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Although contemporary business-to-business (B2B) sales organizations are shifting toward synergistic and holistic selling approaches, some salespeople possess Lone Wolf Tendencies (LWT)--a psychological preference for working alone. Existing research in this area embraces the viewpoint that lone wolf characteristics are intrinsic and that some salespeople are predisposed to LWT before beginning their career. The present study tests an alternative explanation--whether LWT may be influenced by the organizational sales environment. Specifically, this study examines the impact of sales control systems (i.e., organizational rewards and punishments) and the moderating role of gender on salesperson bottom-line mentality (BLM) and LWT. The research questions are tested with a sample of 264 B2B salespeople using structural equation modeling. The results support the hypothesized relationships, revealing that using output-based control systems can contribute to salesperson BLM and LWT. Keywords: salesperson, sales management, control systems, lone wolf tendencies, bottom-line mentality, The mystery behind salesperson success has fascinated marketing scholars and practitioners alike. Although previous research provides insights into the individual traits (Greenberg and Mayer, 1964), organizational factors (Walker et al., [...]

Is a customer orientation universally effective for salespeople? Or does its effectiveness depend on the selling situation? While previous research has largely neglected this question, this study investigates contextual influences on the link between customer-oriented behaviors and customer loyalty. To do so, it takes a role theory perspective on salesperson customer orientation by distinguishing functional customer orientation and relational customer orientation. It then investigates which type of customer orientation is more effective with regard to establishing and maintaining customer loyalty, given the specific situation. Here, the authors analyze the moderating impact of a customer's communication style (task orientation and interaction orientation) and specific characteristics of a supplier's products (product individuality, importance, complexity, and brand strength). Multilevel analysis of triadic data from a cross-industry survey of 56 sales managers, 195 sales representatives, and 538 customers provides empirical support for positive, non significant, and even adverse effects of salespeople's customer-oriented behaviors on customer loyalty, depending on contextual variables. Keywords Personal selling. Customer orientation. Buyer-seller relationships. Customer loyalty. Multilevel modeling, The customer orientation of customer contact employees is very important to the implementation of the marketing concept (Martin and Bush 2006). A rich stream of research provides evidence that it [...]

This study examines the performance implications that organizations may suffer when their salespeople develop negative stereotypes of their corporate headquarters. How such stereotypes can be remedied through managerial action is also examined. The study draws on matched data from four different sources: sales managers, salespeople, customers, and company reports. Findings indicate that negative headquarters stereotypes among salespeople are associated with poor marketing-related performance across a range of outcomes, including salespeople's adherence to corporate strategy, their customer orientation, and their sales performance. Findings also show that negative headquarters stereotypes can be remedied through managerial action, but more so at the corporate management level than at the sales unit level. Keywords Stereotypes * Salespeople * Sales management. Corporate headquarters * Customer orientation, Introduction In our local sales organization, our salespeople believe that our headquarters personnel are too comfortable in their fancy offices and have no clue about what customers are saying. This [...]

This research focuses on the impact of leadership empowerment behavior (LEB) on customer service satisfaction and sales performance, as mediated by salespeople's self-efficacy and adaptability. Moreover, the authors propose an interactive relationship whereby LEB will be differentially effective as a function of employees' empowerment readiness. The authors' hypotheses are tested using survey data from a sample of 231 salespeople in the pharmaceutical field, along with external ratings of satisfaction from 864 customers and archival sales performance information. Results indicated that contrary to popular belief, employees with low levels of product/industry knowledge and low experience benefit the most from leadership behaviors that are empowering, whereas high knowledge and experienced employees reap no clear benefit. The authors conclude with directions for future research and application. Keywords: empowerment, experience, salespeople, self-efficacy, job performance

Byline: Eric G. Harris (1), James M. Lee (2) Keywords: personality; salesperson; employee selection; hierarchical models Abstract: Recent research indicates that managers are not aware of the latest developments in theory regarding the use of personality inventories in personnel selection decisions. This article presents a systematic approach to selecting traits for use in personnel selection that is based on recent developments in hierarchical personality models. Results from a study of real estate sales associates indicate that the new approach does have much to offer the area. Results are discussed along with managerial implications. Author Affiliation: (1) College of Business, University of South Florida--Lakeland, 3433 Winter Lake Road, Lakeland, FL, 33803-9714, USA (2) University of Tampa, USA Article History: Registration Date: 23/12/2004

We ask the question, 'when should the most highly skilled salespeople sell the best products?' Our main result is that the highly skilled reps should sell better products when the [...]

