Search

We investigated the effects of adding heavy strength training to a high volume of endurance training on performance and related physiological determinants in junior female cross-country skiers. Sixteen well-trained athletes (17 ± 1 years, 60 ± 6 kg, 169 ± 6 cm, VO2max running: 60 ± 5 mL/kg/min) were assigned either to an intervention group ( INT; n = 9) or a control group ( CON; n = 7). INT completed two weekly sessions of upper body heavy strength training in a linear periodized fashion for 10 weeks. Both groups continued their normal aerobic endurance and muscular endurance training. One repetition maximum in seated pull-down increased significantly more in INT than in CON, with a group difference of 15 ± 8% ( P < 0.01). Performance, expressed as average power output on a double poling ergometer over 20 s and as 3 min with maximal effort in both rested (sprint-test) and fatigued states (finishing-test), showed similar changes in both groups. Submaximal O2- cost and VO2peak in double poling showed similar changes or were unchanged in both groups. In conclusion, 10 weeks of heavy strength training increased upper body strength but had trivial effects on performance in a double poling ergometer in junior female cross-country skiers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of adding heavy strength training to well-trained female cyclists' normal endurance training on cycling performance. Nineteen female cyclists were randomly assigned to 11 weeks of either normal endurance training combined with heavy strength training (E+ S, n = 11) or to normal endurance training only ( E, n = 8). E+ S increased one repetition maximum in one-legged leg press and quadriceps muscle cross-sectional area ( CSA) more than E ( P < 0.05), and improved mean power output in a 40-min all-out trial, fractional utilization of VO2max and cycling economy ( P < 0.05). The proportion of type IIAX- IIX muscle fibers in m. vastus lateralis was reduced in E+ S with a concomitant increase in type IIA fibers ( P < 0.05). No changes occurred in E. The individual changes in performance during the 40-min all-out trial was correlated with both change in IIAX- IIX fiber proportion ( r = −0.63) and change in muscle CSA ( r = 0.73). In conclusion, adding heavy strength training improved cycling performance, increased fractional utilization of VO2max, and improved cycling economy. The main mechanisms behind these improvements seemed to be increased quadriceps muscle CSA and fiber type shifts from type IIAX- IIX toward type IIA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of two different methods of organizing endurance training in elite cross-country skiers approaching the competition period. During the 5-week intervention period, one group performed block periodization ( BP; n = 10) with 5 and 3 high-intensity sessions ( HIT) during the first and third training week. One HIT was performed during the remaining weeks in BP, while the group performing traditional training organization ( TRAD, n = 9) performed two weekly HIT except during the third week where they performed three HIT. HIT were interspersed with low-intensity training ( LIT) and both groups performed similar total amount of both HIT and LIT during the intervention. BP achieved a larger relative increase in peak power output and power output at a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol/L than TRAD (4 ± 4 vs −3 ± 6% and 11 ± 10 vs 2 ± 4%, respectively, both P < 0.01). BP also increased maximal oxygen uptake by 2 ± 2% ( P < 0.05), while no changes occurred in TRAD. The effect sizes of the relative improvement in these measurements revealed moderate effects of BP vs TRAD training. The present study suggests that block periodization of endurance training have superior effects on several endurance and performance indices compared with traditional organization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of 10 weeks of effort-matched short intervals ( SI; n = 9) or long intervals ( LI; n = 7) in cyclists. The high-intensity interval sessions ( HIT) were performed twice a week interspersed with low-intensity training. There were no differences between groups at pretest. There were no differences between groups in total volume of both HIT and low-intensity training. The SI group achieved a larger relative improvement in VO2max than the LI group (8.7% ± 5.0% vs 2.6% ± 5.2%), respectively, P ≤ 0.05). Mean effect size ( ES) of the relative improvement in all measured parameters, including performance measured as mean power output during 30-s all-out, 5-min all-out, and 40-min all-out tests revealed a moderate-to-large effect of SI training vs LI training ( ES range was 0.86-1.54). These results suggest that the present SI protocol induces superior training adaptations on both the high-power region and lower power region of cyclists' power profile compared with the present LI protocol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose was to