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The leaf is the main photosynthetic organ in plants, such as bamboo. Leaves from bamboo are used as a food additive. However, according to our investigation, to date there have been no reports concerning the leaf development of bamboo. By measuring over 7500 parenchymal cells, we discovered that the linear leaf growth of Pseudosasa japonica could be divided into three growth sections. The first one is a roughly 1-cm long division zone (DZ), containing about 1580 cells, located at the bottom of the leaf; the second one is an about 3-cm long elongation zone (EZ), with ~1905 cells, located above the DZ; and the last is a mature zone (MZ) in which cell elongation is completed. The cell production rate of the DZ was 25.33-35.81 cells per hour, with an average of 29.73; and the cell division rate was ~0.45 cells per cell every 24 h. PacBio and Illumina transcriptome sequencing found 21 933 unigenes expressed in these zones. Further analysis revealed a dynamic transcriptome, with transcripts for cell division in the DZ changing to transcripts for cell elongation, photosynthetic development, secondary metabolism, stress resistance, and nutrition transport toward the leaf distal. Those transcriptome transformations correlated well with the changes of relative water content, biomass accumulation, and cellulose crystal degree and were supported by quantitative polymerase chain reaction data. These results revealed a developmental gradient of the bamboo linear growth leaf, which offers a foundation to elucidate and engineer leaf development in bamboo, an economically valuable plant.

PhyllostacShys bambusoides, Phyllostachys nigra var. henonis, and Pseudosasa japonica are Bambusoideae species widely cultivated in Korea. They are used in herbal medicines due to their potent bioactivities. However, the various chemical compositions of the different Bambusoideae species have not been documented; on the market, all are typically being labeled as bamboo, without species discrimination. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the differences between these three Bambusoideae species based on simultaneous quantitative determination of several compounds. An analysis platform, consisting of ultrasound-assisted liquid-liquid extraction combined with high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with a diode array detector (HPLC-DAD) and a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer in multiple reaction monitoring mode (HPLC-MRM/MS), was developed and validated to analyze the biochemical compounds in these three Bambusoideae species. Multivariate statistical analysis was applied to discriminate samples, data visualization, and identification of sample clustering. As a result, nine compounds were identified as marker compounds for species differentiation. This study demonstrated that the chemotaxonomic application of three common Bambusoideae species could be achieved using our analytical platform coupled with appropriate multivariate statistical analysis. These abilities will help prevent possible side effects and unexpected biological activity resulting from incorrect species identification.

Several bamboo species, suitable for temperate climates, have been introduced from southern China as ornamental plants in Europe and in Italy since the XIX century. Bamboos were appreciated also for other commercial purposes afterwards (e.g., food and structural applications) and nowadays in NW Italy (Piedmont and Aosta Valley Regions) the interest in their plantation has been growing. Consequently, many public authorities responsible for environment and biodiversity protection expressed a precautionary attitude for the commerce of bamboos. ‘BambApp’ project was implemented to scrutinize the invasive potential of naturalized bamboo species with a ‘citizen science’ approach, which implied the support of volunteers to collect scientific information through the use of “iNaturalist” app for smartphones. Citizens described each recorded bamboo clump in terms of maximum height, maximum stem diameter, and clump size. The coordinates and a description of the habitat type on the border of the four sides for each clump were required to volunteers as well. Moreover, surveyors had to upload four pictures of the clump, which were used to identify the bamboos at species level. In a ten-month period, 871 validated bamboo populations were recorded in the two regions and nine different species identified. The most widespread species was Phyllostachys aurea (67%), followed by Phyllostachis viridiglaucescens (16%), Pseudosasa japonica (6%), Phyllostachys reticulata (5%), Phyllostachys nigra (2%), Phyllostachys flexuosa (2%), Phyllostachys sulfurea (2%), and Phyllostachys edulis (1%). To quantify the invasive potential of bamboo species a Principal Component Analysis was carried out by using variables related to clump growth. Average elevation ranged between 252 m and 431 m a.s.l. and the clump size ranged between an average of about 27 m2 and about 2160 m2. Phyllostachis reticulata and P. sulfurea were the tallest species with the largest stem diameters, whereas P. aurea was the species forming the largest clumps in terms of occupied surface. The 82% of populations bordered for at least one side with anthropic habitats, 60% with agricultural habitats, and 45% with natural habitats. ‘BambApp’ project, through a citizen science network, successfully provided reliable and comprehensive information to public authorities for re-evaluating the invasive potential of bamboo species in NW Italy and for regulating their commerce.

