Search

We conducted a whole genome survey in the portunid crab Charybdis feriatus (Linnaeus, 1758) using Illumina sequencing platform and developed a set of polymorphic microsatellite loci. A total of 117.7 Gb of clean reads were generated, with 74× coverage of the estimated genome size of 1.4 Gb. The GC content, heterozygosity rate, and repeat sequence rate of the genome were estimated to be 40%, 1.1%, and 51%, respectively. A total of 3,779,209 microsatellites were identified from the genome. Sixty microsatellite loci were evaluated in a wild population of 40 individuals. As a result, 14 polymorphic microsatellite loci (23.3%) were obtained. The number of alleles (3 to 15), polymorphism information content (0.365 to 0.884), observed heterozygosity (0.050 to 0.975), and expected heterozygosity (0.450 to 0.907) per locus averaged 6.8, 0.652, 0.691, and 0.707, respectively. We show that the genome of C. feriatus has a high heterozygosity and repeat sequence rates, and provide a novel insight into the genome profile of marine crabs. The genetic markers developed in this study are potentially useful for studies on population dynamics and conservation genetics of C. feriatus and other species of brachyuran crabs.

The genus Indirana Laurent, 1986 is composed of 14 species which are endemic to the Western Ghats of India. We isolated and evaluated ten polymorphic microsatellite markers in 32 individuals of Indirana semipalmata. The cross amplification test was successful in two Indirana (I. brachytarsus and I. yadera) and one Walkerana (W. leptodactyla, previously known as I. leptodactyla) species endemic to the Western Ghats. The identified markers will be useful for further studies on the conservation genetics of endemic frog species of Western Ghats.

Microsatellites (simple sequence repeats, SSRs) are co-dominant nuclear markers that are widely used in population genetic studies. Population genetic parameters from different studies might be significantly influenced by differences in marker number. In our study, 265 sequences with polymorphic microsatellites were obtained from SLAF-seq data. Then, subpopulations containing different numbers (5, 6, 7,…, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40) of markers were genotyped 10 times to investigate the impact of marker numbers on population genetic diversity results. Our results show that genotyping with less than 11 or 12 microsatellite markers lead to significant deviations in the population genetic diversity or genetic structure results. In order to provide markers for population genetic and conservation studies for Rhododendron, 26 SSR primers were designed and validated in three species.

Microsatellite (SSR) markers are the most popular markers for genetic analyses and molecular selective breeding in plants and animals. However, the currently available methods to develop SSRs are relatively time-consuming and expensive. One of the most factors is low frequency of polymorphic SSRs. In this study, we developed a software, SSREnricher, which composes of six core analysis procedures, including SSR mining, sequence clustering, sequence modification, enrichment containing polymorphic SSR sequences, false-positive removal and results output and multiple sequence alignment. After running of transcriptome sequences on this software, a mass of polymorphic SSRs can be identified. The validation experiments showed almost all markers (>90%) that were identified by the SSREnricher as putative polymorphic markers were indeed polymorphic. The frequency of polymorphic SSRs identified by SSREnricher was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than that of traditional and HTS approaches. The software package is publicly accessible on GitHub (https://github.com/byemaxx/SSREnricher).

While juvenile cannibalism plays an important role in the evolution of organisms in natural populations, it is a serious problem in aquaculture. A number of genetic and environmental factors result in different rates of cannibalism. Whether there is kin recognition in juvenile cannibalism in fish is poorly understood. We studied cannibalism and kinship recognition in juveniles of Asian seabass using molecular parentage analysis with polymorphic microsatellites. In the three mass crosses, under an ordinary feeding scheme without size grading, the rate of juvenile loss due to cannibalism was 1.08% per day. In the group without feeding for 24 h, 2.30% ± 0.43% of offspring per day were lost within 24 h due to cannibalism. We detected that juveniles avoided cannibalizing their siblings when they were not hungry, whereas cannibalism among siblings increased when they were hungry. These data suggest that there is kin discrimination in fish cannibalism. Raising genetically closely related offspring in the same tanks and appropriate levels of feeding may reduce the rate of cannibalism. We hypothesized that the chemical cues for kin discrimination might be secreted by fish skins. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed gene expression profiles in the skins of juveniles under slightly and very hungry conditions using RNA sequencing and bioinformatics analysis. Genes differently expressed under slightly and very hungry conditions were identified. Among them, genes from the trypsin family were significantly down-regulated under starved conditions, suggesting that they may play a role in kin discrimination. NRF (Natl Research Foundation, S’pore) Published version