investigate the effect of 25 weeks heavy strength training in young elite cyclists. Nine cyclists performed endurance training and heavy strength training (ES) while seven cyclists performed endurance training only (E). ES, but not E, resulted in increases in isometric half squat performance, lean lower body mass, peak power output during Wingate test, peak aerobic power output (Wmax), power output at 4 mmol L-1 [la-], mean power output during 40-min all-out trial, and earlier occurrence of peak torque during the pedal stroke (P < 0.05). ES achieved superior improvements in Wmax and mean power output during 40-min all-out trial compared with E (P < 0.05). The improvement in 40-min all-out performance was associated with the change toward achieving peak torque earlier in the pedal stroke (r = 0.66, P < 0.01). Neither of the groups displayed alterations in VO2max or cycling economy. In conclusion, heavy strength training leads to improved cycling performance in elite cyclists as evidenced by a superior effect size of ES training vs E training on relative improvements in power output at 4 mmol L-1 [la-], peak power output during 30-s Wingate test, Wmax, and mean power output during 40-min all-out trial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Here we report on the effect of combining endurance training with heavy or explosive strength training on endurance performance in endurance-trained runners and cyclists. Running economy is improved by performing combined endurance training with either heavy or explosive strength training. However, heavy strength training is recommended for improving cycling economy. Equivocal findings exist regarding the effects on power output or velocity at the lactate threshold. Concurrent endurance and heavy strength training can increase running speed and power output at VO2max ( Vmax and Wmax, respectively) or time to exhaustion at Vmax and Wmax. Combining endurance training with either explosive or heavy strength training can improve running performance, while there is most compelling evidence of an additive effect on cycling performance when heavy strength training is used. It is suggested that the improved endurance performance may relate to delayed activation of less efficient type II fibers, improved neuromuscular efficiency, conversion of fast-twitch type IIX fibers into more fatigue-resistant type IIA fibers, or improved musculo-tendinous stiffness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of two different methods of organizing endurance training in trained cyclists during a 12-week preparation period. One group of cyclists performed block periodization ( BP; n = 8), wherein every fourth week constituted five sessions of high-intensity aerobic training ( HIT), followed by 3 weeks of one HIT session. Another group performed a more traditional organization ( TRAD; n = 7), with 12 weeks of two weekly HIT sessions. The HIT was interspersed with low-intensity training ( LIT) so that similar total volumes of both HIT and LIT were performed in the two groups. BP achieved a larger relative improvement in VO2max than TRAD (8.8 ± 5.9% vs 3.7 ± 2.9%, respectively, P < 0.05) and a tendency toward larger increase in power output at 2 mmol/ L [la−] (22 ± 14% vs 10 ± 7%, respectively, P = 0.054). Mean effect size ( ES) of the relative improvement in VO2max, power output at 2 mmol/ L [la−], hemoglobin mass, and mean power output during 40-min all-out trial revealed moderate superior effects of BP compared with TRAD training ( ES range was 0.62-1.12). The present study suggests that BP of endurance training has superior effects on several endurance and performance indices compared with TRAD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of two different methods of organizing endurance training in trained cyclists. One group of cyclists performed block periodization, wherein the first week constituted five sessions of high-intensity aerobic training ( HIT), followed by 3 weeks of one weekly HIT session and focus on low-intensity training ( LIT) ( BP; n = 10, VO2max = 62 ± 2 mL/kg/min). Another group of cyclists performed a more traditional organization, with 4 weeks of two weekly HIT sessions interspersed with LIT ( TRAD; n = 9, VO2max = 63 ± 2 mL/kg/min). Similar volumes of both HIT and LIT was performed in the two groups. While BP increased VO2max, peak power output ( Wmax) and power output at 2 mmol/ L [la−] by 4.6 ± 3.7%, 2.1 ± 2.8%, and 10 ± 12%, respectively ( P < 0.05), no changes occurred in TRAD. BP showed relative improvements in VO2max compared with TRAD ( P < 0.05). Mean effect size ( ES) of the relative improvement in VO2max, Wmax, and power output at 2 mmol/ L [la−] revealed large to moderate effects of BP training compared with TRAD training ( ES = 1.34, ES = 0.85, and ES = 0.71, respectively). The present study suggests that block periodization of training provides superior adaptations to traditional organization during a 4-week endurance