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Abstract Background Bats (Order Chiroptera) are an important reservoir of emerging zoonotic microbes, including viruses of public health concern such as henipaviruses, lyssaviruses, and SARS-related coronaviruses. Despite the continued discovery of new viruses in bat populations, a significant proportion of these viral agents remain uncharacterized, highlighting the imperative for additional research aimed at elucidating their evolutionary relationship and taxonomic classification. Results In order to delve deeper into the viral reservoir hosted by bats, the present study employed Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) technology to analyze 13,105 swab samples obtained from various locations in China. Analysis of 378 sample pools revealed the presence of 846 vertebrate-associated viruses. Subsequent thorough examination, adhering to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) criteria for virus classification, identified a total of 120 putative viral species with the potential to emerge as novel viruses, comprising a total of 294 viral strains. Phylogenetic analysis of conserved genomic regions indicated the novel virus exhibited a diverse array of viral lineages and branches, some of which displayed close genetic relationships to known human and livestock pathogens, such as poxviruses and pestiviruses. Conclusions This study investigates the breadth of DNA and RNA viruses harbored by bats, delineating several novel evolutionary lineages and offering significant contributions to virus taxonomy. Furthermore, the identification of hitherto unknown viruses with relevance to human and livestock health underscores the importance of this study in encouraging infectious disease monitoring and management efforts in both public health and veterinary contexts. Video Abstract

IntroductionBats are considered the natural reservoirs of several viruses including coronaviruses (CoVs), two genera of which, alpha- and betacoronaviruses, infect humans. Despite widespread screening of bat samples for novel viruses, information on the diversity of coronaviruses in bats inhabiting Russian territory remains scarce. Here, we analyzed the presence and diversity of alphacoronaviruses (Alpha-CoVs) in bats from European Russia.MethodsFourty three fecal samples from bats of 8 species: P. nathusii, P. kuhlii, M. brandtii, M. daubentonii, N. noctula, V. murinus, M. dasycneme, and P. auritus were taken to study.Results and discussionWe detected Alpha-CoV RdRp gene fragments in 30% (13/43) of samples examined in 75% (6/8) of species sampled. Phylogenetic analysis of RdRp showed that most of the identified Alpha-CoV sequences fall into clades within the Pedacovirus subgenus, with minor clusters of nyctacoviruses or myotacoviruses. We assert that closely related pedacoviruses have been circulating for a long time (from 2015 to 2021) in a large region from European Russia to Northern Europe. We propose that closely related pedacoviruses collected from common areas represent a separate species, which we name NE-Alpha coronavirus, with its host being bats of the genus Pipistrellus that inhabit a region from the European part of Russia to Northern Europe. Among the animals sampled, 4.6% (2/43) carried two Alpha-CoVs related to different subgenera (pedacovirus/myotacovirus or pedacovirus/nyctacovirus) simultaneously. We confirmed the presence of two different Alpha-CoV subgenera related to pedacovirus and nyctacovirus in P. kuhlii captured in 2021 and kept in captivity using whole genome sequencing of these viruses. The presence of two or more coronaviruses in one individual animal host is an essential prerequisite for recombination to occur. We also obtained two Alpha-CoV whole genomes from two specimens of P. nathusii captured in 2015. The genomic organization of BatCoV/MOW15-21 and BatCoV/MOW15-23 was similar to other Alpha-CoVs, but the assembled genomes contained a long insertion in the ORF1ab gene which has not been described in other Alpha-CoVs, except for a single sequence from P. nathusii captured in the Netherlands. We propose that the insertion encodes a previously undescribed domain of unknown function, probably related to the SEA domain superfamily.

Abstract Indigenous territories are considered important for conservation, but little is known about their role in maintaining human health. Here we quantified the potential human health and economic benefits of protecting these territories in the Brazilian Amazon, by using cardiovascular and respiratory diseases cases, pollutant and forest cover data. Between 2010 and 2019, 1.68 tons of Particulate Matter of small size (PM2.5) were released every year, with negative effects for human health. A lower number of diseases and infections was also found in municipalities with more forested areas, and with a low level of fragmentation, which probably is related to the potential capacity of the Amazon Forest to absorb PM2.5 (26,376.66 tons year−1, 27% of this absorption capacity in Indigenous territories). Our estimates indicate that by protecting Amazon Indigenous territories, over 15 million of respiratory and cardiovascular cases could be avoided every year, with ~$2 billion USD being saved only in health costs.

Spillovers of Nipah virus (NiV) from Pteropus bats to humans occurs frequently in Bangladesh, but the risk for spillover into other animals is poorly understood. We detected NiV antibodies in cattle, dogs, and cats from 6 sites where spillover human NiV infection cases occurred during 2013–2015.

Bats are presumed reservoirs of diverse α- and β- coronaviruses (CoVs) and understanding the diversity of bat-CoVs and the role bats play in CoV transmission is highly relevant in the context of the current COVID pandemic. We sampled bats in Côte d'Ivoire (2016–2018) living at ecotones between anthropogenic and wild habitats in the Marahoué National Park, a recently encroached protected area, to detect and characterize the CoVs circulating in bats and humans. A total of 314 bats were captured, mostly during the rainy season (78%), and CoV RNA was detected in three of the bats (0.96%). A CoV RNA sequence similar to Chaerephon bat coronavirus/Kenya/KY22/2006 (BtKY22) was found in a Chaerephon cf. pumilus and a Mops sp. fecal swab, while a CoV RNA sequence similar to the two almost identical Kenya bat coronaviruses BtKY55 and BtKY56 (BtKY55/56) was detected in an Epomops buettikoferi oral swab. Phylogenetic analyses indicated differences in the degree of evolutionary host-virus co-speciation for BtKY22 and BtKY55/56. To assess potential for human exposure to these viruses, we conducted human syndromic and community-based surveillance in clinics and high-risk communities. We collected data on participant characteristics, livelihoods, animal contact, and high-risk behaviors that may be associated with exposure to zoonotic diseases. We then collected biological samples for viral testing from 401 people. PCR testing of these biological samples revealed no evidence of CoV infection among the enrolled individuals. We identified higher levels of exposure to bats in people working in crop production and in hunting, trapping and fishing. Finally, we used the ‘Spillover’ risk-ranking tool to assess the potential for viral spillover and concluded that, while there is no evidence to suggest imminent risk of spillover for these CoVs, their host range and other traits suggest caution and vigilance are warranted in people with high exposure risk.