Microsatellites are extensively distributed in the eukaryotic genome, and they are widely used for their high polymorphism and accessibility. The microsatellites in M. incognita, a worldwide agriculture pest, are inadequate for diversity research. A repertoire of 1620 microsatellites appeared appropriate to design primer as markers were identified based on the M. incognita genome. 120 loci were chosen as candidate, from which 88 microsatellites were characterized. Finally, we found 13 polymorphic microsatellites with 2 to 23 alleles in a survey of three nematode populations in China, while other positive loci were monomorphic. These new molecular markers afford to genetic diversity analysis in M. incognita population of poorly investigation. Furthermore, the predicted microsatellites have potential values for other plant parasitic nematodes.

Microsatellite (SSR) is one of the most popular markers for applied genetic research, but generally the current methods to develop SSRs are relatively time-consuming and expensive. Although high-throughput sequencing (HTS) approach has become a practical and relatively inexpensive option so far, only a small percentage of SSR markers turn out to be polymorphic. Here, we designed a new method to enrich polymorphic SSRs through the comparative transcriptome analysis. This program contains five main steps: 1) transcriptome data downloading or RNA-seq; 2) sequence assembly; 3) SSR mining and enrichment of sequences containing SSRs; 4) sequence alignment; 5) enrichment of sequences containing polymorphic SSRs. A validation experiment was performed and the results showed almost all markers (> 90%) that were indicated as putatively polymorphic by this method were indeed polymorphic. The frequency of polymorphic SSRs was significantly higher (P < 0.05) but the cost and running time were much lower than those of traditional and HTS approaches. The method has a practical value for polymorphic SSRs development and might be widely used for genetic analyses in any species.

The fungus Fusarium graminearum causes Fusarium head blight (FHB) of wheat. Little is known about dispersal of the fungus from field-scale sources of inoculum. We monitored the movement of a clonal isolate of F. graminearum from a 3,716 m2 (0.372 ha) source of inoculum over two field seasons. Ground-based collection devices were placed at distances of 0 (in the source), 100, 250, 500, 750, and 1,000 m from the center of the clonal sources of inoculum. Three polymorphic microsatellites were used to identify the released clone from 1,027 isolates (790 in 2011 and 237 in 2012) of the fungus. Results demonstrated that the recovery of the released clone decreased at greater distances from the source. The majority (87%, 152/175 in 2011; 77%, 74/96 in 2012) of the released clone was recaptured during the night (1900 to 0700). The released clone was recovered up to 750 m from the source. Recovery of the released clone followed a logistic regression model and was significant (P < 0.041 for all slope term scenarios) as a function of distance from the source of inoculum. This work offers a means to experimentally determine the dispersal kernel of a plant pathogen, and could be integrated into management strategies for FHB.

Simple sequence repeats (SSRs) are known as microsatellites, and consist of tandem 1&ndash, 6-base motifs. They have become one of the most popular molecular markers, and are widely used in molecular ecology, conservation biology, molecular breeding, and many other fields. Previously reported methods identify monomorphic and polymorphic SSRs and determine the polymorphic SSRs via experimental validation, which is potentially time-consuming and costly. Herein, we present a new strategy named insertion/deletion (INDEL) SSR (IDSSR) to identify polymorphic SSRs by integrating SSRs with nucleotide insertions/deletions (INDEL) solely based on a single genome sequence and the sequenced pair-end reads. These INDEL indexes and polymorphic SSRs were identified, as well as the number of repeats, repeat motifs, chromosome location, annealing temperature, and primer sequences, enabling future experimental approaches to determine the correctness and polymorphism. Experimental validation with the giant panda demonstrated that our method has high reliability and stability. The efficient SSR pipeline would help researchers obtain high-quality genetic markers for plants and animals of interest, save labor, and reduce costly marker-screening experiments. IDSSR is freely available at https://github.com/Allsummerking/IDSSR.

We developed and characterized 113 polymorphic microsatellites in the Tibetan frog (Nanorana parkeri) using 454 GS-FLX next generation sequencing technology. These loci were tested in 46 individuals from two N. parkeri populations from the Tibetan plateau. The average number of alleles per locus was 8.09 (range = 2–20). The average observed heterozygosities (HO) per locus in the two populations were 0.58 (range = 0.04–1) and 0.29 (range = 0–0.87), respectively. These microsatellites will be useful for population and conservation genetics studies of N. parkeri and other closely related species.