training period, despite similar training volume and intensity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this work was to study the effect of training volume on activation of satellite cells. Healthy untrained men were randomly assigned into two groups. The 3L-1UB group ( n = 10) performed three-set leg exercises and single-set upper body exercises, and the 1L-3UB group ( n = 11) performed single-set leg exercises and three-set upper body exercises. Both groups performed three sessions (80-90 min) per week for 11 weeks. Biopsies were taken from m. vastus lateralis and m. trapezius. The number of satellite cells, satellite cells positive for myogenin and MyoD, and the number of myonuclei were counted. Homogenized muscle was analyzed for myogenin and MyoD, and extracted ribonucleic acid ( RNA) was monitored for selected growth factor transcripts. Knee extensor strength increased more in the 3L-1UB group than in the 1L-3UB group (48 ± 4% vs 29 ± 4%), whereas the strength gain in shoulder press was similar in both training groups. The number of satellite cells in m. vastus lateralis increased more in the 3L-1UB group than in the 1L-3UB group. The number of myonuclei increased similarly in both groups. The messenger RNA expression of growth factors peaked after 2 weeks of training. In conclusion, increasing training volume enhanced satellite cell numbers in the leg muscle, but not in the upper body muscle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adaptation to heat stress and hypoxia are relevant for athletes participating in Tour de France or similar cycling races taking place during the summertime in landscapes with varying altitude. Both to minimize detrimental performance effects associated with arterial desaturation occurring at moderate altitudes in elite athletes, respectively, reduce the risk of hyperthermia on hot days, but also as a pre-competition acclimatization strategy to boost blood volume in already highly adapted athletes. The hematological adaptations require weeks of exposure to manifest, but are attractive as an augmented hemoglobin mass may improve arterial oxygen delivery and hence benefit prolonged performances. Altitude training camps have in this context a long history in exercise physiology and are still common practice in elite cycling. However, heat-acclimation training provides an attractive alternative for some athletes either as a stand-alone approach or in combination with altitude. The present paper provides an update and practical perspectives on the potential to utilize hypoxia and heat exposure to optimize hematological adaptations. Furthermore, we will consider temporal aspects both in terms of onset and decay of the adaptations relevant for improved thermoregulatory capacity and respiratory adaptations to abate arterial desaturation during altitude exposure. From focus on involved physiological mechanisms, time course, and responsiveness in elite athletes, we will provide guidance based on our experience from practical implementation in cyclists preparing for prolonged stage races such as the Tour de France., (© 2022 The Authors. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science In Sports published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Purpose: This study examined the associations among common assessments for measuring strength and power in the lower body of high-performing athletes, including both cross-sectional and longitudinal data., Methods: A total of 100 participants, including both male (n = 83) and female (n = 17) athletes (21 [4] y, 182 [9] cm, 78 [12] kg), were recruited for the study using a multicenter approach. The participants underwent physical testing 4 times. The first 2 sessions (1 and 2) were separated by ∼1 week, followed by a period of 2 to 6 months, whereas the last 2 sessions (3 and 4) were also separated by ∼1 week. The test protocol consisted of squat jumps, countermovement jumps, jump and reach, 30-m sprint, 1-repetition-maximum squat, sprint cycling, and a leg-press test., Results: There were generally acceptable correlations among all performance measures. Variables from the countermovement jumps and leg-press power correlated strongly with all performance assessments (r = .52-.79), while variables from sprint running and squat-jump power displayed more incoherent correlations (r = .21-.82). For changes over time, the correlations were mostly strong, albeit systematically weaker than for cross-sectional measures., Conclusions: The associations observed among the performance assessments seem to be consistent for both cross-sectional data and longitudinal change scores. The weaker correlations for change scores are most likely mainly caused by lower between-subjects variations in the change scores than for the cross-sectional data. The present study provides novel information, helping researchers and practitioners to better interpret the relationships across common performance assessment methods.