Damayanto IPGP, Rustiami H, Miftahudin, Chikmawati T. 2020. A Synopsis of Bambusoideae (Poaceae) in Lombok, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 21: 4489-4500. There is little documentation of bamboo on Lombok. Non-native Indonesian bamboos have been reported occurring in Lombok. As such, suspicious bamboo specimens and information in those reports need to be examined and possibly re-determined. This study aimed to provide updated taxonomical information of bamboo species in Lombok and to investigate the accuracy of previous studies regarding the existence of several non-native Indonesian bamboo species on the island (i.e. they do not have original distribution in Indonesia). Data from fieldwork were combined with specimens in Herbarium Bogoriense to create a synopsis of bamboo in Lombok and to develop an identification key to the species. Eleven species of bamboos in Lombok were reported from this study, namely Bambusa glaucophylla, B. maculata, B. multiplex, B. spinosa, B. vulgaris, Dendrocalamus asper, Gigantochloa apus, G. atter, Schizostachyum brachycladum, S. lima, and Thyrsostachys siamensis. Several doubtful species (B. albustiata, B. ventricosa, Guadua angustifolia, S. jaculans, Pseudosasa japonica) were presented to clarify the existence of a non-native Indonesian bamboo in Lombok. Moreover, there is not enough evidence to state Dinochloa sp. occurred in Lombok. The results of this study can be used by stakeholders for bamboo identification and as the baseline taxonomic account for future studies and conservation of bamboo species in Lombok.

Summary Pith cavity formation is critical for bamboo to overcome the bending force during its fast growth; however, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain largely unknown. Multiple approaches, including anatomical dissection, mathematical modelling and transcriptome profiling, were employed in this study to investigate the biology of pith cavity formation in bamboo Pseudosasa japonica. We found that the corruption of pith tissue occurred sequentially and asymmetrically from the top‐centre of the internode down to the bottom, which might be caused by the combined effects of asymmetrical radial and axial tensile forces during shoot‐wall cell elongation and spiral growth of bamboo internodes. Programmed cell death (PCD) in pitch manifested by TUNEL positive nuclei, DNA cleavage and degraded organelles, and potentially regulated by ethylene and calcium signalling pathway, ROS burst, cell wall modification, proteolysis and nutrient recycle genes, might be responsible for pith tissue corruption of Ps. japonica. Although similar physiological changes and transcriptome profiles were found in different bamboo species, different formation rates of pith cavity were observed, which might be caused by different pith cells across the internode that were negatively correlated with the culm diameter. These findings provided a systematical view on the formation of bamboo pith cavity and revealed that PCD plays an important role in the bamboo pith cavity formation.

New alien species of aphids (Illinoia liriodendri (Monell), Wahlgreniella nervata (Gillete), Takecallis arundicolens (Clarke) and Tinocallis takachihoensis Higuchi) have been found for the first time in Serbia. These records are new for the Balkan Peninsula. Data of Ericaphis scammelli (Mason), species recently mentioned in Serbia, are also presented in the text. The species have been found during the last five years at four sites (Belgrade, Zemun, Mladenovac and Bojnik) on five cultivated plants. Ericaphis scammelli is a pest of blueberry and a vector of Blueberry scorch virus. The other four develop colonies on decorative plants: I. liriodendri has been found on Liriodendron tulipifera, W. nervata on Rosa sp., T. arundicolens on Pseudosasa japonica and T. takachihoensis on Ulmus x hollandica. The origin of three of the species (E. scammelli, I. liriodendri and W. nervata) is North America and two (T. arundicolens and T. takachihoensis) have come from East Asia. Their morphology, biology and the damage they inflict are discussed here, as well as their potential economic and environmental threat. Only parthenogenetic viviparous females of all 5 species have been collected. Their biology has not been studied enough in Europe and needs further examination. Original drawings of all species are presented.

