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In object counting, objects often exhibit different sizes at different scales, even if they have similar physical sizes in reality. This is particularly true when targeting crowd counting and vehicle counting in intelligent transportation. Failing to model such variations leads to the mismatch between the object size and image scale. To address this problem, existing methods often extract multi-scale features, but they either still generate the single-scale prediction or lack an explicit suppression mechanism to eliminate predictions engendered by inappropriate scales. Our scale analysis manifests that, the single-scale estimation only works well for objects of certain sizes, and a suppression operator is required to isolate the estimation of a specific scale. In this work, we propose a scale-aware counting network termed NSSNet. NSSNet has two key features: it not only i) generates multi-scale predictions but also ii) applies a novel non-scale suppression (NSS) operator to suppress scale-mismatched estimations. NSS is inspired by the widely-used non-maximum suppression (NMS). In contrast to NMS that only reserves the maximum response, NSS filters out those clearly wrong predictions (the remaining predictions may still be from multiple scales). We evaluate NSSNet on four standard crowd and vehicle counting benchmarks and report state-of-the-art performance. We also show the scale adaptability of NSSNet through a controlled multi-scale experiment. Code and pretrained models are available at https://git.io/nssnet.

To deeply knowledge of the flow behaviors of pulverized coal particles in dense gas–solid two-phase flow, a multi-scale analysis method based on electrostatic sensor array is applied for the multi-scale characterization of flow behaviors of dense gas–solid flow. The experimental results indicate that: for steady flow, with the increment of conveying pressure difference, the individual particles increase and the particle clusters decrease, the individual particle distribution is always inhomogeneous but the particle cluster distribution tends to be more homogeneous over the cross-section of pipe, while the average flow behavior of pulverized coal particles is always in the relatively static state. For unsteady flow, the average flow behavior of pulverized coal particles is dynamic, and the flow behaviors of the multi-scale flow structures over the cross-section of pipe are all significantly inhomogeneous. Moreover, the effect of particle size on flow behavior of pulverized coal is also investigated and validated.

This study examines the intrinsic relationship between land degradation and the accumulation of wealth at various planning scales in Italy, a desertification hotspot in Southern Europe. Local development was scrutinized at four planning scales (administrative regions, provinces, economic districts, and municipalities) to verify if land sensitivity to degradation increases over time more rapidly in economically advanced contexts. Land sensitivity to degradation increased between the early 1990s and the early 2010s contrary to the level of income per-capita based on linear, squared, cubic, and fourth-grade polynomial specifications. Spatially implicit and explicit statistical approaches indicate linear models are the best fit at all planning scales. The income-land degradation relationship was negative, showing the role of both centralized and decentralized planning scales, and suggesting that developmental policies may have less impact on land degradation in specific territorial contexts. More suited local models displayed a negative socio-economic development impact in more affected Southern districts. Checking for spatial heterogeneity, multi-scale regressions provided insights into complex ecological-economic processes whilst also evaluating the impact of regional development at different planning levels contributing to design scalable mitigation policies against desertification.

Synoptic weather and larger scale circulation patterns are closely coupled and have a major influence on regional weather and extreme events. This study examines the role of regional circulations on meteorology and extreme events for the present and future years over Asia with the WRF model driven by HadGEM2 global model boundary conditions that includes RCP4.5 scenarios based bicentennial transient simulation. The regional scale analysis was based on boundary conditions derived from 40 years of global model outputs spanning periods of 1995-2005, 2015-2025, 2025-2035 and 2045-2055. For brevity these periods are labelled as 2000, 2020, 2030, 2050 and 'represent' decadal periods centered around the named years. Model results were compared and validated (using a number of skill metrics) against observations for the present period showing that the model is able to delineate the observed features within 95% confidence level compared to the annual mean. To characterise and quantify the changes in the circulation patterns, an Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) based analysis was conducted. Results indicate that wintertime minimum temperatures are projected to increase by 3-4 0 C over Asia by 2050 compared to reference period of 2000. Furthermore, anti-cyclonic activity associated with low PV anomalies and high positive temperature anomalies may be a key driver that influence the increase in frequency and duration of heat waves and droughts over SA, SEA, EA and NA regions of Asia. Overall, the modelling results suggest that regional meteorology and circulation patterns may significantly influence extremes over Asia in the future. Such impacts will have major implications for weather patterns as well as for air pollution over the region both of which will require policy responses to adjust to a changing regional climate.

For Japanese juvenile chum salmon, mortality during coastal residency and northward migration to the Sea of Okhotsk is considered to affect their stock size. Although poor adult returns by the 2012 and 2013 brood years were widely observed along Japanese coasts, the mechanisms underlying mortality have not been defined. We collected scales from age-4 homing chum salmon captured in September–November in 2005–2017 (i.e., the 2001–2013 brood years) from three rivers in the Okhotsk and Nemuro regions, northern/eastern Hokkaido. Scale analyses revealed that growth rates during coastal residency for the 2012 and 2013 brood years of the three rivers were all significantly lower than those in other brood years. Coastal sea surface temperature (SST) in the target regions in May 2013 (i.e., the main ocean-entry timing for the 2012 brood year) was the coldest among those in 2002–2014 and was assumed to be caused by the terrestrial cold climate. Meanwhile, in May 2014, coastal SST was the second coldest and was likely influenced by offshore cold currents. These results suggest that cold coastal conditions triggered by different sources resulted in lower growth rates during coastal residency and therefore poor adult returns.