Microsatellites are playing an important role in paternity assignment of animals. Given the cost and effort, it would be optimal to develop a minimal microsatellite marker set for paternity testing. This study was the first to assess paternity in a captive colony of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) from the Chinese province of Anhui using 10 polymorphic microsatellites. Results indicated that if at least 6 loci were genotyped, the probability of paternity assignment success was nearly 100%. Our results provide a panel of 6 markers that is effective for assessing paternity of subspecies M. m. siamica of Anhui origin.

We screened 74 published microsatellite primers in Ambystoma annulatum, a species for which no microsatellite markers have been developed. Overall, we had a moderate success rate, identifying 11 polymorphic microsatellites previously developed in four different species of Ambystoma. We also conducted a review of the literature, collecting all published cross-species applications of microsatellite markers within the genus Ambystoma. From this, we identified 20 loci that have amplified in three or more species. Our synthesis of microsatellite use within the genus Ambystoma should prove valuable to future molecular research, especially in species without developed markers and for studies in species that may already have microsatellites, but are being conducted far from the region where individuals were collected for original development of species-specific loci.

Background The sequences of many human genes that encode proteins involved in cancer contain polymorphic microsatellites. Variations in microsatellite length may constitute risk factors in several human diseases, a possibility that has been little explored in breast cancer. Among the genes that contain polymorphic microsatellites are EGFR, NOTCH4 and E2F4. The length of some of these microsatellites has been associated with breast cancer risk. Purpose and methods To determine whether the length of the microsatellites (CA)n in EGFR, (CTG)n in NOTCH4 and (AGC)n in E2F4 was associated with breast cancer risk, we genotyped these 3 microsatellites in 212 women with breast cancer and a control group of 308 women from the general population who did not have this disease. Results and conclusions The allelic distribution observed for the 3 microsatellites matched that found in other white populations, with the exception of some (AGC)n alleles in E2F4, which have not been described previously. The length of (CA)n in EGFR and (CTG)n in NOTCH4 was not associated with breast cancer (OR=0.99; 95% CI 0.59–1.37; p=0.619 and OR=1.08; 95% CI 0.71–1.65; p=0.725, respectively). Short alleles (

Eighteen novel polymorphic microsatellite loci were isolated from the swimming crab, Portunus trituberculatus, and characterized in a cultured stock of swimming crab. The number of alleles varied between two and four, and the observed and expected heterozygosity at population level ranged from 0.1481 to 0.8621 and 0.4898 to 0.7475, respectively. Two loci significantly deviated from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium (P < 0.01). These eighteen microsatellite markers will be useful for parentage, population genetics and genome mapping studies in this species.

The grapevine germplasm bank from Estacion de Viticultura e Enoloxia de Galicia contains 110 accessions collected from more than 100-year-old grapevines from northwestern Spain. We identified 60 different genotypes (among which ‘Pinot Noir’ and ‘Shyrah’ were included as references) with 32 polymorphic microsatellites (SSRs), 21 of which were unlinked SSRs and without null alleles, which were used to detect genetic structure. We found four reconstructed populations that were highly differentiated by analysis of molecular variance (18.3%): (i) western Galician group (‘Caino Bravo’); (ii) eastern Galician group (‘Merenzao’); (iii) Castilian group (‘Garnacha’) and (iv) southern Spanish group (‘Moscatel’). The greatest genetic differentiation was found between the western Galician/eastern Galician groups and the southern Spanish/Castilian groups, with Fst > 0.13. Western and eastern Galician groups contained most of the ancient Galician cultivars (86%) and included ancestors from central Europe, such as ‘Pinot Noir’ and ‘Shyrah’ in the western Galician group and the introgressant ‘Merenzao’ (French ‘Trousseau’) in the eastern Galician group; the Castilian and southern Spain groups included traditional cultivars from central and southern Spanish and suggest a further introduction of those cultivars in northwestern plantations. Genetic structure corresponded with East-to-West geographical differentiation in the northern Iberian Peninsula, following the old path to Santiago de Compostela from France, with the southern Spanish and Castilian groups in the East (Castilian plateau and southern Spain), the eastern Galician group and the western Galician group in the West. Five new relationships were discovered: ‘Caino Bravo’/‘Caino Longo2’, ‘Albarin Tinto’/‘Torrontes1’, ‘Treixadura’/‘Treixadura Francesa’, ‘Moscatel’/‘Moscatel de Bago Miudo’ and ‘Moscatel’/‘Moscatel de Hamburgo’, indicating that hybridisation and further selection by growers have been the origin of most of the genetic diversity found in northwestern Spain.