Coronaviruses may spill over from bats to humans. This study uses epidemiological data, species distribution models, and probabilistic risk assessment to map overlap among people and SARSr-CoV bat hosts and estimate how many people are infected with bat-origin SARSr-CoVs in Southeast Asia annually.

Knowledge of the dynamics and genetic diversity of Nipah virus circulating in bats and at the human-animal interface is limited by current sampling efforts, which produce few detections of viral RNA. We report a series of investigations at Pteropus medius bat roosts identified near the locations of human Nipah cases in Bangladesh during 2012–2019. Pooled bat urine was collected from 23 roosts; 7 roosts (30%) had >1 sample in which Nipah RNA was detected from the first visit. In subsequent visits to these 7 roosts, RNA was detected in bat urine up to 52 days after the presumed exposure of the human case-patient, although the probability of detection declined rapidly with time. These results suggest that rapidly deployed investigations of Nipah virus shedding from bat roosts near human cases could increase the success of viral sequencing compared with background surveillance and could enhance understanding of Nipah virus ecology and evolution.

Abstract Background Hunters, vendors, and consumers are key actors in the wildlife trade value chain in North Sulawesi, Indonesia, and potentially face an elevated risk of exposure to zoonotic diseases. Understanding the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) associated with the risk of zoonotic disease transmission in these communities is therefore critical for developing recommendations to prevent or mitigate zoonotic outbreaks in the future. Methods Qualitative and quantitative methods were combined to understand KAP associated zoonotic diseases transmission risk in communities involved in the wildlife trade in North Sulawesi. Qualitative data were collected through semi-structured ethnographic interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs) while quantitative data were collected using questionnaires. We conducted 46 ethnographic interviews and 2 FGDs in 2016, and 477 questionnaire administrations in 2017–2018 in communities from five districts in North Sulawesi. We also collected biological specimens, including nasal swab, oropharyngeal swab, and blood, from 254 participants. The study sites were targeted based on known wildlife consumption and trade activities. The participants for qualitative data collection were purposively selected while participants for quantitative data collection were randomly selected. Biological samples were tested for five viral families including Coronaviridae, Filoviridae, Flaviviridae, Orthomyxoviridae and Paramyxoviridae. Results Knowledge regarding disease transmission from animals to humans was similar across the participants in qualitative focus groups, including knowledge of rabies and bird flu as zoonotic diseases. However, only a small fraction of the participants from the quantitative group (1%) considered that contact with wild animals could cause sickness. Our biological specimen testing identified a single individual (1/254, 0.004%) who was sampled in 2018 with serological evidence of sarbecovirus exposure. Overall, participants were aware of some level of risk in working with open wounds while slaughtering or butchering an animal (71%) but most did not know what the specific risks were. However, significant differences in the attitudes or beliefs around zoonotic disease risk and health seeking behaviors were observed across our study sites in North Sulawesi. Conclusions Our study showed variable levels of knowledge, attitudes, and practices associated with the risk of zoonotic disease transmission among study participants. These findings can be used to develop locally responsive recommendations to mitigate zoonotic disease transmission.

Abstract Background Interactions between humans and animals are the key elements of zoonotic spillover leading to zoonotic disease emergence. Research to understand the high-risk behaviors associated with disease transmission at the human-animal interface is limited, and few consider regional and local contexts. Objective This study employed an integrated behavioral–biological surveillance approach for the early detection of novel and known zoonotic viruses in potentially high-risk populations, in an effort to identify risk factors for spillover and to determine potential foci for risk-mitigation measures. Method Participants were enrolled at two community-based sites (n = 472) in eastern and western Thailand and two hospital (clinical) sites (n = 206) in northeastern and central Thailand. A behavioral questionnaire was administered to understand participants’ demographics, living conditions, health history, and animal-contact behaviors and attitudes. Biological specimens were tested for coronaviruses, filoviruses, flaviviruses, influenza viruses, and paramyxoviruses using pan (consensus) RNA Virus assays. Results Overall 61/678 (9%) of participants tested positive for the viral families screened which included influenza viruses (75%), paramyxoviruses (15%), human coronaviruses (3%), flaviviruses (3%), and enteroviruses (3%). The most salient predictors of reporting unusual symptoms (i.e., any illness or sickness that is not known or recognized in the community or diagnosed by medical providers) in the past year were having other household members who had unusual symptoms and being scratched or bitten by animals in the same year. Many participants reported raising and handling poultry (10.3% and 24.2%), swine (2%, 14.6%), and cattle (4.9%, 7.8%) and several participants also reported eating raw or undercooked meat of these animals (2.2%, 5.5%, 10.3% respectively). Twenty four participants (3.5%) reported handling bats or having bats in the house roof. Gender, age, and livelihood activities were shown to be significantly associated with participants’ interactions with animals. Participants’ knowledge of risks influenced their health-seeking behavior. Conclusion The results suggest that there is a high level of interaction between humans, livestock, and wild animals in communities at sites we investigated in Thailand. This study highlights important differences among demographic and occupational risk factors as they relate to animal contact and zoonotic disease risk, which can be used by policymakers and local public health programs to build more effective surveillance strategies and behavior-focused interventions.