In this study, Moso bamboo was firstly softened by saturated steam and then pressed flat by a machine. The modification effect (high-temperature saturated steam) was characterized by FTIR, XRD, SEM, and wet chemistry. The dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) was used to investigate the effects of three variables (temperature, time, and moisture content) on the thermal-mechanical properties of Moso bamboo. The results indicated that high-temperature saturated steam can effectively soften bamboo cells under high pressure at high temperature. As expected, in comparison with reference samples, the content of hemicellulose and cellulose decreased, while that of relative lignin increased. The results of the changes in main chemical composition were further confirmed by FTIR, which showed that the intensity of the main peak belongs to hemicellulose decreased, so the polysaccharide such as hemicellulose went through the process of hydrolysis and pyrolysis. An increase in the moisture content of bamboo led to a decrement in storage modulus value, which can be attributed to the plasticizing effect. Both temperature and time had a positive effect on the reduction in glass transition temperature. This conclusion not only helps to understand the relationship between bamboo and water, but also provides guide for the utilization and production process of crack-free flattened bamboo board and its products in the construction and building fields.

Purpose Improve understanding of the links between biological variables (sex, body size and anatomical position) and adaptive remodelling of autopodia, and the identification of traction use in the archaeological record. Methods A modified version of the recording system for identifying draught cattle in the archaeological record (Bartosiewicz et al., 1997) was applied to a sample of 1509 bones from six sites from medieval England. Analysis focused on identifying correlations between pathological and sub-pathological changes in lower-limb bones in relation to anatomy, sex and body mass. Results A correlation between sex, body mass and lower limb bone changes was demonstrated. The need to consider anterior and posterior limb bone elements separately to maximise the potential for identifying cattle used for traction was identified. Changes in hindlimb elements were highlighted as the most useful indicator of draught use. Contribution This study provides new, detailed evidence for a previously poorly understood correlation between the effects of anatomical position, sex and body size and the nature of skeletal changes traditionally associated with draught cattle. It pulls together findings and makes comprehensive suggestions for future studies. Limitations This is a purely methodological paper. Although general results are presented, there is insufficient space to include a full case study. This will be published separately within the results of the FeedSax project. Further research Future studies into the use of cattle for draught purposes in the past should take in to account the sex and size of the animals under consideration, and analyse anterior and posterior elements separately.

Many areas across Iran are subject to land subsidence, a sign of exceeding stress due to the over-extraction of groundwater during the past decades. This paper uses a huge dataset of Sentinel-1, acquired since 2014 in 66 image frames of 250×250km, to identify and monitor land subsidence across Iran. Using a two-step time series analysis, we first identify subsidence zones at a medium scale of 100m across the country. For the first time, our results provide a comprehensive nationwide map of subsidence in Iran and recognize its spatial distribution and magnitude. Then, in the second step of analysis, we quantify the deformation time series at the highest possible resolution to study its impact on civil infrastructure. The results spots the hazard posed by land subsidence to different infrastructure. Examples of road and railways affected by land subsidence hazard in Tehran and Mashhad, two of the most populated cities in Iran, are presented in this study. © 2021 International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences - ISPRS Archives. All rights reserved.

A mathematical model for a co-current moving bed heat exchanger (MBHE) is presented. The bed is diluted and composed of spheres of uniform radius which are transported by a dragging fluid in plug f...

A well-resolved database of a small-scale heptane pool fire is analyzed to assess the assumptions of flamelet models in fire simulations. The pool fire database features well-resolved turbulence fields, finite-rate chemistry for heptane using a 33-species skeletal mechanism, and a coupled Monte Carlo ray-tracing radiation solver with a line-by-line spectral model. A budget analysis of the flamelet equation is performed by transforming temperature and species to the mixture fraction space and extracting instantaneous flamelet solutions along flame-aligned directions. Five flame-aligned budget terms and one unsteady term are identified through transformation of the temperature equation. Three conditions are examined, including an adiabatic case, a case involving only gas radiation, and a case involving both gas and soot radiation. The budget analysis shows that preferential diffusion is non-negligible near the base of the pool. Radiation is found to be appreciable in the transition region of the fire, resulting in a reduction of flame temperature by as much as 270 K due to radiative heat losses. The curvature of the flame surface is found to have a minor impact on the temperature dynamics near the flame front. The extracted flame structures deviate from those predicted from a steady-state adiabatic laminar flamelet model, particularly in the profiles of CO, CO 2 , and OH. A time scale analysis is performed, indicating that steady state assumptions for chemical species are reasonable for this flame, although radiation is much slower compared to chemistry and requires consideration to correctly capture the temperature evolution. The source terms from radiative absorption and emission show pronounced non-proportionality between the two, where absorption can exceed emission, thereby serving as a heating source for the fuel and oxidizer streams. The controlling factors for radiative absorption are analyzed, based on which a non-local model is proposed to approximate absorption in pool fires. A priori assessment of this model shows good agreement with the pool fire database, demonstrating the feasibility of enhancing the flamelet formulation to account for radiative emission and absorption effects.

