarely been comprehensively tested, as many studies only reveal an inverse correlation between parental care and offspring age, without directly testing the effects of offspring age on their vulnerability. To test this hypothesis, we studied Kurixalus eiffingeri, an arboreal treefrog with paternal care. We first performed a field survey by monitoring paternal care during embryonic development. Subsequently, we conducted a field experiment to assess the prevalence of egg predators (a semi-slug, Parmarion martensi) and the plasticity of male care. Finally, we conducted a laboratory experiment to assess how embryo age affects predation by P. martensi. Results Our results showed that (1) male attendance and brooding frequency affected embryo survival, and (2) males attended and brooded eggs more frequently in the early stage than in the late stage. The experimental results showed that (3) males increased attendance frequency when the predators were present, and (4) the embryonic predation by the semi-slug during the early was significantly higher than in the late stage. Conclusions Our findings highlight the importance of paternal care to embryo survival, and the care behavior is plastic. Moreover, our results provide evidence consistent with the predictions of the harm to offspring hypothesis, as males tend to care more for younger offspring which are more vulnerable.

Parental care is essential to offspring survival in many species. Understanding why males of some species provide care, whereas others do not, has received substantial attention. Previous research has found that sexual selection can favor paternal care, yet we still do not fully understand why sexual selection favors male care in some species but not others. It is also unclear when paternal care versus other preferred male trait(s) will be favored by sexual selection. We hypothesize that sexual selection can interact with basic life history to influence the conditions under which paternal care and/or another preferred male trait will be favored by sexual selection. We used a mathematical approach in which males alone provide parental care and exhibit a non‐care trait that is preferred in mate choice. Using this approach, we demonstrate that life‐history characteristics (stage‐specific mortality, fertilization success, gamete numbers) can interact with sexual selection to influence the evolution of paternal care and/or a preferred non‐care trait. In particular, whether (1) adult mortality, egg mortality, and fertilization success are high versus low and (2) a tradeoff exists between paternal care and a non‐care preferred trait will influence whether selection most strongly favors additional paternal care or a non‐care preferred trait. In general, we would expect strong selection for more male care when it is preferred in mate choice. In some cases, mate preferences for paternal care can inhibit selection for a preferred non‐care trait. Mate preferences for paternal care can also broaden the life‐history conditions under which we would expect the elaboration of male care to occur. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behavioural traits are under both genetic and environmental influence during early life stages. Early environmental conditions related to the amount and type of food have been found to alter behaviour in many organisms. However, how early life diet affects the variation in and the correlation between behavioural traits is largely unknown. Using a multivariate approach, we investigated how variation in parental prey selection is related to three repeatable nestling personality traits, and explored the within and between‐individual covariation between these behaviours in a wild passerine, the great tit (Parus major). Our results confirm that breath rate, docility and handling aggression (HA) in great tit nestlings are repeatable traits. Contrary to our expectation, the three nestling personality traits did not form a behavioural 'syndrome' on the phenotypic level in the study population, but we found two of three expected phenotypic correlations, mostly at the within‐individual level. Moreover, we found that breath rate significantly decreased with a higher number of spiders in the diet, and docility and handling aggression were significantly and inversely related to higher numbers of noctuids and tortricids in the diets of individuals within broods. Thus, our findings suggest that provisioning quantity and quality during the early life, affects variation in behavioural phenotypes, which occurs mainly at the within‐individual level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sex differences in early‐life survival can drive skewed adult sex ratios (ASR), which play an important role in mating tactics and parental sex roles. Among birds, cuckoos exhibit the largest diversity in mating systems and thus represent an interesting system to study sex‐specific demography.Here we investigate the early‐life survival pathways shaping ASR using long‐term field data and sex‐ and stage‐specific demographic modelling of black coucals and white‐browed coucals—two sympatric Centropus cuckoo species differing in mating system and the extent of sexual size dimorphism.We hypothesized that sexual size dimorphism would lead to differential juvenile mortality due to the greater energy demands and predation risk of the larger sex during maturation. We expected higher early‐life mortality among large‐bodied females in the sexually dimorphic and classically polyandrous black coucal, whereas no bias should exist in the less dimorphic and monogamous white‐browed coucal.Both species had balanced