IntroductionBats are critical to maintaining healthy ecosystems and many species are threatened primarily due to global habitat loss. Bats are also important hosts of a range of viruses, several of which have had significant impacts on global public health. The emergence of these viruses has been associated with land-use change and decreased host species richness. Yet, few studies have assessed how bat communities and the viruses they host alter with land-use change, particularly in highly biodiverse sites.MethodsIn this study, we investigate the effects of deforestation on bat host species richness and diversity, and viral prevalence and richness across five forested sites and three nearby deforested sites in the interior Atlantic Forest of southern Brazil. Nested-PCR and qPCR were used to amplify and detect viral genetic sequence from six viral families (corona-, adeno-, herpes-, hanta-, paramyxo-, and astro-viridae) in 944 blood, saliva and rectal samples collected from 335 bats.ResultsWe found that deforested sites had a less diverse bat community than forested sites, but higher viral prevalence and richness after controlling for confounding factors. Viral detection was more likely in juvenile males located in deforested sites. Interestingly, we also found a significant effect of host bat species on viral prevalence indicating that viral taxa were detected more frequently in some species than others. In particular, viruses from the Coronaviridae family were detected more frequently in generalist species compared to specialist species.DiscussionOur findings suggest that deforestation may drive changes in the ecosystem which reduce bat host diversity while increasing the abundance of generalist species which host a wider range of viruses.

Abstract In an effort to strengthen global capacity to prevent, detect, and control infectious diseases in animals and people, the United States Agency for International Development’s (USAID) Emerging Pandemic Threats (EPT) PREDICT project funded development of regional, national, and local One Health capacities for early disease detection, rapid response, disease control, and risk reduction. From the outset, the EPT approach was inclusive of social science research methods designed to understand the contexts and behaviors of communities living and working at human-animal-environment interfaces considered high-risk for virus emergence. Using qualitative and quantitative approaches, PREDICT behavioral research aimed to identify and assess a range of socio-cultural behaviors that could be influential in zoonotic disease emergence, amplification, and transmission. This broad approach to behavioral risk characterization enabled us to identify and characterize human activities that could be linked to the transmission dynamics of new and emerging viruses. This paper provides a discussion of implementation of a social science approach within a zoonotic surveillance framework. We conducted in-depth ethnographic interviews and focus groups to better understand the individual- and community-level knowledge, attitudes, and practices that potentially put participants at risk for zoonotic disease transmission from the animals they live and work with, across 6 interface domains. When we asked highly-exposed individuals (ie. bushmeat hunters, wildlife or guano farmers) about the risk they perceived in their occupational activities, most did not perceive it to be risky, whether because it was normalized by years (or generations) of doing such an activity, or due to lack of information about potential risks. Integrating the social sciences allows investigations of the specific human activities that are hypothesized to drive disease emergence, amplification, and transmission, in order to better substantiate behavioral disease drivers, along with the social dimensions of infection and transmission dynamics. Understanding these dynamics is critical to achieving health security--the protection from threats to health-- which requires investments in both collective and individual health security. Involving behavioral sciences into zoonotic disease surveillance allowed us to push toward fuller community integration and engagement and toward dialogue and implementation of recommendations for disease prevention and improved health security.

Abstract Mitigating the risk of acquiring coronaviruses including SARS-CoV-2 requires awareness of the survival of virus on high-touch environmental surfaces (HITES) and skin, and frequent use of targeted microbicides with demonstrated efficacy. The data on stability of infectious SARS-CoV-2 on surfaces and in suspension have been put into perspective, as these inform the need for hygiene. We evaluated the efficacies of formulated microbicidal actives against alpha- and beta-coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2. The coronaviruses SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, human coronavirus 229E, murine hepatitis virus-1, or MERS-CoV were deposited on prototypic HITES or spiked into liquid matrices along with organic soil loads. Alcohol-, quaternary ammonium compound-, hydrochloric acid-, organic acid-, p-chloro-m-xylenol-, and sodium hypochlorite-based microbicidal formulations were evaluated per ASTM International and EN standard methodologies. All evaluated formulated microbicides inactivated SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses in suspension or on prototypic HITES. Virucidal efficacies (≥ 3 to ≥ 6 log10 reduction) were displayed within 30 s to 5 min. The virucidal efficacy of a variety of commercially available formulated microbicides against SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses was confirmed. These microbicides should be useful for targeted surface and hand hygiene and disinfection of liquids, as part of infection prevention and control for SARS-CoV-2 and emerging mutational variants, and other emerging enveloped viruses.

Abstract Background As the largest group of mammalian species, which are also widely distributed all over the world, rodents are the natural reservoirs for many diverse zoonotic viruses. A comprehensive understanding of the core virome of diverse rodents should therefore assist in efforts to reduce the risk of future emergence or re-emergence of rodent-borne zoonotic pathogens. Results This study aimed to describe the viral range that could be detected in the lungs of rodents from Mainland Southeast Asia. Lung samples were collected from 3284 rodents and insectivores of the orders Rodentia, Scandentia, and Eulipotyphla in eighteen provinces of Thailand, Lao PDR, and Cambodia throughout 2006–2018. Meta-transcriptomic analysis was used to outline the unique spectral characteristics of the mammalian viruses within these lungs and the ecological and genetic imprints of the novel viruses. Many mammalian- or arthropod-related viruses from distinct evolutionary lineages were reported for the first time in these species, and viruses related to known pathogens were characterized for their genomic and evolutionary characteristics, host species, and locations. Conclusions These results expand our understanding of the core viromes of rodents and insectivores from Mainland Southeast Asia and suggest that a high diversity of viruses remains to be found in rodent species of this area. These findings, combined with our previous virome data from China, increase our knowledge of the viral community in wildlife and arthropod vectors in emerging disease hotspots of East and Southeast Asia. Video abstract

