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The rapidly increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity has heightened the need for a better understanding of obesity-related eating patterns and dietary behaviours. Recent work suggests that distracted eating is causally related to increased immediate and later food, pushing the need for a better understanding of the prevalence of distracted consumption and how this relates to body weight. To extract insights in the relationship between demographics, daily consumption settings, and BMI, we performed secondary data analyses on data from 1011 individuals representative of the Dutch population (adults, 507F, BMI 17–50 kg/m2). The most commonly reported distractions were talking to others (32.7%) and watching television (21.7%). Only 18.4% of respondents reported no distractions during meals. To examine how different distractions related to BMI, we performed OLS regression which showed, among other things, that watching tv while eating lunch (η2 = 0.37) and working during dinner were associated with a higher BMI (η2 = 1.63). To examine the robustness of these findings, machine learning techniques were used. A random forest analysis (RMSE = 4.09) showed that next to age and education level, distraction during lunch and snack was amongst the largest predictors of BMI. Multiple linear regression with lasso penalty (RMSE = 4.13) showed that specifically watching tv while eating lunch or snacks was associated with a higher BMI. In conclusion, our analyses confirmed the assumption that people are regularly distracted during their daily meals, with distinct distractors relating to BMI. These findings provide a starting point for evidence-based recommendations on which consumption settings are associated with healthier eating patterns and body weight.

Purpose of Review There is abundant evidence that food marketing influences children’s and adults’ food preferences and consumption. As such, exposure to unhealthy food marketing is a widely acknowledged risk factor contributing to the development of overweight and obesity. Less is known about the effects of healthy food promotion on people’s dietary behavior. This narrative review describes research from the past 5 years focused on the effects of healthy food marketing on children’s and adults’ food preferences and dietary intake. Our aim is to gain insight into the potential effects and mechanistic underpinnings of healthy food promotion, thereby building on existing knowledge on underlying mechanisms of the effectiveness of unhealthy food marketing. Recent Findings Only a small number of studies directly examined the effects of healthy food promotion on children’s and adults’ dietary behavior. Most studies targeted children’s fruit and/or vegetable intake and used a variety of marketing techniques, ranging from television adverts to social media influencer marketing. Six out of ten studies found a positive effect of healthy food promotion, indicating that healthy food marketing has the potential to influence dietary behavior. Summary Food marketing is highly effective in stimulating and reinforcing food consumption, in particular for energy-dense foods. Further investigation and experimentation into the efficiency and effectiveness of healthy food promotion are needed to determine how marketing techniques could be used to improve dietary behavior. The healthy food promotion model provides a framework for future research in this area.

Background The family environment plays an important role in the development of children’s energy balance–related behaviors. As a result, parents’ energy balance–related parenting practices are important targets of preventive childhood obesity programs. Families with a lower socioeconomic position (SEP) may benefit from participating in such programs but are generally less well reached than families with a higher SEP. Objective This paper describes the application of the Intervention Mapping Protocol (IMP) for the development of an app-based preventive intervention program to promote healthy energy balance–related parenting practices among parents of children (aged 0-4 years) with a lower SEP. Methods The 6 steps of the IMP were used as a theory- and evidence-based framework to guide the development of an app-based preventive intervention program. Results In step 1, behavioral outcomes for the app-based program (ie, children have a healthy dietary intake, sufficient sleep, and restricted screen time and sufficient physical activity) and sociocognitive (ie, knowledge, attitudes, and self-efficacy) and automatic (ie, habitual behaviors) determinants of energy balance–related parenting were identified through a needs assessment. In step 2, the behavioral outcomes were translated into performance objectives. To influence these objectives, in step 3, theory-based intervention methods were selected for each of the determinants. In step 4, the knowledge derived from the previous steps allowed for the development of the app-based program Samen Happie! through a process of continuous cocreation with parents and health professionals. In step 5, community health services were identified as potential adopters for the app. Finally, in step 6, 2 randomized controlled trials were designed to evaluate the process and effects of the app among Dutch parents of infants (trial 1) and preschoolers (trial 2). These trials were completed in November 2019 (trial 1) and February 2020 (trial 2). Conclusions The IMP allowed for the effective development of the app-based parenting program Samen Happie! to promote healthy energy balance–related parenting practices among parents of infants and preschoolers. Through the integration of theory, empirical evidence, and data from the target population, as well as the process of continued cocreation, the program specifically addresses parents with a lower SEP. This increases the potential of the program to prevent the development of obesity in early childhood among families with a lower SEP. Trial Registration Netherlands Trial Register NL6727, https://www.trialregister.nl/trial/6727; Netherlands Trial Register NL7371, https://www.trialregister.nl/trial/7371.