hatching sex ratios, but in black coucals, female survival (μ = 0.64 ± 0.061 SD) was lower during the 'groundling' phase (i.e. a flightless 3‐week period following nest departure) than male survival (0.70 ± 0.066). Yet, this sex difference in survival was not strong enough to account for the species' male‐biased ASR where 70% of the adult population is male. In white‐browed coucals, survival during maturation exhibited high inter‐individual variation but lacked clear sex differences, reflecting the emergence of a balanced ASR.In summary, we found no evidence that the strongly male‐biased ASR of black coucals is driven by sex‐specific survival during maturation. In black coucals, the male‐biased ASR must therefore stem from processes occurring later in life: possibly, larger females are more likely to die during migration and/or the recruitment of young females is delayed due to competitive exclusion by more experienced females.Our results differ from studies on shorebirds, in which sex‐specific mortality of precocial young is related to ASR and mating dynamics. Hence, early‐life sex biases in survival of precocial shorebirds cannot be generalized to other taxonomic groups.Factors other than early‐life sex biases in survival are likely to be important in shaping adult sex ratios and the associated mating dynamics and social behaviours in altricial coucals. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Offspring provisioning can act as a proxy of resource acquisition and vary with parental sex and age. Age-related variation can arise from individual experience and senescence, but also from selective disappearance of poor-quality parents. Distinguishing between these processes and quantifying their effect on the resource acquisition and fate of individual chicks requires longitudinal monitoring of known-age individuals, which is still rare. In our longitudinal study, we observed offspring provisioning of common terns, Sterna hirundo , across a 6-year period and analysed provisioning behaviour from both a parental and offspring perspective. Using repeated measures of provisioning of individual parents, our analyses showed that provisioning did not increase with age, but that parents that were observed at older ages provisioned more, suggesting selective disappearance of parents that provisioned less. Parental provisioning was higher in males than females and increased with brood size in both sexes. For offspring, energetic acquisition declined with hatching order and increased with age. Acquisition from the mother increased faster with chick age than that from the father, and mothers distributed their provisioning more evenly across chicks of different hatching order. Parental age, however, did not affect the energetic acquisition of the offspring. The early energetic acquisition rate of chicks predicted their fledging success, but not fledging mass. When decomposing effects on energetic provisioning and acquisition rate into effects on feeding rate, prey energetic density and prey size, we found that all arose from variation in feeding rate. Overall, these results therefore show that both parents and offspring vary in quality, which is reflected in their feeding rate. • Resource acquisition levels can reflect parental and/or offspring quality. • We studied offspring provisioning in common terns across 6 years. • We found selective disappearance with age of parents that provisioned at low levels. • For offspring, energetic acquisition rate predicted fledging success. • Both parents and offspring vary in quality, which is reflected in their feeding rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Patterns in the correlated evolution of parental care and life history traits are long established but controversial. Although parental care is related to large egg size in many taxa, conflicting results have also been reported. To test the evolutionary relationships between parental care and life history traits, we performed phylogenetic comparative analyses using shield bugs (Heteroptera: Acanthosomatidae), in which maternal guarding of eggs and young has repeatedly evolved. Our analyses revealed that female body size affected reproductive resource allocation. Contrary to the expectations of current theories, the acquisition of maternal care was associated with small eggs, large clutches, and large egg resource allocation. There was a greater trade-off between egg size and clutch size in caring species than in noncaring species. Egg and hatchling developmental rates were not correlated with egg size but were slower in caring species than in noncaring species. Analyses of evolutionary transitions suggest that the establishment of large clutches, small eggs, and large egg resource allocation preceded the evolution of maternal care. To our knowledge, this is the first study clarifying the evolution of parental care linked with small eggs in invertebrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evidence from Western developed countries has consistently found that children with sibling(s) showed better perspective-taking (PT) than only children. However, this was not the case in developing countries like China. Our study investigates whether the potentially hindering effect of having sibling(s) on PT persists into adulthood within the context of contemporary Chinese culture. We employed self-report questionnaires to measure PT, perceived parental care, and sibling relationships among Chinese young adults (21.93 ± 2.35 years old). Our findings indicate that in China, (1) having sibling(s) hinders individuals' PT in adulthood, (2) a potential mechanism