Spain is among the ten largest European pear (Pyrus communis L.) producers. Pear production is based on foreign cultivars. However, local cultivars are still grown in the old orchards in northwestern Spain. Between 1978 and 1981, the Centro de Investigaciones Agrarias de Mabegondo (CIAM, Xunta de Galicia) in Galicia established a germplasm bank in order to conserve genetic resources including local pear cultivars. In the current study, 216 accessions from CIAM and 19 commercial Pyrus cultivars were analyzed and compared with 15 polymorphic microsatellites, each marker being located at a different locus. We differentiated 130 genotypes out of the 216 accessions of the germplasm bank (60%). 86 of the accessions were duplications due to clonality (40%). A total of eight accessions of the germplasm bank (4%) were identified as commercial cultivars, those being: 'Castell' (1), 'Mantecosa Hardy' (2), 'Roma' (1), 'Blanquilla' (1) and 'Williams' (3). 33 genotypes were identified as duplications, some homonyms and synonyms that had not previously been described. The most frequent duplicated genotypes were those corresponding to 'Mantecosa', 'Urraca', 'Sevillana' and 'Donguindo', all of them previously reported as important pear cultivars in northwestern Spain. These results will allow the correct identification of unique genotypes and elimination of duplications in the CIAM germplasm bank. Some of these local cultivars can be used to diversify Spanish production.

The clustering of kin is widespread across the animal kingdom and two of the primary mechanisms underlying the formation of these patterns in adult kin are (1) philopatric tendencies and (2) actively maintained kin associations. Using polymorphic microsatellites, we had set out to characterize the level of genetic-spatial organization within a colony of female red-breasted mergansers (Mergus serrator) breeding on a series of small barrier islands in Kouchibouguac National Park, NB, Canada. Additionally, using nesting data from this colony, we explored possibilities for the existence of kin associations and/or cooperative interactions between these individuals; specifically in the form of the synchronization of breeding activities (i.e., incubation initiation). Our results include: (1) the detection of broad-scale genetic structuring over the entire colony, as females nesting on separate islands were to some extent genetically distinct; (2) the detection of weak, yet significant, positive spatial autocorrelation of kin at the fine scale, but only in the more densely-populated areas of this colony; and (3) the synchrony of breeding activities among proximally nesting females, apart from any factors of relatedness. While these results confirm the existence of genetic-spatial organization within this colony, the underlying mechanisms producing such a signal are inconclusive.

The grapevine germplasm bank EVEGA contains 135 accessions of 15 Galician cultivars. Analysis with 33 polymorphic microsatellites (SSRs) indicate that Albarino and Loureira could be related to the Caino group in western Galicia, Spain. Likelihood ratios support the hypothesis of significant parentage relationship between Albarino and Caino Bravo as parents of Caino Blanco. Loureira shared alleles for each locus with Caino Bravo, indicating close relationship by hybridization. Caino Bravo was related directly with four cultivars: Caino Blanco, Caino Longo, Castanal and Loureira, as well as with two others (Caino Redondo1 and Souson) but with one less loci out of 33, indicating that it could be the origin of this lineage, being the key cultivar of the Caino group.

We report 15 polymorphic microsatellite loci isolated from the river prawn Macrobrachium nipponense. Their genetic characteristics were evaluated in 40 individuals from two Korean populations. The number of alleles ranged from 4 to 16, and the observed and expected heterozygosities ranged between 0.35 and 1.00 and 0.41 and 0.90, respectively. We assessed the cross-species amplification of each locus in five species of palaemonid prawn and two species of atyid prawn.

Asiatic clam (Corbicula fluminea) is one of the most invasive freshwater bivalves. Despite the ecologic and economic impacts of this species, there are only a few polymorphic microsatellites. In this study, we screened the genome from C. fluminea in search of microsatellite markers using massive parallel sequencing. We identified 246 new microsatellites involving di-, tri-, tetra- and pentanucleotide single repeats and different compound microsatellites, and we used a validation protocol to characterize a sample of those. Nine of them presented two or more alleles indicating a low level of variability.