This paper describes the design of the LIKE programme, which aims to tackle the complex problem of childhood overweight and obesity in 10&ndash, 14-year-old adolescents using a systems dynamics and participatory approach. The LIKE programme focuses on the transition period from 10-years-old to teenager and was implemented in collaboration with the Amsterdam Healthy Weight Programme (AHWP) in Amsterdam-East, the Netherlands. The aim is to develop, implement and evaluate an integrated action programme at the levels of family, school, neighbourhood, health care and city. Following the principles of Participatory Action Research (PAR), we worked with our population and societal stakeholders as co-creators. Applying a system lens, we first obtained a dynamic picture of the pre-existing systems that shape adolescents&rsquo, behaviour relating to diet, physical activity, sleep and screen use. The subsequent action programme development was dynamic and adaptive, including quick actions focusing on system elements (quick evaluating, adapting and possibly catalysing further action) and more long-term actions focusing on system goals and/or paradigm change. The programme is supported by a developmental systems evaluation and the Intervention Level Framework, supplemented with routinely collected data on weight status and health behaviour change over a period of five years. In the coming years, we will report how this approach has worked to provide a robust understanding of the programme&rsquo, s effectiveness within a complex dynamic system. In the meantime, we hope our study design serves as a source of inspiration for other public health intervention studies in complex systems.

The school food environment plays a role in adolescents&rsquo, dietary behaviors. In this study, adolescents&rsquo, food purchasing patterns in and around school and its potential relationship with perceived maternal relationship support and maternal monitoring were examined. Data were collected in The Netherlands in 2017. A total of 726 adolescents (45.8% boys, Mage = 13.78 &plusmn, 0.49) and 713 mothers (Mage = 45.05 &plusmn, 4.45) participated. Adolescents&rsquo, frequency of bringing and purchasing foods was assessed via a Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ). Relationship support and monitoring were measured via self-report questionnaires. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was conducted to examine associations between adolescents&rsquo, food purchasing patterns, relationship support, and monitoring. Results indicated that adolescents brought food and drinks mostly from home, and infrequently purchased these products in and around school. Yet, differences exist between subgroups of adolescents. Relationship support was positively associated with bringing fruit, vegetables and salad and negatively associated with purchasing sweet snacks. No associations were found for monitoring. These findings indicate that family-home determinants of healthy and unhealthy eating are important factors to consider when examining the impact of the school food environment on adolescents&rsquo, food purchasing patterns. This has implications for policy makers who aim to develop and implement measures to improve adolescents&rsquo, eating in and around school.

Item does not contain fulltext Objective: Serious games are a promising venue to increase children's nutritional knowledge in an entertaining format. The aim of this study was to test the short-term effectiveness of the Alien Health Game, a videogame designed to teach elementary school children about nutrition and healthy food choices. Materials and Methods: To examine the effects of the Alien Health Game, an experimental design with a single between-subjects factor (experimental condition vs. active control condition) was used. A total of 108 Dutch children (10-13 years; 58 boys) were randomly assigned to either play Alien Health using the Kinect sensor for two consecutive days, for 1 hour of gameplay (experimental condition; n = 50), or a web-based nutrition game for the same period (active control condition; n = 58). Participants' nutritional knowledge was assessed at pretest, immediate, and at 2-week follow-up. Food intake was assessed at immediate and 2-week follow-up. Results: Participants who played Alien Health had better knowledge of the five most important macronutrients of foods at immediate posttest, but not at follow-up. Participants were better able to distinguish the healthier food item out of two options over time, but this effect did not differ for those in the experimental versus the active control condition. No differences in food intake, neither in the consumption of nutrient-dense or energy-dense foods, were found between children playing both games. Conclusion: A brief game-based intervention like the Alien Health Game has the potential to improve children's nutritional knowledge in the short term, but may not be strong enough to increase nutritional knowledge and actual eating behavior in the long term. Further investigation is warranted before this game is applied in future nutrition education programs. 11 p.