for this effect is that having sibling(s) leads individuals to perceive less parental care during early life, and (3) for those with sibling(s), higher sibling intimacy can enhance PT, particularly among older sister–younger brother pairs. These results suggest that in developing countries such as China, while sibling(s) may diminish PT to some extent, factors like parental care and sibling intimacy can serve as protective factors that mitigate the negative impacts of sibling(s) on PT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In theory, emancipation from parental care is expected to favor promiscuous mating systems. However, in avian brood parasites, monogamy is surprisingly widespread, and it has been proposed that this may be favored by factors such as low population density and territoriality. Correspondingly, our previous research revealed that brood parasitic Horsfield's bronze-cuckoos (Chalcites basalis) , which occur at low population densities and defend territories, are monogamous. Here, we contrast this study with the mating system of the congeneric little bronze-cuckoo (C. minutillus) , an obligate brood parasite that exploits more concentrated hosts and is, therefore, likely to occur at higher population densities. We use single nucleotide polymorphisms to characterize the reproductive patterns of unsampled adults by inferring sibling relationships among 30 offspring. We show that (1) little bronze-cuckoos occurred at high densities, (2) polygamy was the most common mating pattern found in this study in both sexes, and (3) where multiple cuckoo eggs are laid in the same nest, they were unrelated. These results indicate that females do not defend exclusive territories, and males do not defend multiple females (polygyny). Instead, little bronze-cuckoos appear to have a non-territorial, promiscuous mating system. Our results are consistent with theoretical predictions that polygamy is more likely to evolve in species that are emancipated from parental care, where there are plenty of available mates, and where home ranges are not defended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extreme temperature events, such as heat waves, can have lasting effects on the behavior, physiology, and reproductive success of organisms. Here, we examine the impact of short-term exposure to a simulated heat wave on condition, parental care, and reproductive success in a population of threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), a small fish with exclusive paternal care, currently experiencing regular heat waves. Males were either exposed to a simulated heat wave (23 °C) for 5 d or held at an ideal temperature (18 °C). Following this 5-d treatment, all males were transferred to 18 °C, where they completed a full parenting cycle. Offspring were raised at 18 °C. We found that while mass and body condition were unaffected in males exposed to a heat wave, cortisol responses were dampened across the nesting cycle compared to control males. In addition, heat wave males had longer latency for eggs to hatch, lower hatching success, and showed lower levels of parental care behavior compared to control males. Offspring of heat wave males had lower body condition, affecting swimming performance. Altogether, our results highlight the long-term impact that even short-term events can have on reproductive success, parental behavior, and subsequent generations, providing insight into population responses to rapid environmental change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Generally, mothers provide the majority of caring for children who have Down syndrome. They pose challenges not only with regard to the acceptability of the child situation but also with regard to the provision of care for children with DS. To explore the experiences of mothers parenting children with DS in Indonesia, to give a better understanding of their needs, which is necessary for the delivery of treatment. A descriptive qualitative research with content analysis was used. Study participants (15 mothers) were purposively sampled from attendees of a State Special School for students with disabilities. Data was collected via semi-structure interviews and were audio recorded. Participant's statements underwent content analysis, and the principle of trustworthiness was subsequently applied. Five main themes describing participants' experiences were identified: (1) parenting experiences – the impacts, (2) special needs, (3) parenting barriers, (4) parenting facilitators, and (5) mothers' expectations. The study findings showed that the mothers viewed their situation in both positive and negative ways. Despite the limited sample size in this exploratory study, the results offer new insights into raising a child with DS in a particular cultural setting. This study offers important information to families and healthcare providers to improve awareness of the disorder and its appropriate management methods. It is important that an exploration of the experiences of mothers will provide healthcare professionals and families with an understanding of the situation. This understanding is essential for the effective management and delivery of treatment. • Mothers of children with Down syndrome typically adopt the primary caregiver role, and they experience a range of emotions while seeking to develop and deploy caregiving techniques to meet physical and social demands. • Inappropriate parenting can affect the process of child development, especially concerning the independence of children with down syndrome, from an early age to adulthood. • There are some barriers connected to