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The world is facing a malnutrition crisis in the midst of rising rates of urbanization; more than half of the world’s population lives in urban areas, a number that is expected to reach two-thirds by 2050, consuming 80% of the world’s food. Instead of the development of existing cities into ‘mega-cities,’ urbanization is creating a patchwork of smaller urban areas. In 2018, close to half of the world’s urban residents lived in settlements or towns with less than 500,000 inhabitants. These settlements are classified as secondary cities and are, in terms of population, the fastest growing urban areas. Poor diets among city inhabitants are the consequence of a combination of forces. These include changes in types of occupation, particularly for women; food-environment factors; shifts in norms and attitudes regarding food; globalization of food supply chains; lack of infrastructure; post-harvest food loss and waste, etc. Secondary cities offer entry points for food system transformation. Secondary cities are characterized by strong urban-rural linkages and the opportunity for localized food production and consumption. These cities could also play a key role in enhancing resilience to food security shocks. This chapter discusses the challenge of the growing triple burden of malnutrition in urban contexts and argues for the important role of secondary cities in transforming urban food systems. Through three case studies of secondary cities in LMICs, these cities are shown as emerging players in nutrition-centered food system interventions.

We empirically examine the relationship between immigration and votes for the Alternative für Deutschland (AfD) in the 2017 German parliamentary election. We conduct a cross-sectional analysis, exploiting election results and socio-demographic as well as geographic features of the 401 German administrative districts. We find that immigration has a negative effect on AfD voting. A 1 percentage point increase in the share of foreigners is associated with a decrease in the AfD vote share of up to 0.37 percentage points. The result is robust to several estimation variations, such as addressing the potentially endogenous distribution of foreigners with an instrumental variable analysis.

Risk factors for disease progression and severity of SARS-CoV-2 infections require an understanding of acute and long-term virological and immunological dynamics. Fifty-one RT-PCR positive COVID-19 outpatients were recruited between May and December 2020 in Munich, Germany, and followed up at multiple defined timepoints for up to one year. RT-PCR and viral culture were performed and seroresponses measured. Participants were classified applying the WHO clinical progression scale. Short symptom to test time (median 5.0 days; p = 0.0016) and high viral loads (VL; median maximum VL: 3∙108 copies/mL; p = 0.0015) were indicative for viral culture positivity. Participants with WHO grade 3 at baseline had significantly higher VLs compared to those with WHO 1 and 2 (p = 0.01). VLs dropped fast within 1 week of symptom onset. Maximum VLs were positively correlated with the magnitude of Ro-N-Ig seroresponse (p = 0.022). Our results describe the dynamics of VLs and antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 in mild to moderate cases that can support public health measures during the ongoing global pandemic.

OBJECTIVES: Previous studies have observed an increase in low frequency diastolic heart sounds in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). The aim was to develop and validate a diagnostic, computerized acoustic CAD-score based on heart sounds for the non-invasive detection of CAD.METHODS: Prospective study enrolling 463 patients referred for elective coronary angiography. Pre-procedure non-invasive recordings of heart sounds were obtained using a novel acoustic sensor. A CAD-score was defined as the power ratio between the 10-90 Hz frequency spectrum and the 90-300 Hz frequency spectrum of the mid-diastolic heart sound. Quantitative coronary angiography analysis was performed by a blinded core laboratory and patients grouped according to the results: obstructive CAD defined by the presence of at least one ≥ 50% stenosis, non-obstructive CAD as patients with a maximal stenosis in the 25-50% interval and non-CAD as no coronary lesions exceeding 25%. We excluded patients with potential confounders or incomplete data (n = 245). To avoid over-fitting the final cohort of 218 patients was randomly divided into to a training group for development (n = 127) and a validation group (n = 91).RESULTS: In both the training and the validation group the CAD-score was significantly increased in CAD patients compared to non-CAD patients (p < 0.0001). In the validation group the area under the receiver-operating curve was 77% (95% CI 63-91%). Sensitivity was 71% (95% CI 59-82%) and specificity 64% (95% CI 45-83%).CONCLUSION: The acoustic CAD-score is a new, inexpensive, non-invasive method to detect CAD, which may supplement clinical risk stratification and reduce the need for subsequent non-invasive and invasive testing.