Background Eating rate is a basic determinant of appetite regulation: people who eat more slowly feel sated earlier and eat less. A high eating rate contributes to overeating and potentially to weight gain. Previous studies showed that an augmented fork that delivers real-time feedback on eating rate is a potentially effective intervention to decrease eating rate in naturalistic settings. This study assessed the impact of using the augmented fork during a 15-week period on eating rate and body weight. Methods In a parallel randomized controlled trial, 141 participants with overweight (age: 49.2 ± 12.3 y; BMI: 31.5 ± 4.48 kg/m2) were randomized to intervention groups (VFC, n = 51 or VFC+, n = 44) or control group (NFC, n = 46). First, we measured bite rate and success ratio on five consecutive days with the augmented fork without feedback (T1). The intervention groups (VFC, VFC+) then used the same fork, but now received vibrotactile feedback when they ate more than one bite per 10 s. Participants in VFC+ had additional access to a web portal with visual feedback. In the control group (NFC), participants ate with the fork without either feedback. The intervention period lasted four weeks, followed by a week of measurements only (T2) and another measurement week after eight weeks (T3). Body weight was assessed at T1, T2, and T3. Results Participants in VFC and VFC+ had a lower bite rate (p p p Conclusions The findings of this study indicate that an augmented fork with vibrotactile feedback is a viable tool to reduce eating rate in naturalistic settings. Further investigation may confirm that the augmented fork could support long-term weight loss strategies. Trial registration The research reported in this manuscript was registered on 4 November 2015 in the Netherlands Trial Register with number NL5432 (https://www.trialregister.nl/trial/5432).

Overweight is associated with a range of negative health consequences, such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, gastrointestinal disorders, and premature mortality.1 One means to combat overweight is through encouraging people to eat more slowly.2 People who eat quickly tend to consume more3, 4 and 5 and have a higher body mass index,6, 7, 8 and 9 whereas people who eat more slowly feel sated earlier and eat less.10, 11, 12 and 13. Unfortunately, eating rate is difficult to modify, because of its highly automatic nature.14 In clinical settings, researchers have had some success changing behavior by using devices that deliver feedback in real time.15, 16 and 17 However, existing technologies are either too cumbersome18 or not engaging enough19 for use in daily life contexts. Training people to eat more slowly in everyday eating contexts, therefore, requires creative and engaging solutions. This article presents a qualitative evaluation of the feasibility of a smart fork to decelerate eating rate in daily life contexts. Furthermore, we outline the planned research to test the efficacy of this device in both laboratory and community settings

Contains fulltext : 181057.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Closed access) Although parents often report positive intentions to promote and create a healthy food environment for their children (e.g., setting limits to snacks offered), they also experience difficulties in translating these intentions into actual behaviors. In this position paper, we argue that automatic processes explain an important part of the gap between parents' intentions and their actual food parenting behaviors. We provide a conceptual framework in which we hypothesize that automatic effects on food parenting occur through two key interrelated constructs: habits (key outcome construct) and volitional regulation behaviors (key mediating construct). Moreover, we discuss potentially important impulse-focused techniques that may directly change habits (e.g., nudging; inhibitory control training) or indirectly through volitional regulation behaviors (e.g., implementation intentions; mental contrasting). We make use of the literature on the role of intention-behavior discordance in general health behaviors and discuss implications for food parenting practices. Our framework provides a dual process view towards food parenting and may help to explain when and why parents are likely to engage in (un)healthy food parenting behaviors. In addition, this framework may hopefully stimulate research on (combinations of old and) new techniques to promote good food parenting behaviors. 10 p.

Background and Aims The self-control strength model suggests that exertion of self-control leads to poorer subsequent self-control performance. Failure of self-control has been suggested as an important underlying mechanism of excessive drinking. This study tested the effects of self-control failure on ad libitum drinking, and the potential moderating role of glucose and self-awareness on this relationship. Design The current research examined in two experiments whether the effects of self-control failure were different for males and females, and whether glucose (experiment 1)andself-awareness(experiment2)wouldcounteracttheeffectsof self-controlfailure.Abetween-participantsdesign with four conditions was employed in each experiment. Setting A semi-naturalistic drinking setting in the form of a laboratory bar. Participants Undergraduate students recruited at Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands (experiment 1: n = 106; experiment 2: n = 108). Measurements The total amount of alcohol consumed during an experimental break (observational data) and questionnaire data on drinking patterns. Findings Self-control failure led to increased levels of drinking in males (P < 0.05), whereas females drank less after being depleted (P < 0.01). Self-awareness, but not glucose, was found to counteract the effects of self-control failure among males (P < 0.05). Conclusions Self-control failure leads to increased drinking of alcohol in males and decreased levels of drinking alcohol in females. However, increasing self-awareness appears to be a promising strategy in facing the temptation to drink when cognitive resources to inhibit intake are low.