the existence of intellectual and communication disorders in children with Down syndrome, including mothers being busy, physical activity, social interactions, and other various aspects of holistic psycho-social wellbeing in individuals, families, and communities • It is important that families, pediatric nurses, and other healthcare providers to improve awareness of the disorder and its appropriate management methods for children with Down syndrome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study explored longitudinally whether oxytocin receptor gene methylation (OXTRm) changes moderated the association between parental sensitivity changes and children's attachment changes over three waves. Six hundred six Flemish children (10–12 years, 42.8%–44.8% boys) completed attachment measures and provided salivary OXTRm data on seven CpG sites. Their parents reported their sensitive parenting. Results suggest that OXTRm changes hardly link to attachment (in)security changes after the age of 10. Some support was found for interaction effects between parental sensitivity changes and OXTRm changes on attachment changes over time. Effects suggest that for children with increased OXTRm in the promotor region and decreased methylation in the inhibitor region over time, increased parental sensitivity was associated with increased secure attachment and decreased insecure attachment over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brood parasitism and nest predation are among the main causes of breeding failures in passerine birds. Brood parasites threaten to the nest, while predatory birds threaten to both the nest and the parents. The objective of this study was to experimentally evaluate whether male and female Chestnut-capped Blackbirds, Chrysomus ruficapillus, recognize and respond to different nest threats during the breeding stages. For this purpose, we presented taxidermy models of a brood parasite, Molothrus bonariensis; a nest predator, Caracara plancus; and a non-predator species, Colaptes campestris, on the nest of C. ruficapillus. Additionally, we filmed nests without the display models to compare them with the nests exposed to taxidermy mounts. We assessed whether parents returned to the nest for each sex based on nest attention, visit frequency, and visit duration through the filming of a total of 44 nests. The parental return to the nest in the experimental trials varied between the sexes and breeding stages. During the incubation stage, males increased their nest attention and frequency of visits in the presence of the non-predator and brood parasite models. Females also increased their frequency of visits in the presence of the non-predator model in relation to the predator and brood parasite models. During the nestling stage, males extended the duration of their visits in the presence of the predator model compared to nests without the display model. Meanwhile, females showed no differences in their behavior during this stage. Overall, the Chestnut-capped Blackbirds parents demonstrated the ability to recognize the presented models and responded differently to different threats at different stages of the breeding cycle. The flexible responses they exhibited may be consistent with the 'threat-sensitive predator avoidance´ hypothesis. Significance statement: Passerine birds face different threats to themselves and their offspring during the breeding cycle. Recognizing and responding to these threats allows them to assess risk and is critical to their breeding success. Using taxidermy models of predators, brood parasites, and non-parasites, we evaluated whether the male and female Chestnut-capped Blackbirds Chrysomus ruficapillus can recognize and respond to these diverse threats during different stages of breeding. The findings of this study highlight the ability to recognize and respond differently to different threats to their nests during the incubation and nestling stages. These results contribute to our understanding of avian parental care strategies in the face of predation and brood parasitism. Understanding how birds respond to different threats during various reproductive stages can provide valuable insights into their adaptive behaviors and strategies for breeding success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Ümraniye Pediatri Dergisi is the property of KARE Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Parental care in birds encompasses many behaviours, from selecting nest‐sites and supplying eggs with nutrients to incubation and offspring provisioning. Unlike the early stages, where offspring are passive receivers of care, chicks actively solicit care after hatching. This may lead to either parent–offspring conflict or coadaptation, or both, if there is genetic variance in both parental provisioning and offspring begging. However, given that parental provisioning is highly responsive to brood size and age, its genetic determination is questioned. In this study, we used a multigenerational pedigree and 11 years of provisioning data to dissect the variation in this trait in the Collared Flycatcher Ficedula albicollis, and to examine whether offspring provisioning changes as parents age. We found that the parental provisioning rate was weakly repeatable (r = 0.088–0.213) and heritable (h2 = 0.052–0.158). Higher values were obtained when calculated based on within‐individual averages rather than individual measurements, and after adjusting for fixed effects. Older parents provisioned offspring at a lower frequency than younger ones. An additive genetic component in provisioning indicates potential for the evolution