This paper characterized the microstructure and physical properties of the scale from a uranium mine in Xinjiang by SEM, XRD and FT-IR. Based on the orthogonal experiment design, the formula of HClO4: EDTA: (NaF + HNO3) = 4:1:5 is selected. The results show that the scale remover has the functions of dissolution, lattice damage and dispersion. The selected collaborative scale removal method can effectively remove the scale in the uranium mining process and has certain application value.

Vegetation in open channels alters turbulent and other hydraulic characteristics of flow. Hence, conventional methods for computing bed shear stress in bare channels are not applicable in such channels. The present study, therefore, experimentally investigates the distributions of velocity in 3D in gravel bed channels with vegetation and investigates six different methods for estimating bed shear stress. The distribution of shear stress is basically controlled by the spatial distribution of vegetation as well as the biomechanical and architectural features of these plants. It is found that near the bottom of the flume, the shear stress changes in dense layers, constituting a layered shape.

The fractal geometry, anisotropy, discontinuity, and non-Darcy flow of tight reservoirs exert a significant effect on well production performance. In this study, the reservoir fractal geometry is represented by exponential functions on the basis of microseismic data, while the discontinuity of the fractures is presented as a nonequilibrium effect. The impact of the nonequilibrium effect and the low velocity non-Darcy flow on the temporal scale of the wellbore pressure is predicted herein. Results showed that the time scale analysis accurately simulates gas flow in a tight reservoir. The wellbore pressure gradually increases, whereas the pressure in the matrix lags when the nonequilibrium effect is considered. The wellbore pressure is affected in the early period by the nonequilibrium effect. However, at the later stage, the pressure in the matrix is mainly affected by the non-Darcy flow. When the non-Darcy flow is dominant, the pores without gas flowing through are better presented.

The charging and discharging times are some of the very important factors for the design of highly efficient hydrogen storage chambers with metal hydrides or activated carbon. However, experimental research or numerical simulations have to be performed to determine these factors, which could be time consuming and expensive. In this study, the possible existence of a general time scale for hydrogen storage chambers with large amount of sorption heat is discussed. By scale analysis of the energy equation and rapid heat generation and slow cooling assumption, it is found that there likely exists a general time scale for hydrogen charging and discharging. The time scale is determined as the thermal diffusion time scale of the porous storage bed. Its validity is demonstrated by comparing with the available metal hydrides and activated carbon data in previous literature. Furthermore, a minimum bed thickness scale for a specific charging time is also derived according to the developed general time scale. The proposed temporal and spatial scales may serve as a low cost and efficient tool for the design and optimization of hydrogen storage devices with metal hydrides or activated carbon.

Groundwater discharge generates streamflow and influences stream thermal regimes. However, the water quality and thermal buffering capacity of groundwater depends on the aquifer source-depth. Here, we pair multi-year air and stream temperature signals to categorize 1729 sites across the continental United States as having major dam influence, shallow or deep groundwater signatures, or lack of pronounced groundwater (atmospheric) signatures. Approximately 40% of non-dam stream sites have substantial groundwater contributions as indicated by characteristic paired air and stream temperature signal metrics. Streams with shallow groundwater signatures account for half of all groundwater signature sites and show reduced baseflow and a higher proportion of warming trends compared to sites with deep groundwater signatures. These findings align with theory that shallow groundwater is more vulnerable to temperature increase and depletion. Streams with atmospheric signatures tend to drain watersheds with low slope and greater human disturbance, indicating reduced stream-groundwater connectivity in populated valley settings., Groundwater discharge generates streamflow and influences stream thermal regimes. Classifying more than 1700 streams across the US by using an empirically-based approach the study shows that the vulnerability of streams to stressors depends on the aquifer source-depth of groundwater discharge

The occurrence of flow pattern can be predicted based on constructal law. Scale analysis is a method for deriving the essential information based on the basic principles of fluid flow and heat transfer. It provides order-of-magnitudes but also the form of the functions that describe the quantities understudy. In flow systems, patterns (configuration, design, architecture) arise from competition between competing trends, at least two modes of transport or locomotion: slow (diffusion, walk, etc.) and fast (streams, run, etc.). Optimal patterns mean the best flow access and the best balance between these trends. The study presented here follows from the scale analysis together with constructal and, is illustrated by examples from simple water heating to human locomotion.