Abstract One Health is a cross‐sectoral and transdisciplinary approach that emphasizes the fundamental ways in which the health of humans, domestic and wild animals, fungi, plants, microbes, and natural and built ecosystems are interdependent. One Health approaches recognize the links between human health and a range of environmental concerns including biodiversity, climate, freshwater, food, harmful chemicals, and healthy oceans. Yet the conservation community and its broad interest in biodiversity and the natural world has been notably lacking in discussions about One Health. Partly as a result, both policy and practice have been narrowly focused on one or a few links between human and other healths, such as the human and wildlife health nexus. We provide a set of principles and components that will balance existing discussions by including the natural world and biodiversity and provide a framework for more active involvement by the conservation community. Incorporating these principles and components will enable One Health practice to guide inclusive, multidisciplinary, and cross‐sectoral efforts that consider the shared costs and benefits of human, animal, plant, and ecosystem health and help readjust humanity's pursuit of a green, just, and equitable sustainability pathway.

Background: The 2014 Ebola crisis in West Africa mainly affected Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, claiming the lives of over 11 000 people, including health-care workers. Following this crisis, the Ebola Host Project worked to identify the wildlife reservoir for the virus that started the epidemic, to detect other related filoviruses, and to better understand ecological and human behavioral dynamics that could inform future risk reduction and prevention strategies. Here, we report key ecological and behavioral results for Liberia. Methods: In Liberia, this cross-sectional study was conducted in 13 sites throughout eight counties. The project used a One Health biological-behavioral surveillance approach that included catch-and-release wildlife sampling and behavioral risk surveys. These sites were chosen from counties with forested areas inhabited by bats and rodents and included counties that were both severely and minimally impacted by the Ebola crisis. The analysis included 5000 bat and rodent biological samples, and the behavioural risk survey included 585 enrolled human participants from eight counties. Participants were selected from villages within a 5 km range of the 18 sampling sites, and they provided writteninformed consent. In addition to US based approvals, the Liberian National Ethical and Review Board, the Liberian Forest Development Authority and local government authorities approved the study and community work. Findings: This sampling effort led to the first-time discovery of an Ebolavirus in a west African bat (Miniopterus inflatus) in January 2019. Across five of the eight counties, including Nimba County where the infected Miniopterus inflatus was sampled, mosquitos and tsetse flies were also identified as present vectors. Respondents reported the ways in which they interfaced with taxa of interest such as rodents. These interactions included wildlife consumption and proximity to human dwellings—interactions that present the risk of zoonotic infections that may go misdiagnosed as fevers of unknown origin. Respondents additionally described gaps in knowledge around topics such as the aetiology of Ebola in Liberia, as well as changes in the level of concern towards Ebola risk, which rose during the crisis but later returned to pre-crisis levels. Interpretation: Our results highlight how, against the backdrop of human-wildlife interactions in these Liberian communities that present spillover risk, there exist opportunities to bridge knowledge gaps and create cues to encourage continued vigilance against transmission. Funding: This project was funded by USAID, and analysis with regard to the risk of acute febrile illnesses continues with funding from the US Defense Threat Reduction Agency.

Bats are a likely reservoir of zoonotic coronaviruses (CoVs). Here, analyzing bat CoV sequences in China, the authors find that alpha-CoVs have switched hosts more frequently than betaCoVs, identify a bat family and genus that are highly involved in host-switching, and define hotspots of CoV evolutionary diversity.

Illegal hunting and trading of the Chinese Pangolin Manis pentadactyla has pushed this Critically Endangered species close to extinction. While local reports have suggested its continued presence in mainland China, this has not been confirmed by a research group except for a survey of presumed pangolin burrows in 2004. We conducted a six-month field study using infrared camera surveillance and community questionnaire survey in Zhejiang Wuyanling National Nature Reserve in China, to determine the status of Chinese Pangolins and understand local attitudes towards the conservation of this species. Our study details the first verifiable documentation of two visual records of a Chinese Pangolin in the wild, demonstrating the suitability of pangolin habitat in Wuyanling region, and suggests an increasing awareness and strong willingness in local communities to conserve the Chinese Pangolin.

Abstract The World One Health Congresses are biennial gatherings of approximately 1500 professionals from relevant international organisations, OIE, FAO, WHO, World Bank, leading scientific experts and researchers in the field of One Health, animal production and trade, food safety, animal health, human health and environmentology/ecology, government representatives in public health, human health, food safety, environmental health and global health security. The Congress is organized by the One Health Platform. This white paper summarizes highlights of the 5th International One Health Congress in Saskatoon, Canada, June 2018 and serves as a roadmap for the future, detailing several concrete action points to be carried out in the run-up to the 6th World One Health Congress in Edinburgh, Scotland, June 2020.

Emerging diseases of zoonotic origin such as COVID-19 are a continuing public health threat in China that lead to a significant socioeconomic burden. This study reviewed the current laws and regulations, government reports and policy documents, and existing literature on zoonotic disease preparedness and prevention across the forestry, agriculture, and public health authorities in China, to articulate the current landscape of potential risks, existing mandates, and gaps. A total of 55 known zoonotic diseases (59 pathogens) are routinely monitored under a multi-sectoral system among humans and domestic and wild animals in China. These diseases have been detected in wild mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish or other aquatic animals, the majority of which are transmitted between humans and animals via direct or indirect contact and vectors. However, this current monitoring system covers a limited scope of disease threats and animal host species, warranting expanded review for sources of disease and pathogen with zoonotic potential. In addition, the governance of wild animal protection and utilization and limited knowledge about wild animal trade value chains present challenges for zoonotic disease risk assessment and monitoring, and affect the completeness of mandates and enforcement. A coordinated and collaborative mechanism among different departments is required for the effective monitoring and management of disease emergence and transmission risks in the animal value chains. Moreover, pathogen surveillance among wild animal hosts and human populations outside of the routine monitoring system will fill the data gaps and improve our understanding of future emerging zoonotic threats to achieve disease prevention. The findings and recommendations will advance One Health collaboration across government and non-government stakeholders to optimize monitoring and surveillance, risk management, and emergency responses to known and novel zoonotic threats, and support COVID-19 recovery efforts.