In dit artikel bespreken we in drie pilotstudies een nieuwe preventiemethode om middelengebruik van jongeren te verminderen. Het doel was om een herinnerings-‘cue’ (de Power Button) te koppelen aan een preventieboodschap in een voorlichtingsfilm, waardoor jongeren in daadwerkelijke drink- en rooksituaties minder consumeren wanneer ze geconfronteerd worden met deze cue. Dat het mogelijk is een associatie te creeren tussen een herinnerings-cue en een preventieboodschap over middelengebruik, laten de bevindingen uit studie 1 en 2 zien. Uit studie 3 bleek dat het tonen van de herinnerings-cue in een bar inderdaad leidde tot minder alcoholgebruik, maar alleen bij studenten die zeer frequent alcohol dronken. Concluderend laten deze studies zien dat het aanbrengen van actieve herinnerings-cues in risicovolle sociale situaties kan helpen om jongeren te herinneren aan een preventieboodschap, wat vervolgens kan leiden tot minder middelengebruik onder frequente drinkers.

Item does not contain fulltext Eating rate is a basic determinant of appetite regulation, as people who eat more slowly feel sated earlier and eat less. Without assistance, eating rate is difficult to modify due to its automatic nature. In the current study, participants used an augmented fork that aimed to decelerate their rate of eating. A total of 114 participants were randomly assigned to the Feedback Condition (FC), in which they received vibrotactile feedback from their fork when eating too fast (i.e., taking more than one bite per 10 s), or a Non-Feedback Condition (NFC). Participants in the FC took fewer bites per minute than did those in the NFC. Participants in the FC also had a higher success ratio, indicating that they had significantly more bites outside the designated time interval of 10 s than did participants in the NFC. A slower eating rate, however, did not lead to a significant reduction in the amount of food consumed or level of satiation. These findings indicate that real-time vibrotactile feedback delivered through an augmented fork is capable of reducing eating rate, but there is no evidence from this study that this reduction in eating rate is translated into an increase in satiation or reduction in food consumption. Overall, this study shows that real-time vibrotactile feedback may be a viable tool in interventions that aim to reduce eating rate. The long-term effectiveness of this form of feedback on satiation and food consumption, however, awaits further investigation. 7 p.

Contains fulltext : 116733.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Closed access) Numerous studies have shown that people adjust their intake directly to that of their eating companions. A potential explanation for this modelling effect is that the eating behaviour of others operates as an external eating cue that stimulates food intake. The present study explored whether this cue-reactive mechanism can account for modelling effects on intake. It was investigated whether attentional bias towards dynamic eating cues and impulsivity would influence the degree of modelling. Participants completed one individual session and one session in which an experimental confederate accompanied them. In the first session, eye movements were recorded as an index of attentional bias to dynamic eating cues. In addition, self-reported impulsivity and response inhibition were assessed. The second session employed a between-participants design with three experimental conditions in which participants were exposed to a same-sex confederate instructed to eat nothing, a low or a large amount of M&Ms. A total of eighty-five young women participated. The participants' self-reported impulsivity determined the occurrence of modelling; only low-impulsive women adjusted their intake to that of their eating companion. Attention towards eating cues and response inhibition, however, did not moderate modelling of food intake. The present study suggests that cue-reactive mechanisms may not underlie modelling of food intake. Instead, the results emphasise the importance of social norms in explaining modelling effects, whereas it is suggested that the degree of impulsivity may play a role in whether or not women adhere to the intake norms set by their eating companion.