This study characterizes potential soil lead (Pb) exposure risk at the household scale in Greensboro, North Carolina, using an innovative combination of field sampling, statistical analysis, and machine-learning techniques. Soil samples were collected at the dripline, yard, and street side at 462 households (total sample size = 2310). Samples were analyzed for Pb and then combined with publicly available data on potential historic Pb sources, soil properties, and household and neighborhood demographic characteristics. This curated data set was then analyzed with statistical and machine-learning techniques to identify the drivers of potential soil Pb exposure risks and to build predictive models. Among all samples, 43% exceeded current guidelines for Pb in residential gardens. There were significant racial disparities in potential soil Pb exposure risk; soil Pb at the dripline increased by 19% for every 25% increase in the neighborhood population identifying as Black. A machine-learned Bayesian network model was able to classify residential parcels by risk of exceeding residential gardening standards with excellent reproducibility in cross validation. These findings underscore the need for targeted outreach programs to prevent Pb exposure in residential areas and demonstrate an approach for prioritizing outreach locations.

While shifting electricity production to renewable sources is of critical importance in addressing global climate change, the costs of such development are often felt locally. This study explores w...

In the last decades, climatic changes in Mediterranean regions and frequent events of water resource scarcity in supply systems have required addressing the problem of increasing the inflows in storage reservoirs by connecting them to diversion dams. Usually, diversion dams do not have a large storage volume; consequently, these works are not able to regulate monthly flow, and they can divert to reservoirs only a part of river flow. In this field of research, this study aims to provide a procedure to evaluate water volumes withdrawn from diversion dams considering river flows and transfer flows. The procedure is founded by analysing 36 gauging stations in Sardinia (Italy), where a unique regional flow duration curve (FDC) can be defined. The effectiveness of regional evaluation of volume withdrawn, based on a monthly time scale analysis, has been investigated. The methodology allows finding optimal values of regional FDC parameters in order to better evaluate water resources withdrawn from diversion dams with respect to the current estimation used in the Sardinia Region Water Plan (SRWP). The current SRWP (RAS 2006) uses a fixed and extremely precautionary value of the FDC that underestimates withdrawal volumes. Moreover, a correlation analysis has been carried out in order to extend the evaluation of optimal FDC parameters for ungauged basins that allows to improve application of this procedure. Obtained results could allow to update the SRWP as highlighted in the final application to a real water system.

The aim of the study was to determine the sex of the fetus in gene expression data lacking this information using expression of the Y-linked genes, and to elucidate the difference between sex-chromosomal-linked gene expression between placental samples with XX and XY genotypes during pregnacy. We have detected 27 differentially expressed sex-chromosomes-linked genes. We have shown that, in most cases, the expression of genes from X-chromosomes in pregnancy carrying baby girls is higher than in pregnancy carrying baby boys, but there are exceptions to this pattern, which must be taken into account in large-scale studies of gene expression. The nature of the difference in gene expression during pregnancy carrying baby girls and boys (positive or ne gative difference) persists during pregnancy, but the magnitude of the difference may remain unchanged or decrease from the first to the third trimester. Taking sex dimorphism into account when analyzing large-scale gene expression data between trimesters of pregnancy increases the number of differentially expressed genes, which improves the informative value of the study and is important for elucidating the pathogenesis of pregnancy complications associated with placental dysfunction.

This study investigated the multifractal characteristics of fine resolution (0.25ox0.25°) daily gridded rainfall fields of India over the period 1901–2013 to examine their spatiotemporal variability. The scaling characterization using Multifractal Detrended Fluctuation Analysis (MFDFA) detected short-term persistency and strong multifractality in the majority of rainfall (over 81%) of the grid points. A detailed exploration on the spatial variability of multifractal properties such as Hurst exponent, spectral width, asymmetry index, Holder exponent are also performed for six rainfall homogenous regions and 34 meteorological subdivisions in India. The results showed that the highest persistence and complexity is noted in the mountainous terrains of northern and northeastern India. The sub-divisional scale analysis showed that the variability of persistence and complexity is the highest in Kerala and lowest at Vidarbha. Further, the evaluation of multifractal properties of rainfall series of pre- and post-1976/77 Pacific climate shift showed an increase in strength of multifractality in 62% grids after the shift. Changes in the status of persistence with respect to 1976/77 is the highest at Uttaranchal subdivision and changes from positive to negative asymmetry was the highest at northwestern (NW) region. Grid points of Peninsular India exhibited least reduction in complexity, multifractality and persistence in the post-1977 period when compared to pre-1977 period.