In the context of the German energy transition, the financial burdens associated with subsidies for renewable energies have increased substantially in recent years. These costs are passed on to consumers in the form of the EEG levy as a component of the electricity price. However, some households benefit from owning photovoltaic (PV) systems because they receive the corresponding feed-in tariffs. In order to investigate how the benefits (and burdens) of this subsidization scheme are distributed, we use micro-data from SOEP for private households during the period of 2010–2017, and we employ three different inequality metrics – the Gini coefficient, the Theil index and the Atkinson index. We conclude that subsidy costs are almost evenly distributed among the population and are therefore regressive. At the same time, feed-in tariffs are increasingly flowing into higher-income households because PV systems are more prevalent in these households. We estimate the overall impact of this subsidization scheme on several measures of (income) inequality at 1.0–2.4%, most of which is due to the EEG levy. We also find regional distortions in favor of the South and especially at the expense of the East.

The present study empirically analyzes determinants of immigration to EU member countries for the period 1998–2016. By performing PPML regression, it investigates the dynamics of different political and economic determinants. In general, there are two opposing effects: better living conditions in the origin country increase the feasibility of migration (feasibility hypothesis), but they also decrease international differentials, thus diminishing the incentive to migrate (incentive hypothesis). Indeed, better economic conditions in the origin country ease the budget constraints of potential migrants and thereby stimulate emigration to EU countries (feasibility hypothesis). At the same time, the income differential between destination and origin country is also positively related to migration, supporting the incentive hypothesis. Contrary to these findings about economic determinants, the impact of political determinants is only robust in one direction, for migration from outside the EU. Here, worse political conditions in the origin country increase the need to migrate, causing flight migration (need hypothesis). Altogether, economic determinants appear to outweigh political factors.

BackgroundIn the 2ndyear of the Covid-19 pandemic, knowledge about the dynamics of the infection in the general population is still limited. Such information is essential for health planners, as many of those infected show no or only mild symptoms and thus, escape the surveillance system. We therefore aimed to describe the course of the pandemic in the Munich general population living in private households from April 2020 to January 2021.MethodsThe KoCo19 baseline study took place from April to June 2020 including 5313 participants (age 14 years and above). From November 2020 to January 2021, we could again measure SARS-CoV-2 antibody status in 4,433 of the baseline participants (response 83%). Participants were offered a self-sampling kit to take a capillary blood sample (dry blood spot; DBS). Blood was analysed using the Elecsys®Anti-SARS-CoV-2 assay (Roche). Questionnaire information on socio-demographics and potential risk factors assessed at baseline was available for all participants. In addition, follow-up information on health-risk taking behaviour and number of personal contacts outside the household (N=2768) as well as leisure time activities (N=1263) were collected in summer 2020.ResultsWeighted and adjusted (for specificity and sensitivity) SARS-CoV-2 sero-prevalence at follow-up was 3.6% (95% CI 2.9-4.3%) as compared to 1.8% (95% CI 1.3-3.4%) at baseline. 91% of those tested positive at baseline were also antibody-positive at follow-up. While sero-prevalence increased from early November 2021 to January 2021, no indication of geospatial clustering across the city of Munich was found, although cases clustered within households. Taking baseline result and time to follow-up into account, men and participants in the age group 20-34 years were at the highest risk of sero-positivity. In the sensitivity analyses, differences in health-risk taking behaviour, number of personal contacts and leisure time activities partly explained these differences.ConclusionThe number of citizens in Munich with SARS-CoV-2 antibodies was still below 5% during the 2ndwave of the pandemic. Antibodies remained present in the majority of baseline participants. Besides age and sex, potentially confounded by differences in behaviour, no major risk factors could be identified. Non-pharmaceutical public health measures are thus still important.