Pseudosasa japonica f. Akebonosuji H. Okamura is a bamboo species with variable leaf colors, including albino, green, and green-white stripes. To determine whether variation in leaf color is due to mutations in the chloroplast genome, we sequenced the chloroplast genomes of green and albino leaves of P. japonica f. Akebonosuji. The results indicated that the chloroplast genome included 86 protein-coding genes, seven ribosomal RNA genes, and 31 tRNA genes. The similarity of chloroplast genomes for the two leaf types was 99.98%, with variation between genes encoding for trnfM and trnT . We observed that the relative expression patterns of trnfM and trnT were reversed in green and albino leaves. Whether the differential expression of trnfM and trnT is involved in leaf color variation among P. japonica f. Akebonosuji remains unclear. With many bamboo chloroplast genomes available, we aligned the chloroplast genomes of 28 bamboo species, including P. japonica f. Akebonosuji, to analyze polymorphisms. This comparison revealed that noncoding regions possessed more nucleotide polymorphisms than coding regions. Chloroplast genomes and the nuclear gene “granule-bound starch synthase I” ( GBSSI) of 28 bamboo species were used to construct evolutionary trees. Both evolutionary trees indicated that P. japonica f. Akebonosuji was clustered into Subtrib. Arundinariinae.

Strain BL24T, isolated from bamboo phyllosphere collected in Coimbatore, India, was studied for taxonomic classification. Cells of the strain were aerobic, Gram-stain-positive, motile, catalase- and oxidase-positive rods and grew on media containing methanol. In 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, strain BL24Tshowed the highest sequence similarities with Paenibacillus phyllosphaeraeKACC 11473T (97.8 %) and Paenibacillus sacheonensisSY01 (95.1 %). DNA-DNA hybridization with P. phyllosphaerae KACC 11473T, phylogenetically the most closely related species, was 21.6 %; this value showed that strain BL24Tbelonged to a different species. The cell-wall peptidoglycan was found to possess meso-diaminopimelic acid and the G+C content of genomic DNA was 52.1 mol %. It contained menaquinone (MK)-7 as the predominant respiratory quinone and the major cellular fatty acids are C16 : 0, anteiso-C15 : 0, iso-C16 : 0, and anteiso-C17 : 0. Based on the molecular and chemotaxonomic markers and physiological properties, strain BL24T (=NRRL B-51698T=CCM 7577T) is considered to represent a novel species of the genus Paenibacillus, for which the name Paenibacillusmethanolicusis proposed.

Key message Not only the first systematic characterization ofCAOgene in bamboo species, but also the first attempt to study the relationship betweenCAOgene expression and bamboo leaf color variation.

In angiosperms, NADPH: protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase (POR) catalyzes the photoreduction of protochlorophyllide (Pchlide) to chlorophyllide (Chlide), the only light-dependent step in chlorophyll biosynthesis. There is a wide variety of gene organization and light- and development-dependent regulatory mechanisms for the POR genes. In this study, a POR homologue, designated PjPORB, was isolated from Pseudosasa japonica cv. Akebonosuji, which is a cultivar of high ornamental value in landscape due to its unique green-white striped leaf phenotype. The full-length PjPORB cDNA was 1567 bp long with a 1185 bp ORF that encoded 394 amino acids. Multiple amino acid sequence alignment showed that the putative PjPORB shared a high similarity to POR homologues from other plant species, and that the cofactor (NADPH)-binding motif and active site motif in particular were highly conserved among all the PORs. Further, PjPORB was overexpressed in Arabidopsis thaliana; and the Pchlide contents of the genetically modified plants were reduced to a larger extent than that of wild type plants, thereby indicating its important role in Pchlide photoreduction. In real-time quantitative RT-PCR analysis, PjPORB was expressed at higher levels in leaf samples than in culms and roots, and showed a first increasing-then decreasing expression pattern during the development of white, stripe, and green leaf samples, thus indicating its essential role in leaf development. Although the mRNA levels for PjPORB did not differ considerably among white, stripe, and green leaf samples within the two almost same earlier developmental stages, its expression levels in the late leaf developmental stage fell into two distinct classes: high expression levels in strip and green leaf samples, and low expression levels in white leaf. Collectively, these expression data suggested that PjPORB may be involved in the leaf color variation for P. japonica cv. Akebonosuji.