Despite considerable global surveillance of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), data on the global emergence of new resistance genotypes in bacteria has not been systematically compiled. We conducted a study of English-language scientific literature (2006-2017) and ProMED-mail disease surveillance reports (1994-2017) to identify global events of novel AMR emergence (first clinical reports of unique drug-bacteria resistance combinations). We screened 24,966 abstracts and reports, ultimately identifying 1,757 novel AMR emergence events from 268 peer-reviewed studies and 26 disease surveillance reports (294 total). Events were reported in 66 countries, with most events in the United States (152), China (128), and India (127). The most common bacteria demonstrating new resistance were Klebsiella pneumoniae (344) and Escherichia coli (218). Resistance was most common against antibiotic drugs imipenem (89 events), ciprofloxacin (84) and ceftazidime (83). We provide an open-access database of emergence events with standardized fields for bacterial species, drugs, location, and date. We discuss the impact of reporting and surveillance bias on database coverage, and we suggest guidelines for data analysis. This database may be broadly useful for understanding rates and patterns of AMR evolution, identifying global drivers and correlates, and targeting surveillance and interventions.

A novel bat-origin coronavirus emerged in Wuhan, China in December 2019 and continues to spread across China and the world. At the time of writing, a massive global response has been implemented to control the disease as it spreads from person to person. Yet the high-risk human-wildlife interactions and interfaces that led to the emergence of SARS-CoV and of 2019-nCoV continue to exist in emerging disease hotspots globally. To prevent the next epidemic and pandemic related to these interfaces, we call for research and investment in three areas: 1) surveillance among wildlife to identify the high-risk pathogens they carry; 2) surveillance among people who have contact with wildlife to identify early spillover events; and 3) improvement of market biosecurity regarding the wildlife trade. As the emergence of a novel virus anywhere can impact the furthest reaches of our connected world, international collaboration among scientists is essential to address these risks and prevent the next pandemic.

Human interaction with animals has been implicated as a primary risk factor for several high impact zoonoses, including many bat-origin viral diseases. However the animal-to-human spillover events that lead to emerging diseases are rarely observed or clinically examined, and the link between specific interactions and spillover risk is poorly understood. To investigate this phenomenon, we conducted biological-behavioral surveillance among rural residents in Yunnan, Guangxi, and Guangdong districts of Southern China, where we have identified a number of SARS-related coronaviruses in bats. Serum samples were tested for four bat-borne coronaviruses using newly developed enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Survey data were used to characterize associations between human-animal contact and bat coronavirus spillover risk. A total of 1,596 residents were enrolled in the study from 2015 to 2017. Nine participants (0.6%) tested positive for bat coronaviruses. 265 (17%) participants reported severe acute respiratory infections (SARI) and/or influenza-like illness (ILI) symptoms in the past year, which were associated with poultry, carnivore, rodent/shrew, or bat contact, with variability by family income and district of residence. This study provides serological evidence of bat coronavirus spillover in rural communities in Southern China. The low seroprevalence observed in this study suggests that bat coronavirus spillover is a rare event. Nonetheless, this study highlights associations between human-animal interaction and zoonotic spillover risk. These findings can be used to support targeted biological behavioral surveillance in high-risk geographic areas in order to reduce the risk of zoonotic disease emergence.

Despite molecular and serologic evidence of Nipah virus in bats from various locations, attempts to isolate live virus have been largely unsuccessful. We report isolation and full-genome characterization of 10 Nipah virus isolates from Pteropus medius bats sampled in Bangladesh during 2013 and 2014.

The COVID-19 pandemic highlights the substantial public health, economic, and societal consequences of virus spillover from a wildlife reservoir. Widespread human transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) also presents a new set of challenges when considering viral spillover from people to naïve wildlife and other animal populations. The establishment of new wildlife reservoirs for SARS-CoV-2 would further complicate public health control measures and could lead to wildlife health and conservation impacts. Given the likely bat origin of SARS-CoV-2 and related beta-coronaviruses (β-CoVs), free-ranging bats are a key group of concern for spillover from humans back to wildlife. Here, we review the diversity and natural host range of β-CoVs in bats and examine the risk of humans inadvertently infecting free-ranging bats with SARS-CoV-2. Our review of the global distribution and host range of β-CoV evolutionary lineages suggests that 40+ species of temperate-zone North American bats could be immunologically naïve and susceptible to infection by SARS-CoV-2. We highlight an urgent need to proactively connect the wellbeing of human and wildlife health during the current pandemic and to implement new tools to continue wildlife research while avoiding potentially severe health and conservation impacts of SARS-CoV-2 "spilling back" into free-ranging bat populations.

ABSTRACT With great apprehension, the world is now watching the birth of a novel pandemic already causing tremendous suffering, death, and disruption of normal life. Uncertainty and dread are exacerbated by the belief that what we are experiencing is new and mysterious. However, deadly pandemics and disease emergences are not new phenomena: they have been challenging human existence throughout recorded history. Some have killed sizeable percentages of humanity, but humans have always searched for, and often found, ways of mitigating their deadly effects. We here review the ancient and modern histories of such diseases, discuss factors associated with their emergences, and attempt to identify lessons that will help us meet the current challenge.