Given the large number of mild or asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 cases, only population-based studies can provide reliable estimates of the magnitude of the pandemic. We therefore aimed to assess the sero-prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in the Munich general population after the first wave of the pandemic. For this purpose, we drew a representative sample of 2994 private households and invited household members 14 years and older to complete questionnaires and to provide blood samples. SARS-CoV-2 seropositivity was defined as Roche N pan-Ig ≥ 0.4218. We adjusted the prevalence for the sampling design, sensitivity, and specificity. We investigated risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 seropositivity and geospatial transmission patterns by generalized linear mixed models and permutation tests. Seropositivity for SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies was 1.82% (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.28–2.37%) as compared to 0.46% PCR-positive cases officially registered in Munich. Loss of the sense of smell or taste was associated with seropositivity (odds ratio (OR) 47.4, 95% CI 7.2–307.0) and infections clustered within households. By this first population-based study on SARS-CoV-2 prevalence in a large German municipality not affected by a superspreading event, we could show that at least one in four cases in private households was reported and known to the health authorities. These results will help authorities to estimate the true burden of disease in the population and to take evidence-based decisions on public health measures.

Background: Population-based studies investigating the dynamics of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic are needed. Here, we report on baseline findings from April through June 2020 of a prospective cohort study in Munich, Germany. Methods: We drew a representative sample of 2994 private households. The 5313 participating household members 14 years and older completed questionnaires and provided blood samples. SARS-CoV-2 seropositivity was defined as Roche N pan-Ig ≥ 0·4218. We adjusted the prevalence for the sampling design, sensitivity, and specificity. We investigated risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 seropositivity and geospatial transmission patterns by generalized linear mixed models and permutation tests. Findings: Seropositivity for SARS-CoV-2 specific antibodies was 1·82% (95% confidence interval (CI) 1·28-2·37%) as compared to 0·46% PCR-positive cases officially registered in Munich. Loss of the sense of smell or taste was associated with seropositivity (odds ratio (OR) 47·4; 95% CI 7·2-307·0) and infections clustered within households. Participants suffering from respiratory allergies (OR 2·7; 95% CI 0·9-8·6) and working in high-risk jobs (OR 2·0; 95% CI 0·5-6·7) showed non-significantly increased odds for SARS-CoV-2 seropositivity. Interpretation: Applying a validated assay, we demonstrate a low SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence in the Munich population 14 years and older towards the end of the first pandemic wave. However, we noted official sub-registration at this early stage of the pandemic. Funding: Bavarian State Ministry of Science and the Arts, University Hospital of LMU Munich, Helmholtz Centre Munich, University of Bonn, and University of Bielefeld. Declaration of Interests: FF, TF, DM, LO, and VT report grants from the Bavarian State Ministry of Science and the Arts during the conduct oft he study. TF reports grants from the University Hospital of LMU Munich, Helmholtz Center Munich, University of Bonn, University of Bielefeld, and German Ministry for Education and Research during the conduct of the study. JH reports grants from the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research during the conduct of the study. MH and AW report personal fees and non-financial support, LO and MP report non-financial support from Roche Diagnostics. MH, LO, MP, and AW report non-financial support from Euroimmun, Viramed, and Mikrogen. MH, MP, and AW report grants, non-financial support, and other from German Center for Infection Research (DZIF). FF, MH, LO, MP, VT, and AW report grants and non-financial support from the Government of Bavaria. MH, LO, MP, and AW report non-financial support from BMW, Mercedes Benz, Munich Police, and Accenture. MH and AW report personal fees and non-financial support from Dr. Box Betrobox during the conduct of the study. LO and MP report non-financial support from Dr. Box Betrobox. MH and AW have a patent Sample System for Sputum Diagnostics of SARS-CoV-2 pending. DM reports to be a a sub-investigator on a Phase I SARS-CoV-2 vaccine trial and on a Phase I rabies vaccine trial, both sponsored by CureVac AG. MP and AW report non-financial support from Dr. Becker MVZ. VT reports support from CureVac AG outside the submitted work. AW reports personal fees and other from Haeraeus Sensors. AW reports non-financial support from Bruker Daltronics outside the submitted work. AW is involved in other different patents and companies not in relation with the serology of SARS-CoV-2. All other authors report nothing to disclose. Ethics Approval Statement: Prior to study initiation, this study had been approved by the respective Institutional Review Board.

In a period of rapid technological change, there is a risk of ethics taking a back seat.