We carried out an ecological survey for Ceratovacuna japonica, which lives in bamboos, at the experimental field ofNational Academy of Agricultural Science, Suwon and the several natural fields in Korea from 2010 to 2011. Thereleasing methods of C. japonica on Pseudosasa japonica was more effective at the brushing-off method than the pin-ing-attached method. The successful rate of releasing was the highest at green house than others such as at outdoor, vinylgreen house and in a insects net conditions. The survival limit of C. japonica was closely associated with the lowesttemperature (−10 o C) of vegetative limit of P. japonica for over wintering because of two fields of Ilsan lake park andGuri ecological park showed falling down below −15 o C two times in January. It provides for a reasonable distributioninformation of C. japonica that is restricted to south of Han River. However, the middle of Korea has rarely fallen downbelow −10 o C. Therefore, we consider that a successful rearing of C. japonica may be the most suitable in green housecondition to overcome winter period. Key words : Ceratovacuna japonica, Taraka hamada, Pseidosasa japonica, Temperature, Ecology

Taraka hamada is known as the sole aphidophagous lycaenid butterfly in Korea. The species specifically preys upon Ceratovacuna japonica which lives in bamboo forests. During several years, the species has been received attention from the field of industrial insects in order to commercialize as a pet. However, an ecological character of the species have been unclear in Korea. We carried out a survey for basic ecology and distribution of the two species for 2010 to 2012. As the results, both species only cohabit at Pseudosasa japonica in our investigation. C. japonica is widely distributed from the host plant. Population density of T. hamada is synchronized with the density changes of C. japonica. Their densities are gradually decreased from the point to the investigation and significantly declined in mid-june. The maximum population density of both species shows at the basal part of a leaf. The last-larval instar of T. hamada may seem to be reaching at stage. The adults of T. hamada are killed within two minutes when they were exposed to the sun.

This study examined the optimal ingredient mixing ratio for the preparation of steamed cake containing mugwort (Artemisia princeps var. orientalis) powder. After preliminary studies, the following ingredient ranges were determined; 110∼129% sugar, 3∼8% mugwort powder, 10∼25% oil. Among the different mixture designs, the D-optimal design was chosen for analysis. The results of F-test, specific gravity, viscosity, volume and color values (L, a, b), hardness decided a linear model, while the sensory characteristics (color, taste, texture and overall acceptance) decided a quadratic model. The fitness analysis results showed that in all characteristic, the probabilities were significant within 0.05%; thus, the models were accepted as appropriate. The response surface and trace plot results showed that increasing amounts of mugwort powder decreased the brightness, and increased redness and yellowness. As the level of added oil increased, the softness of the cake increased. Cake samples received low sensory evaluation scores when sugar, mugwort powder, and oil were added above their optimal levels. The optimum formulations by the numerical and graphical methods, were similar, and with the numerical method presented as: sugar, mugwort powder, and oil at 120.7%, 5.1%, and 16.2%, respectively(flour weight basis). The above results demonstrate the feasibility of adding mugwort powder to sponge cake, and therefore, the commercialization of mugwort powder cake marketed as a functional food is deemed possible.Key words : optimization, steamed, sponge cake, mugwort powder, D-optimal design, mixture designs