In this study, reanalysis data and a long-term simulation with the regional climate model WRF (1982–2017; 10 km resolution) is used to analyze synoptic and regional processes associated with rainfall events in the Atacama Desert. Five composites, each with 10 WRF-simulated rainfall events, are studied. They are selected based on a clustering and comprise the top winter events in South Atacama (23°–26°S), Southeast Atacama, and North Atacama (18°–23°S), and the top summer events in North Atacama and Northeast Atacama. Winter rainfall events in South Atacama are mostly associated with strong low pressure systems over the southeast Pacific and atmospheric rivers at their foreside, while cutoff lows occurring anomalously far north facilitate strong rainfall in North Atacama. Accordingly, tropical continental areas and the remote tropical and subtropical Pacific are identified as primary moisture sources, and moisture transport toward the Atacama Desert mainly takes place in the free troposphere (above 800 hPa). Strong summer rainfall events in North Atacama and Northeast Atacama are associated with a southward displaced Bolivian high. During rainfall events in North Atacama the high is shifted westward when compared to the Northeast Atacama events. Consequently, northern Chile is located at the northern periphery of the Bolivian high and the resulting strong easterlies may push strong convective systems from the Altiplano, toward the Atacama coast. Detailed analyses of individual rainfall events reveal that the most important synoptic patterns associated with rainfall not only control the synoptic-scale moisture transport into the Atacama Desert, but also decisively influence the regional atmospheric circulation.

In previous studies using night-time light (NTL) image in analyzing light pollution, most of the researchers focused on national or regional scale analysis. While in this article we focus on the perception of light pollution's influence to the environment of human settlement. We propose an analysis method mainly utilizing NTL images and a city's point of interest (POI) data to assess the light pollution from the aspect of its impact on the environment of city residents. The method quickly provides light pollution analysis at a fine spatial scale. We also address the POI data in a novel aggregating algorithm to better construct the area of interest, which can conquer the limitation of spatial resolution of NTL data in some extent. By doing the assessment in two Chinese medium-size cities, light pollution sources, the pollution level for each residence are found and analyzed. Furthermore, several light pollution patterns are discovered and interpreted. The result of the experiment demonstrates our assessment method provides a fast way to analyze light pollution patterns and can show the detailed light pollution situation in a city.

The objective of the proposed method is to utilize a site investigation of a debris flow disaster and verify a real scale analysis to evaluate the impulsive load on an open sabo dam. The Nagiso debris flow disaster which occurred in Nagano in 2014, where damage caused by Typhoon Neogri was studied. The verification result of the site investigation demonstrated the weak components of the open Sabo dam experienced damage owing to the debris flow. A discrete element method is normally applied to a solid body to calculate an interaction function force with respect to the contact point between boulders and the dam. The numerical method initially concatenates elements that model the open Sabo dam. Moreover, the stiffness coefficient of flanges and coupling joints between pipes was expressed to utilize the sectional partition method to determine the structural characteristics. The method was improved to separate from the connecting elements beyond the boundary conditions. The debris flow model uses a water flow distribution model, and the debris flow flowed from 200 m upstream of the open sabo dam. Accordingly, the proposed method was examined to verify the primary cause of damage to the open sabo dam and used to reproduce the circumstances that evaluated the impulsive load occurrence mechanism in the case of a real disaster. In addition, the coupling joints between the hollow steel pipes utilized a ‘reproduction analysis’ for a real sabo dam and a ‘reinforced analysis’ for a reinforced sabo dam were applied to assess the weak point of the dam.

Currently, there are a large number of diverse climate datasets in existence, which differ, sometimes greatly, in terms of their data sources, quality control schemes, estimation procedures, and spatial and temporal resolutions. Choosing an appropriate dataset for a given application is therefore not a simple task. This study compares nine global/near-global precipitation datasets and three global temperature datasets over 3138 North American catchments. The chosen datasets all meet the minimum requirement of having at least 30 years of available data, so they could all potentially be used as reference datasets for climate change impact studies. The precipitation datasets include two gauged-only products (GPCC and CPC-Unified), two satellite products corrected using ground-based observations (CHIRPS V2.0 and PERSIANN-CDR V1R1), four reanalysis products (NCEP CFSR, JRA55, ERA-Interim, and ERA5), and one merged product (MSWEP V1.2). The temperature datasets include one gauge-based (CPC-Unified) and two reanalysis (ERA-Interim and ERA5) products. High-resolution gauge-based gridded precipitation and temperature datasets were combined as the reference dataset for this intercomparison study. To assess dataset performance, all combinations were used as inputs to a lumped hydrological model. The results showed that all temperature datasets performed similarly, albeit with the CPC performance being systematically inferior to that of the other three. Significant differences in performance were, however, observed between the precipitation datasets. The MSWEP dataset performed best, followed by the gauge-based, reanalysis, and satellite datasets categories. Results also showed that gauge-based datasets should be preferred in regions with good weather network density, but CHIRPS and ERA5 would be good alternatives in data-sparse regions.

This paper presents novel multi-scale modeling and failure analysis of hybrid carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites enhanced by zinc oxide (ZnO) nanowires. Vertically aligned ZnO nanowi...

The average amplitude and pitch of surface ripples after solidification are exploratorily interpreted from scale analysis and numerical computation of transport variables and free surface deformati...