We describe the isolation of microsatellites from three monogenean flatworms (Gyrodactylus turnbulli, G. bullatarudis and G. salaris) which have utility for evolutionary studies and pathogen diagnosis. Six polymorphic loci (1–5 alleles each) were isolated from G. turnbulli and seven from G. bullatarudis; observed heterozygosity ranged from 0.05 to 0.46 and from 0.1 to 0.5, respectively. Only monomorphic loci were isolated in G. salaris. These microsatellites will be useful for determining the mechanism of gyrodactylid reproduction and understanding the role of these important pathogens in the evolutionary history of their fish hosts.

Twenty-eight polymorphic microsatellite markers for Japanese sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus intermedius) were developed from the EST database of a related species purple sea urchin (S. purpuratus). The characterization results showed the moderate polymorphisms at these loci. The number of alleles ranged from 2 to 5, and the values of H o and H c varied from 0.0667 to 0.9655 and 0.0655 to 0.7350, respectively. No significant linkage disequilibrium (LD) between pairs of loci was found and 21 loci conformed to the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE). The results in this study well demonstrated the feasibility of microsatellite marker development via mining EST database of a genetically related species.

Genomic elucidation and mapping of novel organisms requires the generation of large genetic resources. In this study, 253 novel and polymorphic microsatellite loci were isolated and characterized for the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) by constructing libraries enriched for microsatellite DNA. All markers were evaluated on animals obtained from Darwin Crocodile Farm in the Northern Territory, Australia, and are intended for future use in the construction of a genetic-linkage map for the saltwater crocodile. The 253 loci yielded an average of 4.12 alleles per locus, and those selected for mapping had an average polymorphic information content (PIC) of 0.425.

This work received financial support from a project of the MEC to R. Z. (REN 001–1514/GLO).

A cross-species amplification test of 39 bovid microsatellite markers was carried out on chamois ( Rupicapra rupicapra ), a species with a high economic and tourist value, for which a number of life-history traits remain to be quantified. Of 39 primer pairs tested, 26 gave a specific amplification product and 21 were polymorphic. Locus-specific allelic richness ranged from two to six. Our results suggest that these loci will be useful for investigating basic population genetics as well as life-history traits, such as dispersal.

Quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping can be applied to detect chromosomal locations that control economic traits in farm animals. Teat number has been considered as one of the most important factors to evaluate mothering ability of sow. Especially, teat number is more important when the number is less than the litter size. This study was conducted to identify QTL affecting teat number in the Korean native pig×Landrace resource family. A total of 240 animals was genotyped for 132 polymorphic microsatellites covering the 18 pig autosomes. Mean and standard deviation of teat number in F2 animals is 13.46±1.40. QTL was analyzed using F2 QTL Analysis Servlet of QTL express. A QTL for teat number on SSC9 was significant at the 1% chromosome-wide level and three suggestive QTL were detected on SSC3, 7 and 14. All QTL detected in this study had additive effect and Landrace alleles were associated with higher teat number in comparison with Korean native pig for three of four QTL. (Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 2004. Vol 17, No. 9 : 1210-1213)

The scallop, Argopecten purpuratus, is a bivalve, Pectinidae distributed along the Pacific coasts of Peru and northern Chile, between Paita (5◦S, 81◦W) and Valparaiso (33◦S, 71◦W), (Bore and Martinez 1980; Wolf and Mendo 2000; Winkler et al. 2001). The three major natural populations in A. purpuratus along the Chilean coast are located in the bays of Mejillones (23◦54′S), La Rinconada (23◦28′S) and Tongoy (30◦14′S) (Avendano et al. 2007, 2008; Avendano and Cantillanez 2008). There is a need to recognize various characteristics and properties of different populations of A. purpuratus. This will help in commercial exploitation of this species and also enable the avoidance of problems due to inbreeding. The development of species specific markers is essential to achieve these objectives (Freiwald et al. 2009; Arias et al. 2010). Microsatellite DNA loci have become important sources of genetic information for a variety of purposes (Goldstein and Schlotterer 1999; Perera et al. 2000; Webster and Reichart 2004). To this end, we developed 10 autosomal microsatellite markers for this species. To evaluate the usefulness and variability of each marker, 43 individuals were characterized along the Chilean coast. Seventeen loci were originally isolated. Two failed to amplify using labelled primers. Of the remaining 15, five are considered unsuitable due to apparently high incidence of null alleles