This study was conducted to investigate the flora of Mt. Jang located at Haeundae-Gu in Busan. The survey for the flora was carried out from Oct. 2008 to Sep. 2009. The results were obtained as follows. The flora consists of 5 forms, 22 varieties, 238 species, 198 genera, 91 families, 47 orders, 7 classes, and 3 divisions as total 265 taxa. The typical communities were Osmunda japonica com., Stephanandra incisa com., Gleichenia japonica com., Eurya japonica-Pinus thunbergii com., Styrax japonica-Pinus thunbergii com., and Smilax china com. which were distributed along Forest Bathing Area and Yangun Falls, Miscanthus sinensis for. purpurascens com., Carpinus turczaibovii var. coreana com and Pseudosasa japonica were distributed around the top of mountain. According to the ecological characteristic species, the evergreen plants were observed 15 taxa 14 genera 13 families, the naturalized plants 18 taxa 17 genera 10 families, the specific plants categorized by Ministry of Environment 20 taxa 18 genera 18 families, the endangered plant 1 specie Utricularia yakusimensis, and the cultivated plants were observed 21 taxa 18 genera 14 families.

Ferulic acid derived from Pseudosasa japonica leaves, which possessed antioxidative potentials with DPPH- (54%) and ABTs- (65%) radical scavenging activities, and lipid-peroxidation inhibitory activity (71%), was orally administered to mice for 12 days in order to investigate its effects on exercise endurance capacity and alterations of antioxidant defense systems. Exhaustive swimming time was increased in the ferulic acid-supplemented group compared with the control group on days 6 and 12 (1.7- and 1.8-fold, respectively). When the mice were exhaustively exercised for 2 consecutive days, a high decrease (53%) was shown in the control group, but no change was found in the ferulic acid-treated group. The administration of ferulic acid significantly protected the depletion of enzymatic- and non enzymatic-antioxidants due to exhaustive exercise. Also, lipid-peroxidation levels decreased in the ferulic acid-treated group compared with the non exercised- and control-groups. These results suggest that ferulic acid from Pseudosasa japonica leaves has a chronic effect on endurance exercise capacity, which is attributed to its ability to ameliorate oxidative stress by improving antioxidant potentials.

An antioxidative compound with effective exercise-enhancing potential was isolated from the ethanolic extract of Pseudosasa japonica leaves. The ethanolic extract was partitioned in the order of hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and water. Of the 4 fractions, the ethyl acetate-fraction (PJE-E) showed profound scavenging activity on superoxide anion- and ABTs cation radicals. Thin layer chromatography (TLC) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were conducted to isolate a compound with antioxidative activity on exercise endurance capacity from the PJE-E. The structure of the resulting compound was identified as ferulic acid by 1H/13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). This ferulic acid was orally administered to mice for 18 days and its effect on exercise endurance capacity was investigated using an adjustablecurrent water pool. Compared to the control group, a 1.8 fold increase in swimming time was observed in the ferulic acid-administered mice. Results indicate that ferulic acid from P. japonica leaves might contribute to the potent exercise-enhancing effect.

Spontaneous leaf color variation in bamboo provides the opportunity to study the mechanisms of leaf color formation and the breeding of ornamental bamboos. Despite the fact that many genes are known to be involved in leaf color variation in model plants, molecular mechanisms governing natural leaf color variation in bamboo have remained obscure. This study aimed to identify the genes responsible for the occurrence of such phenomena in bamboo using the suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) method between green and albino leaves in Pseudosasa japonica f. A total of 1062 and 1004 differentially expressed transcripts were obtained from the forward and reverse SSH libraries, respectively. Subsequently, 59 differentially expressed unigenes with potential roles in leaf color formation, predicted via computational analysis of their functional relevance, were selected for further analysis using qPCR. Ten genes, involved in photosynthesis, plastid development, and cation signal transduction, showed 2-fold changes in expression levels between green and albino leaves. Further expression pattern analyses of these genes at three developmental stages revealed much lower expression abundance of Lhca1-encoded chlorophyll a/b binding protein in the albino leaves than in the green leaves. Our results suggest that, together with the concatenated negative pressure for subsequent photosynthetic processes, the albino phenotype is at least partly attributable to chloroplast inner membrane damage or to the impairment of photosynthetic pigment accumulation, which results from low Lhca1 expression.