Purpose: This study examined the test-retest reliability of common assessments for measuring strength and power of the lower body in high-performing athletes., Methods: A total of 100 participants, including both male (n = 83) and female (n = 17) athletes (21 [4] y, 182 [9] cm, and 78 [12] kg), were recruited for this study, using a multicenter approach. The participants underwent physical testing 4 times. The first 2 sessions (1 and 2) were separated by ∼1 week, followed by a period of 2 to 6 months, whereas the last 2 sessions (3 and 4) were again separated by ∼1 week. The test protocol consisted of squat jumps, countermovement jumps, jump and reach, 30-m sprint, 1-repetition-maximum squat, sprint cycling, and a leg-press test., Results: The typical error (%) ranged from 1.3% to 8.5% for all assessments. The change in means ranged from -1.5% to 2.5% for all assessments, whereas the interclass correlation coefficient ranged from .85 to .97. The smallest worthwhile change (0.2 of baseline SD) ranged from 1.2% to 5.0%. The ratio between the typical error (%) and the smallest worthwhile change (%) ranged from 0.5 to 1.2. When observing the reliability across testing centers, considerable differences in reliability were observed (typical error [%] ratio: 0.44-1.44)., Conclusions: Most of the included assessments can be used with confidence by researchers and coaches to measure strength and power in athletes. Our results highlight the importance of controlling testing reliability at each testing center and not relying on data from others, despite having applied the same protocol.

Purpose: Rating of perceived exertion (RPE) is a widely used tool to assess subjective perception of effort during exercise. The authors investigated between-subject variation and effect of exercise mode and sex on Borg RPE (6-20) in relation to heart rate (HR), oxygen uptake (VO2), and capillary blood lactate concentrations., Methods: A total of 160 elite endurance athletes performed a submaximal and maximal test protocol either during cycling (n = 84, 37 women) or running (n = 76, 32 women). The submaximal test consisted of 4 to 7 progressive 5-minute steps within ∼50% to 85% of maximal VO2. For each step, steady-state HR, VO2, and capillary blood lactate concentrations were assessed and RPE reported. An incremental protocol to exhaustion was used to determine maximal VO2 and peak HR to provide relative (%) HR and VO2 values at submaximal work rates., Results: A strong relationship was found between RPE and %HR, %VO2, and capillary blood lactate concentrations (r = .80-.82, all Ps < .05). The between-subject coefficient of variation (SD/mean) for %HR and %VO2 decreased linearly with increased RPE, from ∼10% to 15% at RPE 8 to ∼5% at RPE 17. Compared with cycling, running induced a systematically higher %HR and %VO2 (∼2% and 5%, respectively, P < .05) with these differences being greater at lower intensities (RPE < 13). At the same RPE, women showed a trivial, but significantly higher %HR and %VO2 than men (<1%, P < .05)., Conclusions: Among elite endurance athletes, exercise mode influenced RPE at a given %HR and %VO2, with greater differences at lower exercise intensities. Athletes should manage different tools to evaluate training based on intensity and duration of workouts.