Deterministic predictions for the proportion of offspring assigned to different numbers of parent-pairs are developed in order to investigate the power of microsatellite loci for parental assignment in fish species. Comparisons with stochastic simulation results show that predictions based on exclusion probabilities are accurate, provided that the number of parents involved in the crosses is large. Accounting for sampling of parents gave very accurate predictions for a small number of parents and a single biallelic locus. For large numbers of loci or large numbers of alleles per locus stochastic simulations are, however, the only available method to predict the power of assignment of a particular set of loci when the number of parents is small. Nine 5-allele loci or six 10-allele loci with equifrequent alleles, are sufficient for assigning, with certainty, parents to 99% of the fish resulting from either 100 or 400 crosses. Results simulating a set of highly polymorphic microsatellites developed for Atlantic salmon show that the four most informative loci are sufficient to assign at least 99% of the offspring to the correct pair with 100 crosses involving 100 males and 100 females. An additional locus is required for correctly assigning 99% of the offspring when the 100 crosses are produced with 10 males and 10 females.

We have developed and characterized 13 novel polymorphic microsatellite markers for the Hokkai Shrimp, Pandalus latirostris, to provide an effective tool for conducting genetic studies on this species. No linkage disequilibria and no deviation from HWE were detected in these markers. In 32 individuals from Lake Notoro in Hokkaido, Japan, the number of alleles and expected heterozygosities ranged from 7 to 22 and from 0.84 to 0.95, respectively, suggesting the availability of these markers for ecological studies and conservation genetics in this species.

'Beneshan' is the choicest table cultivar of mango (Mangifera indica L.) that has been under cultivationfor more than a century in Andhra Pradesh state, India. Through an eco-geographic survey covering thethree regions of the state, 31 accessions of 'Beneshan' (BN Acc-l to BN Acc-31) were selected and theirfruit and leaf samples were collected to study intracultivar heterogeneity based on morphological fruittraits and microsatellite markers, respectively. In-situ characterization and evaluation of fruit samplesrevealed phenotypic variations among 'Beneshan' accessions. Of the 109 mango-specific simple sequencerepeats (SSRs) validated, 23 were polymorphic. Polymorphic microsatellites produced a total of 58alleles, of which 30 were polymorphic (51.72%). The polymorphic information content values variedfrom 0.03 (SSR-59) to 0.72 (SSR-87). Highly polymorphic microsatellites like SSR-80, SSR-87, SSR-28,and SSR-89 were more useful in differentiating the 'Beneshan' accessions. Microsatellites SSR-91 andMngSSR-26 produced unique alleles of 280 and 140 bp in BNAcc-8 and BNAcc-9 accessions,respectively. Jaccard’s similarity coefficient varied from 0.50 to 1.00. There was a wide range ofintravarietal heterogeneity (up to 50%) indicating that 'Beneshan' whatsoever cultivated throughout thestate is not pure clone, which allows the genetic breeding of this cultivar by means of mass selection.

Elucidating the genetic relationships among members of a social group is indispensable in studying any social system of primates.Hylobates spp. are believed to be monogamous, although some long-term monitoring studies have provided conflicting evidence. We applied a parentage testing technique to a group ofHylobates muelleri in the wild. Forty-five microsatellite loci were screened in the 12 unrelated gibbons' DNA, and 16 of the 45 loci were found to be polymorphic. Hair and fecal samples from 15 gibbons in the field were collected non-invasively. In each sample, the 16 polymorphic loci were amplified by PCR using appropriate primer pairs and separated by electrophoresis. We estimated three pairs of parents-offspring, a pair each of both father-offspring, and mother-offspring genetic relationships. Further, in two of the five cases, we revealed the family a subadult lived with was not a natal one of the subadult. The non-invasive sampling methods and polymorphic primer pairs used in this study would greatly enhance the understanding of gibbon's society in the wild.

Microsatellite loci were isolated from a dinucleotide-enriched library made from the African blue wildebeest, Connochaetes taurinus. Seventeen polymorphic microsatellites were characterized among 24 individuals sampled from Tanzania. The number of alleles ranged from 4 to 12 and the observed heterozygosity between 0.45 and 1.00. These microsatellite loci should prove useful in the study of population structure of the blue wildebeest.