Social modeling effects on young women’s breakfast intake Numerous studies have shown that the presence of others influences young women’s food intake. They eat more when the other eats more, and eat less when the other eats less. However, most of these studies have focused on snack situations. The present study assesses the degree to which young women model the breakfast intake of a same-sex peer in a semi-naturalistic setting. The study took place in a laboratory setting at the Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands, during the period January – April 2009. After completing three cover tasks, normal-weight participants (N=57) spent a 20-min break with a peer who ate a large amount or a small amount of breakfast or no breakfast at all. The participants’ total amount of energy consumed (in kilocalories) during the break was measured. An analysis of variance was used to examine whether young women modeled the breakfast intake of same-sex peers. Results indicate a main effect of breakfast condition, (F(2,54)=8.44, p

Item does not contain fulltext This study examined whether young men adjusted their snack-food intake to that of a same-sex eating companion. Additionally, hunger was assessed as a possible moderating variable. A total of 59 young men (M age = 21.73) participated. An interaction between participants’ hunger and confederate's intake on the total amount of snack food (in grams) consumed was found. Only those males who were hungry at the start of the experiment modeled the intake of their eating companion. This finding suggests that hunger may play an important role in explaining the magnitude of social modeling among young men.

Modeling of palatable food intake in female young adults: Effects of perceived body size Aims: To examine whether normal-weight young women model the food intake of another woman and to what extent this modeling effect is moderated by the weight-status of the other person. Design and participants: An experimental design with a three (confederate’s M&M intake: high, low, none) by two (confederate's weight status: slim, normal weight) factorial design. A total of 102 normal-weight women aged 18 to 30 were exposed to a same-sex confederate and were observed in a living-room setting. Measurements: Food intake was observed during a 15-min break between two tasks. Findings: A significant interaction effect was found between the intake and weight manipulation of the confederate, showing that the modeling effect was only found in the normal-weight appearance condition. Conclusion: Normal-weight young women are more inclined to imitate the food intake of a female confederate when they are more similar in physical appearance to the confederate.

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Contains fulltext : 150409.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Closed access) There is evidence that perceived peer eating norms can influence dietary behaviour. This cross-sectional study examined whether certain personality traits increase the likelihood that personal eating habits are similar to perceived peer eating habits. We assessed frequency of consumption of sugar-sweetened soda (SSS) and sweet pastries (SP), as well as perceived peer descriptive eating norms for SSS and SP in a group of 1056 young adults. We examined whether individual differences in the need for social acceptance and self-control moderated whether participants were likely to display similar dietary habits to their peers. Perceived peer eating norms for SSS and SP predicted frequency of consumption; believing that one’s peers frequently consumed SSS and SP was associated with increased personal consumption for both. Individuals with low self-control, as opposed to high self-control, were more likely to adhere to peer norms for SP, but not for SSS. Trait social acceptance needs did not significantly moderate similarity between peer norms and personal consumption for either SSS or SP. The extent to which young adults adhere to descriptive peer dietary norms may depend upon self-control, whereby individuals with low self-control are less able to inhibit social influence of descriptive peer norms on dietary behaviour. 12 p.

Item does not contain fulltext The current research focused on the influence of informational eating norms on people's food intake, and examined whether this influence was moderated by participants' self-construal levels. In two experiments, a two (intake norm manipulation: low vs. high) by two (self-construal manipulation: interdependent versus independent) between-participant factorial design was used. The studies were conducted in Brazil (Experiment 1) and in Germany (Experiment 2) as participants' self-construal levels differ between these countries. In Experiment 1, results indicated that participants exposed to a high-intake norm ate more than participants exposed to a low intake norm. However, self-construal was not found to moderate the influence of food intake norms on participants' intake. In Experiment 2, replicating the results of Experiment 1, exposure to a high-intake norm increased participants' food intake, but self-construals again did not moderate modelling effects on food intake. Although differences in individuals' self-construal were found between both countries, they did not affect the magnitude of modelling effects on eating. Our studies provide evidence for cross-cultural similarity in the extent to which Brazilian and German female young adults are vulnerable to modelling effects on food intake, independent on their self-construal.