The previous experience in sales of Japanese car salesmen has a moderating influence on the relationship between their procedural knowledge and their selling performance.

Byline: Matthew S. O'Connell (1), Keith Hattrup (2), Dennis Doverspike (3), Alana Cober (4) Keywords: role simulations; retail; Mexican; validity; sales performance; biodata Abstract: The use of 'mini' role play simulations was proposed as a means of collecting predictor data in a low-cost, time-efficient, and reliable manner. Mini role play simulations were developed for the purpose of measuring sales ability. In order to evaluate the efficacy of using the mini role play simulations, a concurrent validation study was conducted with 94 salespeople from a large, Mexican retail chain. Results indicated that the simulations significantly predicted performance and also added to the prediction of performance after controlling for a biodata instrument. Author Affiliation: (1) Select International, Inc, USA (2) San Diego State University, USA (3) Psychology Department, University of Akron, Akron, OH, 44325 (4) University of Akron, USA Article History: Registration Date: 16/10/2004

Byline: George W. Watson (1), Steven D. Papamarcos (2) Keywords: social capital; organizational commitment; trust; communication; employee focus Abstract: Organizational scientists have been investigating the role of human relationships vis-a-vis firm productivity for some years. Recently, Social Capital has been theorized to play a central part in the reduction of organizational transaction costs. We briefly position Social Capital among several theories claiming a role for interpersonal capital, review its theoretical nuances, and test this theoretical structure using a sample of 469 sales professionals from a leading medical services firm. Our findings indicate that trust, communication, and employee focus have significant direct and moderate indirect affects on organizational commitment. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Management, University of South Florida, 10416 Greenmont Drive, Tampa, FL, 33626 (2) St. John's University, USA Article History: Registration Date: 16/10/2004

Three studies investigated the relationships among employees' perception of supervisor support (PSS), perceived organizational support (POS), and employee turnover. Study 1 found, with 314 employees drawn from a variety of organizations, that PSS was positively related to temporal change in POS, suggesting that PSS leads to POS. Study 2 established, with 300 retail sales employees, that the PSS-POS relationship increased with perceived supervisor status in the organization. Study 3 found, with 493 retail sales employees, evidence consistent with the view that POS completely mediated a negative relationship between PSS and employee turnover. These studies suggest that supervisors, to the extent that they are identified with the organization, contribute to POS and, ultimately, to job retention.

Byline: Sandra McKay (1), Uday Tate (2) Keywords: gender; bias; performance evaluations Abstract: This study examined how students believe salesperson gender impacts evaluations of salesperson performance. Students reviewed job performance information about either male or female salespeople. The information had purportedly been prepared by the salesperson's supervisor and indicated the level of performance as high or low. Students were asked how they thought the salesperson's supervisor might respond to the performance in terms of rewards (promotion, pay increases) for high performers and corrective measures (termination, counseling) for low performers. The results indicated that students believe that supervisors would more readily reward high performing males than females with identical performances. In contrast, students believed that supervisors would react more punitively toward low performing males than females with identical performances. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Marketing and Finance, Southeastern Louisiana University, Hammond, LA, 70402 (2) Southeastern Louisiana University, USA Article History: Registration Date: 17/10/2004

Researchers have suggested that service orientation is an aspect of personality that affects service performance. Four studies were done to explore the effect of personality on customer service behavior among frontline sales personnel in a fast-food convenience store chain. An exploratory qualitative study with customers, store managers, and salespeople showed that there was consistency in the trait descriptors used to describe superior service providers. Another study validated scales that measure the personality constructs (extroversion, adjustment, and agreeableness) underlying trait descriptors noted in the exploratory study. Finally, the results of two studies showed that personality does influence customer service and that superior service providers tend to be higher in extroversion and agreeableness. The magnitude of the effect of personality in services and recommendations for future research concerning personality and performance in service roles are discussed. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

A model was developed to assess the impact of personal values on the job responses of salespeople and to study its managerial implications in an international salesforce setting. The values typology model showed that the salespeople's values have minor impacts on job performance, organizational commitment and reward valences. This conclusion is due to the similarity in sales and marketing environment and history of the study areas.