The island of Sulawesi in Indonesia is an important site for the wildlife trade that is currently undergoing rapid exploitation of its local fauna to supply wild meat markets of North Sulawesi. In this study, we used field surveys, ethnographic interviews, and daily counts in markets to document species of terrestrial wildlife on sale in North Sulawesi markets, and to identify the hunting sites, practices, and key actors within the wildlife trade. We quantify the volume of wild meat traded and their prices, with a particular focus on the flying fox trade.Wildlife meat was routinely available for sale in 73% of the markets and supermarkets surveyed in North Sulawesi. The wildlife taxa most commonly found in these markets were flying foxes, wild pigs, rats and snakes. Wildlife hunting and trade networks extend to all provinces of the island through a well-organized, dynamic and easy to access network involving many actors. We identified 45 flying fox roosts in Sulawesi, 38 of which were under active hunting pressure. A third of the active hunting sites are located in Southeast Sulawesi, which acts as a hub for bat hunting and trade. We estimate that the number of flying foxes annually traded in Sulawesi ranges from 662,551 to more than one million individuals and conclude that current rates of flying fox harvest are unstainable. Stricter law enforcement, implementation of hunting quotas, and further research efforts are therefore urgently needed to improve the sustainability of the wildlife trade in Sulawesi. Keywords: Wildlife trade, Hunting, Wildlife markets, Flying foxes, Indonesia, Sulawesi

Abstract Background Rodents represent around 43% of all mammalian species, are widely distributed, and are the natural reservoirs of a diverse group of zoonotic viruses, including hantaviruses, Lassa viruses, and tick-borne encephalitis viruses. Thus, analyzing the viral diversity harbored by rodents could assist efforts to predict and reduce the risk of future emergence of zoonotic viral diseases. Results We used next-generation sequencing metagenomic analysis to survey for a range of mammalian viral families in rodents and other small animals of the orders Rodentia, Lagomorpha, and Soricomorpha in China. We sampled 3,055 small animals from 20 provinces and then outlined the spectra of mammalian viruses within these individuals and the basic ecological and genetic characteristics of novel rodent and shrew viruses among the viral spectra. Further analysis revealed that host taxonomy plays a primary role and geographical location plays a secondary role in determining viral diversity. Many viruses were reported for the first time with distinct evolutionary lineages, and viruses related to known human or animal pathogens were identified. Phylogram comparison between viruses and hosts indicated that host shifts commonly happened in many different species during viral evolutionary history. Conclusions These results expand our understanding of the viromes of rodents and insectivores in China and suggest that there is high diversity of viruses awaiting discovery in these species in Asia. These findings, combined with our previous bat virome data, greatly increase our knowledge of the viral community in wildlife in a densely populated country in an emerging disease hotspot.

Nipah virus (NiV) has been transmitted from patient to caregivers in Bangladesh presumably through oral secretions. We aimed to detect whether NiV-infected patients contaminate hospital surfaces with the virus. During December 2013–April 2014, we collected 1 swab sample from 5 surfaces near NiV-infected patients and tested surface and oral swab samples by real-time reverse transcription PCR for NiV RNA. We identified 16 Nipah patients; 12 cases were laboratory-confirmed and 4 probable. Of the 12 laboratory-confirmed cases, 10 showed NiV RNA in oral swab specimens. We obtained surface swab samples for 6 Nipah patients; 5 had evidence of NiV RNA on >1 surface: 4 patients contaminated towels, 3 bed sheets, and 1 the bed rail. Patients with NiV RNA in oral swab samples were significantly more likely than other Nipah patients to die. To reduce the risk for fomite transmission of NiV, infection control should target hospital surfaces.

The risk of epidemics originating from wild animals demands close monitoring of emerging infectious disease (EID) events and their predictors. Here, the authors update a global database of EID events, analyze their environmental and biological correlates, and present a new global hotspot map of zoonotic EID risk.

Preventing emergence of new zoonotic viruses depends on understanding determinants for human risk. Nipah virus (NiV) is a lethal zoonotic pathogen that has spilled over from bats into human populations, with limited person-to-person transmission. We examined ecologic and human behavioral drivers of geographic variation for risk of NiV infection in Bangladesh. We visited 60 villages during 2011–2013 where cases of infection with NiV were identified and 147 control villages. We compared case villages with control villages for most likely drivers for risk of infection, including number of bats, persons, and date palm sap trees, and human date palm sap consumption behavior. Case villages were similar to control villages in many ways, including number of bats, persons, and date palm sap trees, but had a higher proportion of households in which someone drank sap. Reducing human consumption of sap could reduce virus transmission and risk for emergence of a more highly transmissible NiV strain.

The perceived benefits of a One Health approach are largely hinged on increasing public health efficiency and cost effectiveness through a better understanding of disease risk–through shared control and detection efforts, and results that benefit human, animal and ecosystem health. However, there have been few efforts to identify and systematize One Health metrics to assess these perceived efficiencies. Though emphasis on the evaluation of One Health has increased, widely cited benefits of One Health approaches have mainly been based on modeled projections, rather than outcomes of implemented interventions. We conducted a review of One Health literature to determine the current status of One Health frameworks and case studies reporting One Health metrics. Of 1839 unique papers, only 7 reported quantitative outcomes; these assessments did not follow shared methodology and several reviewed only intermediate outcomes. For others, the effectiveness of One Health approaches was often assumed without supporting evidence or determined subjectively. The absence of a standardized framework to capture metrics across disciplines, even in a generic format, may hinder the more widespread adoption of One Health among stakeholders. We review possible outcome metrics suitable for the future evaluation of One Health, noting the relevance of cost outcomes to the three main disciplines associated with One Health.