of parental care, parent–offspring coadaptation and indirect genetic effects on offspring traits. Future studies employing new tracking technologies, including accelerometers, radars and radio‐frequency identification readers, may help to determine whether senescence or increased experience causes the lower rate of offspring provisioning observed in older parents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many bird species, nestling begging signals play a key role in the interaction between parents and their offspring during development. The information conveyed by begging calls can be disrupted by anthropogenic noise, which is one of the major threats to biodiversity in increasingly urbanized landscapes. Here, we describe the developmental change in acoustic structure of begging calls in nestling Eurasian Blue Tits Cyanistes caeruleus; begging calls are pure‐tone, low‐frequency, soft calls during the first days of development and gradually turn into white‐noise, hiss‐like, powerful calls of broadband frequency. This strong developmental variation highlights the importance of an extended sampling scheme in developmental studies. Furthermore, we pinpoint two phases where begging calls could be most vulnerable to masking by anthropogenic noise. First, during early development, begging calls are very soft and low‐pitched, closer to high‐intensity noise bands of traffic noise. Secondly, around day 11, begging calls show reduced tonality, which implies higher degradation, and relatively low amplitude, which implies reduced signal range. We encourage future research to describe acoustic development of begging calls in other species, to provide a robust foundation that will make noise mitigation policies more effective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Parental care benefits offspring but comes with costs. To optimize the trade-off of costs and benefits, parents should adjust care based on intrinsic and/or extrinsic conditions. The harm to offspring hypothesis suggests that parents should invest more in younger offspring than older offspring because younger offspring are more vulnerable. However, this hypothesis has rarely been comprehensively tested, as many studies only reveal an inverse correlation between parental care and offspring age, without directly testing the effects of offspring age on their vulnerability. To test this hypothesis, we studied Kurixalus eiffingeri, an arboreal treefrog with paternal care. We first performed a field survey by monitoring paternal care during embryonic development. Subsequently, we conducted a field experiment to assess the prevalence of egg predators (a semi-slug, Parmarion martensi) and the plasticity of male care. Finally, we conducted a laboratory experiment to assess how embryo age affects predation by P. martensi. Results: Our results showed that (1) male attendance and brooding frequency affected embryo survival, and (2) males attended and brooded eggs more frequently in the early stage than in the late stage. The experimental results showed that (3) males increased attendance frequency when the predators were present, and (4) the embryonic predation by the semi-slug during the early was significantly higher than in the late stage. Conclusions: Our findings highlight the importance of paternal care to embryo survival, and the care behavior is plastic. Moreover, our results provide evidence consistent with the predictions of the harm to offspring hypothesis, as males tend to care more for younger offspring which are more vulnerable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An often-overlooked aspect of life-history optimization is the allocation of resources to protect the germline and secure safe transmission of genetic information. While failure to do so renders significant fitness consequences in future generations, germline maintenance comes with substantial costs. Thus, germline allocation should trade off with other life-history decisions and be optimized in accordance with an organism's reproductive schedule. Here, we tested this hypothesis by studying germline maintenance in lines of seed beetle, selected for early (E) or late (L) reproduction for 350 and 240 generations, respectively. Female animals provide maintenance and screening of male gametes in their reproductive tract and oocytes. Here, we reveal the ability of young and aged E- and L-females to provide this form of germline maintenance by mating them to males with ejaculates with artificially elevated levels of protein and DNA damage. We find that germline maintenance in E-females peaks at young age and then declines, while the opposite is true for L-females, in accordance with the age of reproduction in the respective regime. These findings identify the central role of allocation to secure germline integrity in life-history evolution and highlight how females can play a crucial role in mitigating the effects of male germline decisions on mutation rate and offspring quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animals constantly need to evaluate available external and internal information to make appropriate decisions. Identifying, assessing, and acting on relevant cues in contexts such as mate choice, intra-sexual competition, and parental care is particularly important for optimizing individual reproductive success. Several factors can influence decision-making, such as external environmental cues and the animal's own internal state, yet, we have limited knowledge on how animals integrate available information. Here, we used an entire island population (57 males, 53 females, and 1,109 tadpoles) of