A thorough understanding of how businesses gain and maintain long-term relationships with clients is critical in today's environment. This study develops a scale for salesperson listening behavior and investigates the impact of customers' perceptions of salespeople's listening behavior on trust, satisfaction, and anticipation of future interaction. A structural equations model is developed and empirically tested using a sample of new car buyers. The research results suggest that listening is a higher-order construct composed of three dimensions: (a) sensing, (b) evaluating, and (c) responding. When customers perceive a high level of listening behavior by a salesperson, it enhances their trust in the salesperson and leads to greater anticipation of future interaction. Implications and future research issues are discussed. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

This study provides a multiple-levels-of-analysis investigation of transformational and contingent reward leadership and outcomes involving female leaders. We tested multisource data from male and female salespersons and their female sales managers for individual-, dyad-, and group-level effects via within and between analysis (WABA). As hypothesized, the associations of interest were based on differences between dyads. Each female leader formed a unique relationship with each subordinate that was independent of their group membership. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

An increasing number of firms are sharing a sales force between multiple divisions of their companies. Although this practice may increase organizational efficiency by reducing unit selling costs, it is not clear how it affects outcomes at the level of the individual salesperson. This study examines the effects of sharing a sales force between multiple divisions on salespeople's role perceptions, satisfaction, and performance. The results indicate that sharing is associated with higher levels of role stress and lower levels of work satisfaction and nonfinancial performance. The association between sharing and financial performance is not significant. Formalization and centralization of the sales organization moderate the relationships between sharing and the outcome variables. Higher levels of formalization lessen the effects of sharing on salespeople's role conflict, role ambiguity, and work satisfaction. Conversely, higher levels of centralization exacerbate the effects of sharing on role ambiguity and work satisfaction. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

A study was conducted to investigate the impact of subordinate and supervisor age on objective and subjective performance ratings. Data over the 1980-1986 time period were integrated and one performance review was randomly selected for each sales representative/supervisor dyad. This procedure netted a final sample size of 122 sales representative/supervisor dyads. Findings demonstrated that older employees gave better performance based on objective measures and subjective performance ratings. Results also showed that subordinates of older supervisors had higher levels of objective performance when compared to subordinates of younger supervisors. Recommendations for theory development and experimental studies are discussed.

The area of job attitudes (e.g. role conflict, role ambiguity, job satisfaction and sales performance) has recently received considerable attention from researchers (Brown and Peterson, 1993; 1994; Jaworski and Kohli, [...]

The purpose of this study was to refine understanding of transformational leadership theory by a specification and test of boundary conditions. Multiple levels of analysis (individual, dyad, and group) were used to identify conceptually and assess empirically the potential bounds on transformational leadership theory. Multi-source data were collected from a sample of 105 salespersons and their 33 sales supervisors, and within and between analysis (WABA) procedures were conducted. Contrary t higher-level (dyad, group) and cross-level assertions in the literature, transformational leadership results were based solely on individual differences. That is, in this sales setting, transformational leadership theory was determined to be an individual-level theory bounded by individuals' (superiors' and subordinates') perceptions and not holding at higher levels of analysis. Implications of the findings for future leadership research and practice are discussed. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

Research on the motivation of salespeople is abundant but there are few empirical studies examining the differences in motivation of sales personnel from different countries. A study on motivational perceptions among US, Japanese and Korean salespersons is reported. There are distinctive differences among US salespeople and Asian salespeople. There were few motivational distinctions between Japanese and Korean salespersons.

The relationship between behavioral intentions and the turnover of salespeople is studied through the testing of three turnover models of Mobley. The chosen model predicts that the thought of quitting predicts intention of leaving; the intention of leaving would predict the intention to search for jobs and the intention to search would predict a turnover. It was concluded that researchers should study the determinants of searching for another job separately from the intention of leaving. Salespeople may actually have the intention of quitting and yet stay on the job for an indefinite period of time.

The effectiveness of sales assistance in different situations was evaluated to determine when sales assistance should be used. A model was created in which a consumer's needs are determined by particular situations; products are differentiated; and the sales assistant alone knows the map identifying the best match between a product and a consumer's situation. Results show that when the number of possible situations is large, the procedure wherein the consumer reveals needs and the sales assistant finds the best matching product is the most effective.