Genetically divergent filoviruses detected in Rousettus and Eonycteris spp. bats in China exhibited 61%–99% nt identity with reported filoviruses, based on partial replicase sequences, and they demonstrated lung tropism. Co-infection with 4 different filoviruses was found in 1 bat. These results demonstrate that fruit bats are key reservoirs of filoviruses.

Dromedary camels are bred domestically and imported into Bangladesh. In 2015, of 55 camels tested for Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in Dhaka, 17 (31%) were seropositive, including 1 bred locally. None were PCR positive. The potential for infected camels in urban markets could have public health implications and warrants further investigation.

Nipah virus (NiV) is a paramyxovirus, and Pteropus spp. bats are the natural reservoir. From December 2010 through March 2014, hospital-based encephalitis surveillance in Bangladesh identified 18 clusters of NiV infection. The source of infection for case-patients in 3 clusters in 2 districts was unknown. A team of epidemiologists and anthropologists investigated these 3 clusters comprising 14 case-patients, 8 of whom died. Among the 14 case-patients, 8 drank fermented date palm sap (tari) regularly before their illness, and 6 provided care to a person infected with NiV. The process of preparing date palm trees for tari production was similar to the process of collecting date palm sap for fresh consumption. Bat excreta was reportedly found inside pots used to make tari. These findings suggest that drinking tari is a potential pathway of NiV transmission. Interventions that prevent bat access to date palm sap might prevent tari-associated NiV infection.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0194647.].

We report on a study conducted in Guangdong Province, China, to characterize behaviors and perceptions associated with transmission of pathogens with pandemic potential in highly exposed human populations at the animal-human interface. A risk factor/exposure survey was administered to individuals with high levels of exposure to wildlife. Serological testing was performed to evaluate prior infection with several wildlife viral pathogens. Follow up serology was performed on a subset of the cohort as well as close contacts of individuals. 1,312 individuals were enrolled in the study. Contact with a wide range of wildlife species was reported in both occupational and occasional contexts. The overall proportion of individuals seropositive to any of the tested wildlife pathogens was approximately 4.0%. However, persons employed as butchers demonstrated a seropositivity of 9.0% to at least one pathogen of interest. By contrast, individuals working as hunters had lower rates of seropositivity. Among the study population, a number of other behaviors showed correlation with seropositivity, including contact with particular wildlife species such as field rats. These results demonstrate the need to further explore zoonotic risks of particular activities regarding wildlife contact, and to better understand risks of persons working as butchers with wildlife species.

Background: Climate change has myriad implications for the health of humans, our ecosystems, and the ecological processes that sustain them. Projections of rising greenhouse gas emissions suggest increasing direct and indirect burden of infectious and noninfectious disease, effects on food and water security, and other societal disruptions. As the effects of climate change cannot be isolated from social and ecological determinants of disease that will mitigate or exacerbate forecasted health outcomes, multidisciplinary collaboration is critically needed. Objectives: The aim of this article was to review the links between climate change and its upstream drivers (ie, processes leading to greenhouse gas emissions) and health outcomes, and identify existing opportunities to leverage more integrated global health and climate actions to prevent, prepare for, and respond to anthropogenic pressures. Methods: We conducted a literature review of current and projected health outcomes associated with climate change, drawing on findings and our collective expertise to review opportunities for adaptation and mitigation across disciplines. Findings: Health outcomes related to climate change affect a wide range of stakeholders, providing ready collaborative opportunities for interventions, which can be differentiated by addressing the upstream drivers leading to climate change or the downstream effects of climate change itself. Conclusions: Although health professionals are challenged with risks from climate change and its drivers, the adverse health outcomes cannot be resolved by the public health community alone. A phase change in global health is needed to move from a passive responder in partnership with other societal sectors to drive innovative alternatives. It is essential for global health to step outside of its traditional boundaries to engage with other stakeholders to develop policy and practical solutions to mitigate disease burden of climate change and its drivers; this will also yield compound benefits that help address other health, environmental, and societal challenges.

Macacine herpesvirus 1 (MaHV1; B virus) naturally infects macaques (Macaca spp.) and can cause fatal encephalitis in humans. In Peninsular Malaysia, wild macaques are abundant, and translocation is used to mitigate human–macaque conflict. Most adult macaques are infected with MaHV1, although the risk for transmission to persons who handle them during capture and translocation is unknown. We investigated MaHV1 shedding among 392 long-tailed macaques (M. fascicularis) after capture and translocation by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks in Peninsular Malaysia, during 2009–2011. For detection of MaHV1 DNA, PCR was performed on urogenital and oropharyngeal swab samples. Overall, 39% of macaques were shedding MaHV1 DNA; rates of DNA detection did not differ between sample types. This study demonstrates that MaHV1 was shed by a substantial proportion of macaques after capture and transport and suggests that persons handling macaques under these circumstances might be at risk for exposure to MaHV1.