The present paper deals with the question of whether tax harmonization and federal taxation increase welfare in a symmetric tax competition framework with heterogeneous individuals and lobbying. A model closely related to the approach of Lai (2010) is linked to externalities that are familiar from conventional public finance. The observed deviations from efficient taxation are derived from the interplay of four externalities, which can be divided into two groups: externalities occurring due to tax competition and externalities which are caused by lobbying. Whether or not the centralization of tax competences is useful depends mainly on the relative sizes of the competition-induced and lobbying-induced externalities.

The German energy transition and the rising share of renewable energies in electricity generation have led to an increase in network costs and to higher network charges in recent years. We use socioeconomic data in order to investigate distributional effects within the period 2010-2016, and employ three different inequality metrics – the Gini coefficient, the Theil index and the Atkinson index – all of which unambiguously indicate regressive effects of network charges. Most recently, the three metrics show an increase of economic inequality of at least 0.67 % when accounting for network charges. This finding is due to 1. the relative inferiority of electricity, 2. the regressive impact of a fixed component of network charges, 3. considerable regional disparities, and 4. the higher prevalence of prosumers within high-income households.Keywords: network charges, renewable energies, economic inequalityJEL Classifications: D63, Q40, Q42DOI: https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.6917

Peripheral visual evaluations are important in many aspects of vision care and research. One instance is central visual field loss, where the visual evaluation has to be performed in the eccentric preferred retinal locus.1–3 Peripheral evaluation is challenging because of reduced retinal function and large optical errors. Care must therefore be taken when designing the psychophysical procedure to avoid additional uncertainties in the estimated threshold. Spatial visual acuity in the periphery is known to vary with task (resolution or detection),4–6 field loci (eccentricity and meridian), 7–9 and stimulus properties (orientation of the stimulus).7–11 For accurate visual evaluation, all three factors should be taken into consideration. However, little is known about the interaction between task and stimulus orientation. In this study, we therefore quantify the difference in detection and resolution thresholds for gratings of different orientations in the peripheral visual field. Peripheral resolution acuity is well known to be dependent on the orientation of the visual stimuli—known as the meridional effect. Several psychophysical and functional magnetic resonance imaging studies have found that stimuli oriented radially along the meridian are better resolved than stimuli oriented in other directions. 7–11 It has also been reported that the meridional preference for resolution is not caused by refractive errors or other aberrations, hence supporting neural origin.8,9 The physiological cause for the meridional preference would be that retinal ganglion cell dendritic fields are radially oriented.12–15 A neural selectivity for radial grating orientations also in cortical level has been confirmed by Schall et al.16 who found that the orientation columns in the visual cortex of cats are wider for the radial orientation than for other orientations. This neural orientation preference will increase the uncertainty and variability of threshold estimations if the alternatives of a forced-choice paradigm are orientated parallel and perpendicular to the meridian. In addition, there might be a response bias when one of the orientations is more easily seen than the others. Peripheral vision is very important for daily activities, such as orientation, movement, and driving. Peripheral vision evaluation is very important in cases such as macular degenerations, myopia development, and progression research. To avoid uncertainties and inaccuracies in the peripheral acuity measurements, appropriate stimuli selection is vital. Previous studies on the meridional effect have mainly focused on resolution acuity, and little is known about orientation preferences for peripheral detection acuity. Unlike central vision, there is a difference between resolution and detection acuity for peripheral vision: high-contrast resolution is relatively unaffected by optical errors because it is neurally limited,5,17 whereas detection is affected by optical errors.5,6 This means that a stimulus with a spatial frequency above the neural sampling limit cannot be resolved. However, the undersampled stimulus undergoes aliasing and can be perceived through its moire pattern with a lower spatial frequency, a lower contrast, and a different orientation.4,18 The zone of aliasing is dependent on the optical errors in the periphery. Correction of peripheral optical errors enhances the contrast, which improves detection acuity and thereby widens the aliasing zone. Because of the influence of optical errors on peripheral detection acuity, a meridional preference for detection tasks may be a combination of optical and neural orientation sensitivities. The amount and direction of asymmetric optical errors like astigmatism, coma, and transverse chromatic aberration (TCA) can favor the detection of certain orientations over others. The peripheral image quality is dominated by off-axis astigmatism and coma oriented radially, which could lead to poorer detection of perpendicular gratings and hence a larger meridional effect. To reveal neural limitations and evaluate whether the meridional effect is also present for detection tasks, correction of these optical errors is necessary. Therefore, the present study uses a combination of trial lenses, an adaptive optics system, and monochromatic stimuli to correct for the existing monochromatic and chromatic optical errors. In a peripheral detection study by Cheney et al.,19 the optical errors were surpassed by using circular windowed interferometric stimuli. The reported detection cutoff frequencies were high, and a large meridional preference was reported in white light and was suggested to be purely optical in origin, caused by TCA, as the effect disappeared in green light. However, these results may be caused by the special properties of the interferometric stimuli (such as high retinal image contrast and the presence of TCA in the absence of longitudinal chromatic aberrations), and the meridional preference for detection of noninterferometric stimuli could therefore be very different. In the present study, we evaluate the peripheral resolution and detection acuities for different orientations in different visual field meridians with optical correction. The detection measurements are also performed in monochromatic light to elude the effects of chromatic aberrations.