the neotropical brilliant-thighed poison frog Allobates femoralis to investigate how 2 factors (olfactory cues and personality traits) influence the ability of males to find and use new resources for tadpole deposition. We experimentally manipulated the location of tadpole deposition sites and their associated olfactory cues, and repeatedly measured exploration and boldness in adult males. We further reconstructed tadpole deposition choices via inferred parent–offspring relationships of adult frogs and tadpoles deposited in our experimental pools using molecular parentage analysis. We found that the discovery and use of new rearing sites were heavily influenced by olfactory cues; however, we did not find an effect of the measured behavioral traits on resource discovery and use. We conclude that in highly dynamic environments such as tropical rainforests, reliable external cues likely take priority over personality traits, helping individuals to discover and make use of reproductive resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amphibians exhibit an incredible diversity of reproductive and life-history strategies, including various forms of nest construction and nesting behaviour. Although anuran amphibians (frogs and toads) are not known for their nests, nesting behaviour in this clade-broadly defined as a location chosen or constructed for eggs and young-is tightly linked to the amphibious lifestyle of this group. Transitions to increasingly terrestrial living have driven reproductive diversity in anurans, including the repeated, independent evolution of nests and nesting. Indeed, a core feature of many notable anuran adaptations-including nesting behaviour-is the maintenance of an aquatic environment for developing offspring. The tight link between increasingly terrestrial reproduction and morphological, physiological and behavioural diversity in anurans provides inroads for studying the evolutionary ecology of nests, their architects and their contents. This review provides an overview of nests and nesting behaviour in anurans, highlighting areas where additional work may be particularly fruitful. I take an intentionally broad view of what constitutes nesting to highlight what we can learn from thinking and researching comparatively across anurans and vertebrates more broadly. This article is part of the theme issue The evolutionary ecology of nests: a cross-taxon approach.

Mammalian infants depend on parental care for survival, with numerous consequences for their behavioral development. We investigated the epigenetic and neurodevelopmental mechanisms mediating the impact of early biparental care on development of alloparenting behavior, or caring for offspring that are not ones own. We find that receiving high parental care early in life leads to slower epigenetic aging of both sexes and widespread male-specific differential expression of genes related to synaptic transmission and autism in the nucleus accumbens. Examination of parental care composition indicates that high-care fathers promote a male-specific increase in excitatory synapses and increases in pup retrieval behavior as juveniles. Interestingly, females raised by high-care fathers have the opposite behavioral response and display fewer pup retrievals. These results support the concept that neurodevelopmental trajectories are programmed by different features of early-life parental care and reveal that male neurodevelopmental processes are uniquely sensitive to care by fathers.

Oxytocin is a key hormone in the transition to motherhood. The maternal endogenous oxytocin system facilitates many physiological and biological adaptations, including breastfeeding, maternal wellbeing, and brain plasticity. Additionally, maternal endogenous oxytocin works as a finetuned orchestrator prior to, during, and after the birth of a child to support birth progression and mother-infant bonding. Exogenous oxytocin may be administered to induce or augment labour when this is not progressing naturally and is a common obstetric intervention worldwide. However, the lasting impact of these widely varying levels of systemic exogenous oxytocin on mother-infant bonding is currently unknown. This study aimed to investigate the association between exogenous oxytocin administered to induce or augment labour and quality of observed mother-infant bonding.Thirty-eight mother and infant dyads participated (mothers aged 24–48 years; infants aged 2–5 months). Mother-infant bonding quality was assessed via the Recorded Interaction Task and hospital birth records were consulted to obtain exogenous oxytocin administration data. Demographic information and possible confounding factors were collected from dyads, and salivary oxytocin concentration was measured for both mother and infant.Mother's perception of infant sleep difficulty was identified as a confounding factor for quality of mother-infant bonding. After controlling for the confounding factor, receiving exogenous oxytocin to induce or augment labour, as opposed to not, was found to be significantly positively associated with higher quality of observed mother-infant bonding (p = 0.029). These novel findings highlight the need for further exploration, both of the impact of the treatment and of the mechanisms of action of intrapartum exogenous oxytocin on the endogenous oxytocin system. It is argued that particular focus be given to investigate action on the central oxytocin receptors, and if this may play a role in subsequent mother-infant bonding outcomes. It is vital to understand the full breadth and the clinical implications of this commonplace procedure.