Background Many studies have attempted to identify the sources of interindividual variability in response to theta-burst stimulation (TBS). However, these studies have been limited by small sample sizes, leading to conflicting results. Objective/Hypothesis This study brought together over 60 TMS researchers to form the ‘Big TMS Data Collaboration’, and create the largest known sample of individual participant TBS data to date. The goal was to enable a more comprehensive evaluation of factors driving TBS response variability. Methods 118 corresponding authors of TMS studies were emailed and asked to provide deidentified individual TMS data. Mixed-effects regression investigated a range of individual and study level variables for their contribution to iTBS and cTBS response variability. Results 430 healthy participants’ TBS data was pooled across 22 studies (mean age = 41.9; range = 17–82; females = 217). Baseline MEP amplitude, age, target muscle, and time of day significantly predicted iTBS-induced plasticity. Baseline MEP amplitude and timepoint after TBS significantly predicted cTBS-induced plasticity. Conclusions This is the largest known study of interindividual variability in TBS. Our findings indicate that a significant portion of variability can be attributed to the methods used to measure the modulatory effects of TBS. We provide specific methodological recommendations in order to control and mitigate these sources of variability.

Context Selective logging has been commonly mapped using binary maps, representing logged and unlogged forests. However, binary maps may fall short regarding the optimum representation of this type of disturbance, as tree harvest in tropical forests can be highly heterogeneous. Objectives The objective of this study is to map forest disturbance intensities in areas of selective logging located in the Brazilian Amazon. Methods Selective logging activities were mapped in ten forest management units using Sentinel-2 data at 10 m resolution. A spatial pattern analysis was applied to the logging map, using a moving window approach with different window sizes. Two landscape metrics were used to derive a forest disturbance intensity map. This map was then compared with actual disturbances using field data and a post-harvest forest recovery analysis. Results Disturbed areas were grouped into five distinct disturbance intensity classes, from very low to very high. Classes high and very high were found to be related to log landings and large felling gaps, while very low intensities were mainly related to isolated disturbance types. The post-harvest forest recovery analysis showed that the five classes can be clearly distinguished from one another, with the clearest differences in the year of logging and one year after it. Conclusions The approach described represents an important step towards a better mapping of selectively logged areas, when compared to the use of binary maps. The disturbance intensity classes could be used as indicators for forest monitoring as well as for further evaluation of areas under forest management.

A new method for separating convective, intermediate, and stratiform rainfall based on the wavelet scale analysis is presented. A robust classification has resulted from the two choices: 1) the transformation of radar reflectivities to rain rates and 2) the inclusion of the intermediate class. The method uses a trous wavelet transform (WT) to separate heterogeneous convective features from the relatively smooth stratiform field. The heterogeneous region is further split into a convective class for the large wavelet coefficients and an intermediate class for the small wavelet coefficients. There is an improvement in the estimation of convective-stratiform fraction and frequency distribution of rain rates in comparison to the well-established Steiner method. The new method correctly reclassified a significant fraction of Steiner’s convective regions, which had low mean rain rates of 5.5 $\mathrm {mm}\cdot \mathrm {h}^{-1}$ , as stratiform regions. Similarly, Steiner’s stratiform regions, which had high mean rain rates of $15\,\,\mathrm {mm}\cdot \mathrm {h}^{-1}$ , are classified as convective by the wavelet method. The method is tested and evaluated over the Indian region during monsoon, and it is found that the three wavelet classes have distinct raindrop-size distributions.

An efficient conversion of electrical energy into hydrogen could be one of the most important key issues for future green energy supply. In case of electrolyzer cells, this can be achieved by increasing the active surface of Ni-based electrodes. This is a crucial topic for the research of alkaline electrolyzer cells in terms of improving the cell performance. Typical coating processes are scalable and effective techniques that are well suited for this purpose. Variations of sintering process parameters (i.e. duration or temperature ramps) have a distinct impact on the homogeneity of the coating layer and its thickness as well as on possible media transport paths during cell operation. In this study, we analyzed the impact of the coating layers on the structure and morphology of the electrodes using laboratory X-ray computer tomography. We introduce a workflow that is based on machine learning algorithms which enable to distinguish between substrate and coating layers. More detailed information was obtained using FIB/SEM (focused ion beam/scanning electron microscopy). This multi-scale approach enhances the understanding of the sintering processes and serve as a basis for CFD simulations.

The present study examines the spatial and temporal changes in extreme rainfall events (EREs) across the Godavari river basin to develop adaptation strategies for vulnerable regions by understanding opportunities and risks. Indices such as consecutive dry and wet days, daily intensity, one-day highest precipitation, days with rainfall > 10 mm and 20 mm have been computed over the Godavari basin for the time period 1901–2015, and changes are compared between the two time periods 1901–1976 and 1977–2015. This study examines long-term trends on monthly and seasonal scales and climatological characteristics of EREs to understand the observed spatiotemporal changes in EREs. Analysis of EREs in the monsoon months further indicates significant trends over both traditionally “high-rainfall regions” (Humid) and “low-rainfall regions” (semiarid). In low-rainfall region, an increase in mean and coefficient of variability of annual rainfall has been identified during 1977–2015 as compared to pre-1977 period. It is also found that the month of September experienced statistically significant increase in frequency and intensity of all wet extreme rain indices during the period 1977–2015. Extremes in high- and low-rainfall regions show significant increase during 1977–2015 as compared to 1901–1976. Century scale analysis of extreme events with reference to regional level changes would help in looking at the grass root reality for the estimation of water budget as well as for developing region-specific adaptation measures and crop contingency plans. These findings would feed into state action plan for climate change to take appropriate measures to combat changing and rapidly occurring EREs in different climate zones of Godavari basin.