The performance-enhancing effects of Pseudosasa japonica were investigated in mice using an adjustable-current water pool. Compared to the control group, a 1.5-fold increase in swimming time was observed in the mouse group administered an 80% ethanol extract (PJE) of the leaves of P. japonica. The blood lactate level, an important indicator of fatigue, was significantly lower (28%, P

Phylogenetic relationships ofArundinaria and related genera (Pleioblastus, Pseudosasa, Oligostachyum, Bashania, Clavinodum, etc.) were assessed by analyzing the sequences of the nrDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and the cpDNAtrnL-F intergenic spacer (IGS). Comparison withtrnL-F IGS sequence, the ITS region provided the higher number of parsimony informative characters, and the interspecific variation of the ITS sequence was higher than that of thetrnL-FIGS sequence. The tree obtained by combining both sets of data showed that the species sampled inArundinaria and the related genera were monophyletic and divided into two clades. The relationships and positioning of all the taxa surveryed (includingA. oleosa, A. hsienchuensis, A. chino, A. amara, A. yixingensis, A. amabilis, A. fortunei, A. pygmaea, A. gramineus, A. fargesii, A. faberi, A. hupehense, Pseudosasa japonica cv. Tsutsumiana, P. japonica andBrachystachyum densiflorum) were also discussed. The results from the sequences were broadly consistent with morphological characters, appearing all these taxa sampled belong to the genus ofArundinaria. The topologies of the trees generated from individual data and the combined data were similar.

Giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) are members of the order Carnivora. Their diet, however, consists almost entirely of bamboo. Herbivores are under strong pressure to be selective in what they eat because of the low digestibility of plant material. The purpose of this study was to determine whether two captive giant pandas exhibited preferences among three species of bamboo: black (Phyllostachys nigra), bissetii (Phyllostachys bissetii), and arrow (Pseudosasa japonica). Eighteen classic choice trials were conducted in which the species were randomly paired and placed in one of two predetermined locations in the giant pandas’ indoor enclosures. The pandas preferred leaves to culms or branches for each bamboo species. In the first hour of exposure, both pandas exhibited a preference for arrow bamboo. A comparison of total bamboo consumption over the course of the night indicated a strong preference for arrow bamboo by the male. The female exhibited equal preference for both arrow and bissetii over black bamboo. Further examination of feeding behavior determined that the pandas processed arrow bamboo behaviorally more efficiently than the other two species. This is the first study to experimentally assess bamboo preferences in giant pandas, and may have implications for husbandry and management programs as well as strategies for in situ conservation. Zoo Biol 24:177–183, 2005. � c 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

During the annual period of bamboo shoot growth in spring, free-ranging giant pandas feed almost exclusively on the shoots while ignoring the leaves and full- height culm. Little is known about the nutritional changes that occur during bamboo shoot growth, if nutritional changes differ among species, or how these changes might influence forage selection. Our objective was to examine the nutrient and mineral composition during three phases of shoot growth (60, 90-150 and180 cm) for seven species of bamboo (Phyllostachys (P.) aurea, P. aureosulcata, P. bissetii, P. glauca, P. nuda, P. rubromarginata, Pseudosasa japonica) fed to captive giant pandas at the Memphis Zoo. Total dietary fiber content of bamboo shoots increased (p0.0001) from an overall species average of 61% dry matter (DM) at60 cm to 75% DM at shoot heights180 cm, while crude protein, fat and ash exhibited significant declines (p0.05). Phyllostachys nuda had the overall greatest (p = 0.007) crude protein (21% DM) and fat (4% DM) content, and lowest overall total fibre (61% DM) content compared to the other species examined. In contrast, Pseudosasa japonica had the overall lowest crude protein and fat, and relatively higher fibre content (9%, 3% and 74% respectively). Concentrations of Zn and Fe were highest in shoots60 cm (10-50 μg/g DM) and decreased (p0.05) during growth in all species examined. Concentrations of Ca, Cu, Mn, Na and K varied among species and were largely unaffected by growth stage. Due to their higher concentrations of nutrients and lower fibre content in comparison to culm and leaf, bamboo shoots should be a major component of captive giant panda diets when available.