Parents are expected to exhibit intermediate levels of investment in parental care that reflect the trade-off between current versus future reproduction. Providing parents with supplemental food may allow for increased care to the current brood (additive model), re-allocation of parental effort to other behaviours such as self-maintenance (substitution model), or may provide parents with a buffer against provisioning shortfalls (insurance model). We investigated the impact of parental food supplementation on provisioning behaviour and breeding success in Arctic-breeding peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus tundrius) over five successive breeding seasons (2013−2017). We found that supplemental feeding had no impact on mean provisioning rates, yet resulted in increased nestling survival probability, increased nestling body mass and decreased variance in nestling body mass and provisioning rates. These results are consistent with parents adopting a hybrid of the additive and substitution models. We suggest that food supplementation enables increased investment in other forms of parental care (e.g. nest defence, brooding) without altering mean provisioning rates. The lack of observed effects on mean provisioning rates, coupled with increased survival and body mass of offspring, suggests a potential reallocation of parental effort. The findings contribute to understanding the responses of peregrine falcons to food supplementation, highlighting the need for future studies to explore broader environmental contexts and potential long-term effects on parental survival and future reproduction.

The modern zoo relies on the persistence of genetically and physiologically healthy populations of endangered species, which is enabled through breeding programmes globally and regionally. Many species commonly held in zoos are poorly studied in the wild, leading to a lack of in-depth knowledge surrounding breeding behaviours and subsequent parental behaviours and early life development of young. Knowledge of this information is critical to make informed management decisions which promote successful rearing of young in zoos. While the critically endangered Sumatran tiger is popular in zoos, rates of cub survival in the first 5 months are lower than 50%, highlighting the need for scientific evidence driving management decisions. This study monitors nursing and cub grooming behaviours in a first-time mother Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) and her cubs throughout four stages of cub development. The social proximity of cubs and dam were recorded to describe social interactions within the group throughout cub aging. A series of Friedman tests and post-hoc tests found significant decreases in both cub grooming (χ2 (3, N = 96) = 14.20, p < 0.01) and nursing (χ2 (3, N = 96) = 25.77, p < 0.001) behaviours between the birth and weaning of the cubs, as well as within different phases of cub development between those times. Cub-to-cub proximity was maintained from birth to weaning, with cubs spending significant amounts of time in close proximity (within one adult body length) of each other (χ2 (3, N = 96) = 15.231, p = 0.001) throughout the study. The dam was found to spend significantly less time with the cubs as they reached weaning age (χ2 (3, N = 96) = 27.88, p < 0.001). These results are thought to be the first of their kind to detail timings of cub development and early life socialisation, providing evidence for timing of first food provision to young and promote the provision of space for the dam to spend time away from the cubs, while allowing the cubs to become confident, mobile, and independent.

This article, published in the Journal of Raptor Research, discusses the occurrence of cooperative breeding by Golden Eagles in Colorado. Cooperative breeding is when more than two individuals participate in raising offspring from a single nest. While Golden Eagles are typically monogamous and defend their territory, this study documents a case in which three Golden Eagles, including paired adults and a yearling, engaged in cooperative breeding near Franktown, Colorado. The article provides details about the nesting behavior and observations of the eagles throughout the breeding season. The authors suggest that delayed natal dispersal and the availability of prey in the territory may have contributed to the cooperative breeding behavior. [Extracted from the article]

The emergence of complex social interactions is predicted to be an important selective force in the diversification of communication systems. Parental care presents a key social context in which to study the evolution of novel signals, as care often requires communication and behavioral coordination between parents and is an evolutionary stepping-stone toward increasingly complex social systems. Anuran amphibians (frogs and toads) are a classic model of acoustic communication and the vocal repertoires of many species have been characterized in the contexts of advertisement, courtship, and aggression, yet quantitative descriptions of calls elicited in the context of parental care are lacking. The biparental poison frog, Ranitomeya imitator, exhibits a remarkable parenting behavior in which females, cued by the calls of their male partners, feed tadpoles unfertilized eggs. Here, we characterized and compared calls across three social contexts, for the first time including a parental care context. We found that egg-feeding calls share some properties with both advertisement and courtship calls but also had unique properties. Multivariate analysis revealed high classification success for advertisement and courtship calls but misclassified nearly half of egg feeding calls as either advertisement or courtship calls. Egg feeding and courtship calls both contained less identity information than advertisement calls, as expected for signals used in close-range communication where uncertainty about identity is low and additional signal modalities may be used. Taken together, egg-feeding calls likely borrowed and recombined elements of both ancestral call types to solicit a novel, context-dependent parenting response.