A large number of SARS-related coronaviruses (SARSr-CoV) have been detected in horseshoe bats since 2005 in different areas of China. However, these bat SARSr-CoVs show sequence differences from SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in different genes (S, ORF8, ORF3, etc) and are considered unlikely to represent the direct progenitor of SARS-CoV. Herein, we report the findings of our 5-year surveillance of SARSr-CoVs in a cave inhabited by multiple species of horseshoe bats in Yunnan Province, China. The full-length genomes of 11 newly discovered SARSr-CoV strains, together with our previous findings, reveals that the SARSr-CoVs circulating in this single location are highly diverse in the S gene, ORF3 and ORF8. Importantly, strains with high genetic similarity to SARS-CoV in the hypervariable N-terminal domain (NTD) and receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the S1 gene, the ORF3 and ORF8 region, respectively, were all discovered in this cave. In addition, we report the first discovery of bat SARSr-CoVs highly similar to human SARS-CoV in ORF3b and in the split ORF8a and 8b. Moreover, SARSr-CoV strains from this cave were more closely related to SARS-CoV in the non-structural protein genes ORF1a and 1b compared with those detected elsewhere. Recombination analysis shows evidence of frequent recombination events within the S gene and around the ORF8 between these SARSr-CoVs. We hypothesize that the direct progenitor of SARS-CoV may have originated after sequential recombination events between the precursors of these SARSr-CoVs. Cell entry studies demonstrated that three newly identified SARSr-CoVs with different S protein sequences are all able to use human ACE2 as the receptor, further exhibiting the close relationship between strains in this cave and SARS-CoV. This work provides new insights into the origin and evolution of SARS-CoV and highlights the necessity of preparedness for future emergence of SARS-like diseases.

Bats are recognized reservoirs for many emerging zoonotic viruses of public health importance. Identifying and cataloguing the viruses of bats is a logical approach to evaluate the range of potential zoonoses of bat origin. We characterized the fecal pathogen microbiome of both insectivorous and frugivorous bats, incorporating 281 individual bats comprising 20 common species, which were sampled in three locations of Yunnan province, by combining reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assays and next-generation sequencing. Seven individual bats were paramyxovirus-positive by RT-PCR using degenerate primers, and these paramyxoviruses were mainly classified into three genera (Rubulavirus, Henipavirus and Jeilongvirus). Various additional novel pathogens were detected in the paramyxovirus-positive bats using Illumina sequencing. A total of 7066 assembled contigs (≥200 bp) were constructed, and 105 contigs matched eukaryotic viruses (of them 103 belong to 2 vertebrate virus families, 1 insect virus, and 1 mycovirus), 17 were parasites, and 4913 were homologous to prokaryotic microorganisms. Among the 103 vertebrate viral contigs, 79 displayed low identity (

We measured the performance of exposure screening questions to identify Nipah virus encephalitis in hospitalized encephalitis patients during the 2012–13 Nipah virus season in Bangladesh. The sensitivity (93%), specificity (82%), positive predictive value (37%), and negative predictive value (99%) results suggested that screening questions could more quickly identify persons with Nipah virus encephalitis.

The source of human infection with Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus remains unknown. Molecular investigation indicated that bats in Saudi Arabia are infected with several alphacoronaviruses and betacoronaviruses. Virus from 1 bat showed 100% nucleotide identity to virus from the human index case-patient. Bats might play a role in human infection.

We analyzed a database of mammal–virus associations to ask whether surveillance targeting diseased animals is the best strategy to identify potentially zoonotic pathogens. Although a mixed healthy and diseased animal surveillance strategy is generally best, surveillance of apparently healthy animals would likely maximize zoonotic virus discovery potential for bats and rodents.

The 1957 and 1968 influenza pandemics, each of which killed ≈1 million persons, arose through reassortment events. Influenza virus in humans and domestic animals could reassort and cause another pandemic. To identify geographic areas where agricultural production systems are conducive to reassortment, we fitted multivariate regression models to surveillance data on influenza A virus subtype H5N1 among poultry in China and Egypt and subtype H3N2 among humans. We then applied the models across Asia and Egypt to predict where subtype H3N2 from humans and subtype H5N1 from birds overlap; this overlap serves as a proxy for co-infection and in vivo reassortment. For Asia, we refined the prioritization by identifying areas that also have high swine density. Potential geographic foci of reassortment include the northern plains of India, coastal and central provinces of China, the western Korean Peninsula and southwestern Japan in Asia, and the Nile Delta in Egypt.

To determine geographic range for Ebola virus, we tested 276 bats in Bangladesh. Five (3.5%) bats were positive for antibodies against Ebola Zaire and Reston viruses; no virus was detected by PCR. These bats might be a reservoir for Ebola or Ebola-like viruses, and extend the range of filoviruses to mainland Asia.

Active Nipah virus encephalitis surveillance identified an encephalitis cluster and sporadic cases in Faridpur, Bangladesh, in January 2010. We identified 16 case-patients; 14 of these patients died. For 1 case-patient, the only known exposure was hugging a deceased patient with a probable case, while another case-patient’s exposure involved preparing the same corpse for burial by removing oral secretions and anogenital excreta with a cloth and bare hands. Among 7 persons with confirmed sporadic cases, 6 died, including a physician who had physically examined encephalitis patients without gloves or a mask. Nipah virus–infected patients were more likely than community-based controls to report drinking raw date palm sap and to have had physical contact with an encephalitis patient (29% vs. 4%, matched odds ratio undefined). Efforts to prevent transmission should focus on reducing caregivers’ exposure to infected patients’ bodily secretions during care and traditional burial practices.

We conducted cross-sectional and longitudinal studies to determine the distribution of and risk factors for seropositivity to Nipah virus (NiV) among Pteropus vampyrus and P. hypomelanus bats in Peninsular Malaysia. Neutralizing antibodies against NiV were detected at most locations surveyed. We observed a consistently higher NiV risk (odds ratio 3.9) and seroprevalence (32.8%) for P. vampyrus than P. hypomelanus (11.1%) bats. A 3-year longitudinal study of P. hypomelanus bats indicated nonseasonal temporal variation in seroprevalence, evidence for viral circulation within the study period, and an overall NiV seroprevalence of 9.8%. The seroprevalence fluctuated over the study duration between 1% and 20% and generally decreased during 2004–2006. Adult bats, particularly pregnant, with dependent pup and lactating bats, had a higher prevalence of NiV antibodies than juveniles. Antibodies in juveniles 6 months–2 years of age suggested viral circulation within the study period.