Contains fulltext : 139796.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Closed access) A major determinant of human eating behavior is social modeling, whereby people use others' eating as a guide for what and how much to eat. We review the experimental studies that have independently manipulated the eating behavior of a social referent (either through a live confederate or remotely) and measured either food choice or intake. Sixty-nine eligible experiments (with over 5800 participants) were identified that were published between 1974 and 2014. Speaking to the robustness of the modeling phenomenon, 64 of these studies have found a statistically significant modeling effect, despite substantial diversity in methodology, food type, social context and participant demographics. In reviewing the key findings from these studies, we conclude that there is limited evidence for a moderating effect of hunger, personality, age, weight or the presence of others (i.e., where the confederate is live vs. remote). There is inconclusive evidence for whether sex, attention, impulsivity and eating goals moderate modeling, and for whether modeling of food choice is as strong as modeling of food intake. Effects with substantial evidence were: modeling is increased when individuals desire to affiliate with the model, or perceive themselves to be similar to the model; modeling is attenuated (but still significant) for healthy-snack foods and meals such as breakfast and lunch, and modeling is at least partially mediated through behavioral mimicry, which occurs without conscious awareness. We discuss evidence suggesting that modeling is motivated by goals of both affiliation and uncertainty-reduction, and outline how these might be theoretically integrated. Finally, we argue for the importance of taking modeling beyond the laboratory and bringing it to bear on the important societal challenges of obesity and disordered eating. 14 p.

Item does not contain fulltext BACKGROUND The purpose of this study was to examine the association between adolescents' body mass index (BMI) z-scores and their subsequent level of schooling, extending previous longitudinal research by using objectively measured weight and height data. METHODS A longitudinal study with 3 study waves (1-year intervals) involving 1248 Dutch adolescents (49% girls; mean age = 13.7 years) at schools providing different educational levels was used to determine adolescents who moved and did not move to a lower educational level in the first year, or in the second year, and to examine whether this movement could be predicted by BMI z-scores (zBMI), after controlling for a large range of potential confounding factors. RESULTS A total of 1164 Dutch adolescents continued in the same level of education, whereas 84 adolescents moved to a lower educational level (43 moved in the first and 41 in the second year). A higher zBMI significantly increased the risk of a general transition to a lower educational level, and of a transition in the first year, but not in the second year, after controlling for potential demographic, behavioral, and psychological confounds. CONCLUSIONS Findings suggest that a higher zBMI during adolescence immediately lowers educational achievement level during general secondary education. 8 p.

Contains fulltext : 132787.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Closed access) To prevent harmful drinking, it is essential to understand factors that promote alcohol use at an early age. The aim of the present study was to examine the role of parental alcohol use in children's selection of alcoholic beverages in a virtual reality (VR) environment and their intentions to drink in the future. Participants were 7-13-year-old children (N = 127) who filled out questionnaires and participated in a VR computer game paradigm in which they were asked to select food and beverages for their parents and themselves. Children's selection of alcoholic beverages and their intentions to drink alcohol in the future were measured. Children who reported heavier parental drinking selected more alcoholic beverages for their parents and displayed greater intentions to drink alcohol. Children's responses in virtual reality explained incremental variance in children's intentions to drink. Implications and limitations are discussed.

Item does not contain fulltext One's decisions about eating are at times, largely based on the observations of other people's eating behavior. Previous studies have shown that modeling of eating is a robust effect. The current research examined the impact of a video remote confederate on young women's food intake. Experiment 1 examined the effect of an eating or non-eating video confederate. Participants (N = 77 female undergraduate students. M age = 20.29) were exposed to a same-sex video confederate (i.e., a 25 year old woman) who was modeling eating (i.e., 4 winegums; pastille-type sweets) or not eating (i.e. no food visible). Results indicated that participants exposed to the eating confederate did not eat more than participants exposed to the non-eating confederate. Experiment 2 was conducted to address some of the limitations of Experiment 1. In this experiment, participants (N=51, M age = 20.43) were exposed to one of three intake conditions: No-eating (i.e. food visible but not consumed), Small portion-size condition ( i.e.. 8 M&Ms) or Large portion-size condition (i.e., 20 M&Ms). The same video confederate as in Experiment 1 modeled these three conditions. Results indicated that participants did not adjust their intake to that of a video model. The current findings provide preliminary evidence for the assumption that modeling only exists if people have clear indications about how much others have consumed in the same context (as was the case in previous modeling studies). Future research is needed to further examine this proposition.

Item does not contain fulltext Obesity during childhood and adolescence is a growing problem in the United States, Canada, and around the world that leads to significant physical, psychological, and social consequences. Peer experiences have been theoretically and empirically related to the “Big Two” contributors to the obesity epidemic, unhealthy eating and physical inactivity [1]. In this article, we synthesize the empirical literature on the influence of peers and friends on youth's eating and physical activity. Limitations and issues in the theoretical and empirical literatures are also discussed, along with future research directions. In conclusion, we argue that the involvement of children's and adolescents' peer networks in prevention and intervention efforts may be critical for promoting and maintaining positive behavioral health trajectories. However, further theoretical and empirical work is needed to better understand the specific mechanisms underlying the effects of peers on youth's eating and physical activity.