Purpose: To investigate the effects of including repeated sprints in a weekly low-intensity (LIT) session during a 3-week transition period on cycling performance 6 weeks into the subsequent preparatory period (PREP) in elite cyclists., Methods: Eleven elite male cyclists (age = 22.0 [3.8] y, body mass = 73.0 [5.8] kg, height = 186 [7] cm, maximal oxygen uptake [VO2max] = 5469 [384] mL·min-1) reduced their training load by 64% and performed only LIT sessions (CON, n = 6) or included 3 sets of 3 × 30-second maximal sprints in a weekly LIT session (SPR, n = 5) during a 3-week transition period. There was no difference in the reduction in training load during the transition period between groups. Physiological and performance measures were compared between the end of the competitive period and 6 weeks into the PREP., Results: SPR demonstrated a 7.3% (7.2%) improvement in mean power output during a 20-minute all-out test at PREP, which was greater than CON (-1.3% [4.6%]) (P = .048). SPR had a corresponding 7.0% (3.6%) improvement in average VO2 during the 20-minute all-out test, which was larger than the 0.7% (6.0%) change in CON (P = .042). No change in VO2max, gross efficiency, or power output at blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol·L-1 from competitive period to PREP occurred in either group., Conclusion: Including sprints in a weekly LIT session during the transition period of elite cyclists provided a performance advantage 6 weeks into the subsequent PREP, which coincided with a higher performance VO2.

The aim of the study was to examine the test-retest reliability and agreement across methods for assessing individual force-velocity (FV) profiles of the lower limbs in athletes. Using a multicenter approach, 27 male athletes completed all measurements for the main analysis, with up to 82 male and female athletes on some measurements. The athletes were tested twice before and twice after a 2- to 6-month period of regular training and sport participation. The double testing sessions were separated by ~1 week. Individual FV-profiles were acquired from incremental loading protocols in squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ) and leg press. A force plate, linear encoder and a flight time calculation method were used for measuring force and velocity during SJ and CMJ. A linear regression was fitted to the average force and velocity values for each individual test to extrapolate the FV-variables: theoretical maximal force (F0), velocity (V0), power (Pmax), and the slope of the FV-profile (SFV). Despite strong linearity (R2>0.95) for individual FV-profiles, the SFV was unreliable for all measurement methods assessed during vertical jumping (coefficient of variation (CV): 14-30%, interclass correlation coefficient (ICC): 0.36-0.79). Only the leg press exercise, of the four FV-variables, showed acceptable reliability (CV:3.7-8.3%, ICC:0.82-0.98). The agreement across methods for F0 and Pmax ranged from (Pearson r): 0.56-0.95, standard error of estimate (SEE%): 5.8-18.8, and for V0 and SFV r: -0.39-0.78, SEE%: 12.2-37.2. With a typical error of 1.5 cm (5-10% CV) in jump height, SFV and V0 cannot be accurately obtained, regardless of the measurement method, using a loading range corresponding to 40-70% of F0. Efforts should be made to either reduce the variation in jumping performance or to assess loads closer to the FV-intercepts. Coaches and researchers should be aware of the poor reliability of the FV-variables obtained from vertical jumping, and of the differences across measurement methods., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The current study investigated the effects of 6 weeks of heavy upper-body strength training on maximal strength and sprint abilities in eight world class ice sledge hockey players. Before and after the strength training intervention, all subjects performed a 30-m maximal sprint on ice (where time for each 10 m section was measured) and 1 repetition maximal (1RM) strength test in the bench pull (BP), pull-down (PD), pull over (PO) and front pull (FP) exercises. Three weekly sessions with 3×6-8RM for these strength exercises were added during the intervention period. From pre- to post-test, 1RM in the strength exercises improved by 4-8%, whereas 30-m sprint time, all 10-m section times and the calculated power output in the 10-m acceleration phase all improved by 2-3% (all P<.05). The pre- to post-test changes in 30-m sprint time and the initial 10-m time correlated significantly with the changes in 1RM for BP (r=0.59 and 0.55) and PD (r=0.60 and 0.68) (all P<.05). In conclusion, the results of this study strongly suggest that heavy upper-body strength training improves upper-body strength and ice sledge hockey sprint abilities, and that the magnitude of improvements in strength correlates with the improvements in sprint abilities., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)