Lake water levels fluctuate at time scales ranging from minutes to many years. While extensive research has been devoted to seasonal and multiannual time scales, we examined water level changes at ...

The effect of tank orientation on heat transfer of a typical roof-top water storage tank is examined in this paper. The theoretical study is based on scale analysis of the governing equation that is used to evaluate the comfort time of both vertical and horizontal water storage tanks. The scale analysis is validated numerically by solving the resulting energy equation using an explicit numerical technique based on two programs written in the MATLAB software for each tank orientation. Different water tank capacities are examined for both horizontal and vertical orientations. Data for commercially available water storage tanks are used in the calculations. Three parameters play an important role in the evaluation process of the comfort time ratio. These are (1) the tank capacity, (2) the tank characteristic length, and (3) the tank surface area. It is shown that the heat transfer coefficient associated with water inside the tank is much higher than the outside air heat transfer coefficient around the body of the tank. The simplicity of the proposed method will allow the user in quick decision making as to which water storage tank orientation would provide longer comfort time. For example, in a vertical tank with a capacity of 1000 L, the water will heat up slowly and from 11:00 AM onwards, it will approximately need 3.7 h to reach the temperature of the environment. On the other hand, in a horizontal tank of the same capacity, the water will heat up much quickly and it will take only about 0.9 h for water to reach the surrounding environment temperature. Eventually, this work will contribute to less water evaporation from these tanks, thus saving water that is essential to water starved desert climates such as in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Owing to the existence of high hydrodynamic pressure in heavy traffic conditions, moisture will diffuse quickly into the asphalt mixtures, which will induce the adhesive failure of asphalt ...

A joint analysis of location and scale can be a powerful tool in genome-wide association studies to uncover previously overlooked markers that influence a quantitative trait through both mean and variance, as well as to prioritize candidates for gene-environment interactions. This approach has recently been generalized to handle related samples, dosage data, and the analytically challenging X-chromosome. We disseminate the latest advances in methodology through a user-friendly R software package with added functionalities to support genome-wide analysis on individual-level or summary-level data. The implemented R package can be called from PLINK or directly in a scripting environment, to enable a streamlined genome-wide analysis for biobank-scale data. Application results on individual-level and summary-level data highlight the advantage of the joint test to discover more genome-wide signals as compared to a location or scale test alone. We hope the availability of gJLS2 software package will encourage more scale and/or joint analyses in large-scale datasets, and promote the standardized reporting of their p-values to be shared with the scientific community.

International audience; For parasites, finding their hosts in vast and heterogeneous environments is a task that can be complex. Some parasite species rely on elaborate strategies to increase encounter rate with their hosts (e.g. behavioural modification of host), but others do not. For these parasites, a key issue is to reveal the processes that enable them to successfully find their hosts and complete their life cycles. Here, we tested the hypothesis that infective larvae of the freshwater ectoparasite Tracheliastes polycolpus are not homogeneously distributed along the river and preferentially occur in very specific microhabitats that maximize encounter rate, and hence infection rate, with their host fish. To do this, we combined an in situ experiment (caging) with an empirical survey carried out on the same sites to identify potential 'hotspots' of infection at the microgeographic scale and their environmental characteristics. Experimental and empirical results demonstrated that infections were not evenly distributed among microhabitats, and that infections were spatially aggregated in hotspots at a very fine spatial grain. We further found that certain combinations of environmental variables were consistently and nonlinearly associated with higher infection rate for both caged and wild-caught fish. Microhabitats characterized by very low or high stream velocities, associated with medium or very small substrate, respectively, and a deep water column were strongly and repeatedly associated with higher infection rates. These microhabitats could concentrate parasites and/or promote physical contact with the hosts. We conclude that the characteristics of some microhabitats could facilitate contact between hosts and parasites and explain how some parasites manage to find their hosts in complex environments.

This paper studies the melting process of low melting point metal (LMPM) in a square cavity heated from bottom in the presence of Rayleigh–Benard convection. Existing research focuses on high–Pr PCM melting process, and the difference between low and high-Pr PCM melting process needs to study. Scale analysis and numerical investigation are applied to analyze low-Pr LMPM melting process. Scale analysis tries to research the LMPM melting rate and obtain basic theoretical relationships of liquid fraction and Nu with Fo, Pr, Ras and Ste. A numerical model is established to elaborate dynamic melting heat transfer characteristics of low–Pr LMPM. The numerical results show that different from high-Pr PCM, the flow cell morphology presents obvious changes for low-Pr LMPM, and the time needed to completely melt is much shorter and the average heat flux is higher. The Rayleigh–Benard convection causes oscillation of Nu in the convection dominated regime, and the average Nu for LMPM increases from 5.11 to 13.77 with the Ra from 5.0×105 to 1.25×107. Finally, the semi-theoretical correlations for liquid fraction and Nu are developed by scale analysis and numerical investigation, and the accuracy is numerically validated.