Item does not contain fulltext The present study experimentally tested whether the effect of olfactory food-cue exposure on young women’s food intake was moderated by the duration of the cue exposure and trait impulsivity. The study employed a 2 (food-cue exposure: smell of baked cookies present vs. no-smell present) by 2 (duration of cue exposure: short-term vs. long-term) between-participants design. Participants were 109 normal-weight young women (mean age = 21.6 years) whose food intake was examined during a bogus taste-test. Additional saliva measures were taken during food-cue exposure. Results showed that the duration of the cue exposure did not affect intake. Impulsivity moderated intake, but not saliva flow. Low impulsive females consumed more food when confronted with an olfactory food-cue, whereas high-impulsive females did not eat more after food-cue exposure. Our findings may be explained by the fact that we did not instruct our participants to pay attention to the olfactory food-cue. Results indicate that even people who are normally well controlled are susceptible to the effects of less explicit olfactory food-cues. 7 p.

Contains fulltext : 102702.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Open Access) Numerous studies have shown that people adjust their intake directly to that of their eating companions; they eat more when others eat more, and less when others inhibit intake. A potential explanation for this modeling effect is that both eating companions' food intake becomes synchronized through processes of behavioral mimicry. No study, however, has tested whether behavioral mimicry can partially account for this modeling effect. To capture behavioral mimicry, real-time observations of dyads of young females having an evening meal were conducted. It was assessed whether mimicry depended on the time of the interaction and on the person who took the bite. A total of 70 young female dyads took part in the study, from which the total number of bites (N = 3,888) was used as unit of analyses. For each dyad, the total number of bites and the exact time at which each person took a bite were coded. Behavioral mimicry was operationalized as a bite taken within a fixed 5-second interval after the other person had taken a bite, whereas non-mimicked bites were defined as bites taken outside the 5-second interval. It was found that both women mimicked each other's eating behavior. They were more likely to take a bite of their meal in congruence with their eating companion rather than eating at their own pace. This behavioral mimicry was found to be more prominent at the beginning than at the end of the interaction. This study suggests that behavioral mimicry may partially account for social modeling of food intake. 6 p.

Portion size and the intake of others have been found to influence people's food intake. No study, however, has tested the potential influences of both types of situational norms on intake during the same eating occasion. We experimentally tested the effects of manipulating portion size and the intake of others on young women's meal intake during a 20 min eating opportunity. An experimental design with a three (confederate's intake: small, standard, large) by two (portion size: small, standard) between-participants design was used. A total of eighty-five young women participated. Portion size and the confederate's intake both influenced young women's intake. Participants consumed more when offered a larger portion than when offered a smaller portion, and they also ate more when their eating companion ate more. The present results indicate that the effects of portion size and the intake of others were independent but additive. Thus, both types of situational norms might independently guide an individual's intake during a single eating occasion.

Item does not contain fulltext Numerous studies have shown that the presence of others influences young women's food intake. They eat more when the other eats more, and eat less when the other eats less. However, most of these studies have focused on snack situations. The present study assesses the degree to which young women model the breakfast intake of a same-sex peer in a semi-naturalistic setting. The study took place in a laboratory setting at the Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands, during the period January to April 2009. After completing three cover tasks, normal-weight participants (n=57) spent a 20-minute break with a peer who ate a large amount or a small amount of breakfast or no breakfast at all. The participants' total amount of energy consumed (in kilocalories) during the break was measured. An analysis of variance was used to examine whether young women modeled the breakfast intake of same-sex peers. Results indicate a main effect of breakfast condition, F(2,54)=8.44; P

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Item does not contain fulltext We examined whether a same-sex peer's vegetable consumption would predict the number of vegetable pieces eaten by the participant. A total of 116 Dutch women (M age = 20.28; M BMI = 21.68) participated. Their nutrient-dense food intake was measured during a 15-min break between two tasks, consisting of rating television advertisements. Participants consumed more vegetables when exposed to a peer eating a large number of vegetables than when exposed to a peer eating a small number or nothing. These findings suggest that social modeling processes may be relevant to interventions aimed at encouraging young women's nutrient-dense food intake.