International audience; Over the last decade, bamboo plantations have started to be used as vegetation filters for wastewater treatment. This treatment system can be useful in reducing wastewater discharge into the environment, thus contributing to the preservation of water resources by using the plantation's evapotranspiration to reduce the rate of water infiltration. The evapotranspiration rates of the bamboo species used is therefore an important factor. The actual evapotranspiration (ET) and the crop coefficients (kc) for the five tropical and temperate species of three-year-old bamboo plants, i.e. Bambusa oldhamii, Bambusa multiplex, Bambusa vulgaris, Phyllostachys aurea and Pseudosasa japonica, were studied in lysimeters for a period of more than one year under a tropical climate. The average ET rates for the bamboo species studied ranged from 4 to 7 mm day−1 with maximum values of between 10.7 and 17.1 mm day−1 during the wet season, and an average kc of 1.1 to 1.9. The ET was correlated to weather parameters, especially minimum temperatures. The differences in ET rates between the bamboo species can be explained by morphological parameters, in particular the total aboveground biomass. Among the five bamboo species studied, B. oldhamii had the highest ET rate and produced the most biomass. In comparison with other high-biomass-producing plants, the evaporation rates for young bamboo plants were similar to those for willow and poplar vegetation filters.

Extensive studies have revealed that various kinds of plant leaf have a hydrophobic property which arises from the micro- and nano-scale structure of the leaves. As the self-cleaning capability of plant leaves, termed the lotus effect, is based on their micro- and nano-scale structure, this hydrophobic property can be obtained on various other surfaces by duplication of the leaves' structure. In this study, the hydrophobic structure on bamboo leaves (Pseudosasa japonica) was successfully replicated on a glass substrate using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) molding technique and UV nano-imprint lithography. The replicated nano structure, made of perfluorinated acrylate imprint resin, was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and its hydrophobicity was evaluated by contact angle measurements which confirmed that the hydrophobic nature and self-cleaning capability of the original bamboo leaves were also replicated.

Summary Leaves of Trachycarpus fortunei from palms growing in warm temperate regions of Europe and Japan as outdoor ornamentals were cooled down to low subfreezing temperatures, and the process of ice formation was followed using differential thermal analysis (DTA). Inactivation of photosynthetic function was determined by in vivo chlorophyll fluorescence, and the progress of injuries during freezing was assayed by viability tests after thawing. Ultrastructure of mesophyll cells was investigated by transmission electron microscopy. Silica incrustation of cell walls was documented by means of qualitative energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX) on samples of Trachycarpus fortunei, Washingtonia filifera, and of the bamboo Pseudosasa japonica. DTA revealed typical freezing patterns, with a high temperature exotherm at about -6 to -8°C and a broad low temperature exotherm rising from about -13 to -14°C. As soon as the tissues froze, characteristic changes appeared in the kinetics of in vivo fluorescence. No irreversible inactivation of photosynthesis or damage was detectable at temperatures above appearance of the low exotherm. Within a short time after attainment of the exotherm peak, the leaf segments were found to be lethally damaged. Both of in vivo fluorescence and viability tests clearly indicated that Trachycarpus leaves remain in the persistent supercooled state down to quite low temperatures. The tensile state of water at threshold supercooling temperatures of Trachycarpus leaves was calculated according to the equation of Rajashekar and Burke (1982) and found to be about -14 MPa. An explanation for the permanent maintenance of such a large displacement from thermodynamic equilibrium could be that silica incrustation, as revealed by EDXA, favours supercooling by increasing the rigidity of the cell walls and/or resistance to the growth of ice crystals.