International audience

Understanding property changes in soil improvement using a new technique is critical for enhancing engineering activity. However, little is known about nano-SiO2pile-induced changes in soil properties due to its excellent properties as an alternative new additive material. This study aims to examine the changes in properties of loess stabilized with nano-SiO2pile after curing for 28 days. Using samples taken from four desired radii (i.e., 5, 10 15, and 20 cm), we tested their mineralogical, structural, physicochemical, and index properties and analyzed the relationship of these properties to strengthen the link between microscopic characteristics and macroscopic behaviors. We then discussed the mechanism of the changes in the treated loess properties. The test results show that nano-SiO2pile induced a physical structure modification in the treated loess and, consequently, an isotropic process with coarser particles due to crystallinity. This resulted in a solidification process in loess with nano-SiO2pile, causing a decrease in water content and void ratio as well as an increase in natural density, thereby improving its mechanical strength. Meanwhile, the specific surface area (SSA)and cation exchange capacity (CEC) of treated loess were smaller than those of original loess, and there were slight changes in chemical properties. The disintegration rate of treated loess decrease compared with the original loess. The interactional relationship of the microscopic and macroscopic observation was facilitated to better understand the mechanism of changes in nano-SiO2pile-treated loess properties. This finding reveals that nano-SiO2pile has the potential as an alternative stabilized technique in loess improvement due to its obvious performance improvement and slight chemical changes.

Invasive pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) has been present in variable, but low, numbers in Norwegian waters since c. 1960, but beginning in 2017 their numbers have exploded in rivers in northern Norway, with considerable numbers also recorded in rivers in southern Norway and other countries bordering the North Atlantic. Analysis of pink salmon scales from two rivers draining to the western Barents Sea showed declining growth during the first weeks after entering the sea, and some individuals even showed a pronounced growth arrest, based on detailed scale circulus analyses. This was followed by a period of growth increase and stability during late summer and autumn, which may reflect a transition to better food sources, as the fish migrate from coastal waters to the open ocean, and as they grow larger and can eat larger and more energy efficient food items. Growth declined to a minimum during winter. Fish body size at spawning was positively correlated with the distance from scale focus to the last winter circulus, as well as with the number of circuli. When dividing scale growth into three periods, better growth during the first period at sea was related to increased fish body length at spawning, but this early growth explained only a minor part (6%) of the variation in final body length. The reason for this may be large individual variation in growth combined with large mortality during the first weeks at sea. If mortality is selective, removing fish with poor growth may reduce a correlation between early growth and body size at spawning. Scale growth during late summer and early autumn explained more of the variation in fish length at spawning (27%). Hence, late summer and early autumn was likely an important period for marine growth and survival in the invasive pink salmon.

Understanding the implications of climate change for migratory animals is paramount for establishing how best to conserve them. A large body of evidence suggests that birds are migrating earlier in response to rising temperatures, but many studies focus on single populations of model species.Migratory patterns at large spatial scales may differ from those occurring in single populations, for example because of individuals dispersing outside of study areas. Furthermore, understanding phenological trends across species is vital because we need a holistic understanding of how climate change affects wildlife, especially as rates of temperature change vary globally.The life cycles of migratory wading birds cover vast latitudinal gradients, making them particularly susceptible to climate change and, therefore, ideal model organisms for understanding its effects. Here, we implement a novel application of changepoint detection analysis to investigate changes in the timing of migration in waders at a flyway scale using a thirteen‐year citizen science dataset (eBird) and determine the influence of changes in weather conditions on large‐scale migratory patterns.In contrast to most previous research, our results suggest that migration is getting later in both spring and autumn. We show that rates of change were faster in spring than autumn in both the Afro‐Palearctic and Nearctic flyways, but that weather conditions in autumn, not in spring, predicted temporal changes in the corresponding season. Birds migrated earlier in autumn when temperatures increased rapidly, and later with increasing headwinds.One possible explanation for our results is that migration is becoming later due to northward range shifts, which means that a higher proportion of birds travel greater distances and therefore take longer to reach their destinations. Our findings underline the importance of considering spatial scale when investigating changes in the phenology of migratory bird species., Millions of birds migrate annually providing valuable ecosystem services, but we know little about macroecological changes occurring due to climate change. Our results suggest that continental‐scale wading bird migration has become later over the last decade, contrary to many studies at the population‐level, suggesting that changes in the timing of bird migration might differ across spatial scales. More work is urgently needed to investigate large‐scale patterns in the phenology of migratory animals.