Item does not contain fulltext Aims: Alcohol portrayal in movies and commercials is generally positive and might stimulate young people to drink. We tested experimentally whether portrayal of alcohol images in movies and commercials on television promotes actual drinking. Methods: In a naturalistic setting (a bar lab), young adult male pairs watched a movie clip for 1 h with two commercial breaks and were allowed to drink non-alcohol and alcoholic beverages. These participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions varying on the type of movie (many versus few alcohol portrayals) and commercials (alcohol commercials present or not). Results: Participants assigned to the conditions with substantial alcohol exposure in either movies or commercials consume more alcohol than other participants. Those in the condition with alcohol portrayal in movie and commercials drank on average 1.5 glasses more than those in the condition with no alcohol portrayal, within a period of 1 h. Conclusions: This study—for the first time—shows a causal link between exposure to drinking models and alcohol commercials on acute alcohol consumption.

This study investigates the effects of the quality of social interaction on modeling of food intake among young women. A two (confederate's food intake: high versus low) by two (confederate's sociability: sociable versus unsociable) between-participant factorial design was employed. A total of 100 young women (18-27 years) participated. Findings indicated that young women generally ate more when exposed to a high-intake peer than women exposed to a low-intake peer. However, this modeling effect was only found in the unsociable context. This study underscores the influence of social atmosphere on modeling effects of palatable food intake and suggests that contextual uncertainty or ingratiation strategies may be important in explaining the magnitude of modeling effects.

Item does not contain fulltext Laboratory taste-test studies have shown that social modeling effects on food intake are powerful. The aim of the present study was to examine the degree to which people model food intake in a more naturalistic eating setting. After completing a cover task, female participants (N = 102) spent a 15-min break with a female confederate who ate a large amount or a small amount of M&Ms or no M&Ms at all. Further, the confederate had a slim or (subtly manipulated) normal-weight appearance. Females who were exposed to a confederate who ate much consumed more than those who were confronted with a confederate who ate only a little or nothing at all. Although the manipulation of the confederate's appearance had no significant main effect on the amount of food that participants consumed, a significant interaction effect was found, such that the modeling effect of eating was present only in the normal-weight appearance condition. Our findings suggest that normal-weight young women are more inclined to imitate the food intake of a female confederate if they are more similar to the confederate.

Item does not contain fulltext Numerous experimental studies have already demonstrated that people adjust their food intake to that of their eating companions. Until now, these studies have mostly used a normative framework to explain why people eat more or less when their eating companions eat more or less. Another possibility, however, is that social modeling processes may be caused by behavioral mimicry, whereby the food intake of one person triggers a mimicked response by the other person. In the current study, we investigated whether young women synchronize their intake (in bites) to that of their same-sex eating companion, a process that may be linked to behavioral mimicry. We observed and coded both the participant's and confederate's timing of bites taken during a 20-min eating opportunity. Synchronization was operationalized as participant's bite within 5 s after a confederate's bite. A total of 72 young women (mainly university students) participated. Analyses reveal that participants' synchronize their intake to that of their eating companion. That is, they are likely to take a bite directly after their eating companion has done so. This may suggest that people not only model the overall intake of their eating companion, but also synchronize their intake patterns (in bites) to that of their eating companion. 1 p.

Item does not contain fulltext One of the proposed mechanisms underlying social modeling of food intake is that people, in absence of clear guidelines, use the intake of the other person as a source of normative information about how much they can eat themselves. Although social modeling effects have proven to be very powerful, they have been observed primarily in situations in which participants ate snacks and the appropriate amount to eat may be unclear. Breakfast consumption is a stable and habitual eating behavior within individuals for which a pre-existing norm for appropriate intake appears to exist. Main aim of this study is to examine social modeling effects on young women's breakfast intake in a semi-naturalistic setting. An experimental-observational paradigm was used in which we varied the confederate’ breakfast intake during a 20-min break in between two cover tasks. A total of 61 Dutch women (M age = 21.22; M BMI = 20.73) participated. We found that participants consumed less energy when exposed to a peer eating nothing than when exposed to a peer eating a small or large amount of breakfast. Our results indicate a substantial inhibition effect of young women's breakfast intake when they are confronted with a same-sex companion eating nothing. 1 p.