A system is proposed to test torque transducers under reference dynamic regimes, where the reference torque is provided by the application of angular acceleration to a coupled mass moment of inertia. The dynamic regimes include different angular velocity intervals, angular velocity steps and high torque rates. A basic general assembly is proposed and theoretical and practical analyses are performed to determine the primary parameters and depict components. The results show that the angular velocity and torque curves are repeatable and also that the simultaneous responses of torque and acceleration are linear. The mass moments of inertia involved in the measurement process are evaluated. The results provide a positive direction for future tests with transducers and the objective to fill the gap in the metrological traceability chain for torque measurement with dynamic tests and sensor verification.

The purpose of this study was to measure the transverse chromatic aberration (TCA) across the visual field of the human eye objectively. TCA was measured at horizontal and vertical field angles out to ±15° from foveal fixation in the right eye of four subjects. Interleaved retinal images were taken at wavelengths 543 nm and 842 nm in an adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscope (AOSLO). To obtain true measures of the human eye's TCA, the contributions of the AOSLO system's TCA were measured using an on-axis aligned model eye and subtracted from the ocular data. The increase in TCA was found to be linear with eccentricity, with an average slope of 0.21 arcmin/degree of visual field angle (corresponding to 0.41 arcmin/degree for 430 nm to 770 nm). The absolute magnitude of ocular TCA varied between subjects, but was similar to the resolution acuity at 10° in the nasal visual field, encompassing three to four cones. Therefore, TCA can be visually significant. Furthermore, for high-resolution imaging applications, whether visualizing or stimulating cellular features in the retina, it is important to consider the lateral displacements between wavelengths and the variation in blur over the visual field.

Tourism and the food service industries have become major interdependent industries in many countries. This paper focuses on the differing expectations and perceptions of domestic and international consumers within the food service industry and, in particularly, the extent of cooking (degree of doneness) of their beef steak meals. The results of a random survey of 1430 participants in Sydney, Australia and Tokyo, Japan showed how cross-cultural perceptions differ between consumers and accordingly provided a method to eliminate the variation in expectations. This concept could be universally applied to all beef steak food service outlets striving to improve their customer satisfaction.

Measuring the contrast sensitivity function (CSF) in the periphery of the eye is complicated. The lengthy measurement time precludes all but the most determined subjects. The aim of this study was to implement and evaluate a faster routine based on the quick CSF method (qCSF) but adapted to work in the periphery. Additionally, normative data is presented on neurally limited peripheral CSFs. A peripheral qCSF measurement using 100 trials can be performed in 3 min. The precision and accuracy were tested for three subjects under different conditions (number of trials, peripheral angles, and optical corrections). The precision for estimates of contrast sensitivity at individual spatial frequencies was 0.07 log units when three qCSF measurements of 100 trials each were averaged. Accuracy was estimated by comparing the qCSF results with a more traditional measure of CSF. Average accuracy was 0.08 log units with no systematic error. In the second part of the study, we collected three CSFs of 100 trials for six persons in the 20° nasal, temporal, inferior, and superior visual fields. The measurements were performed in an adaptive optics system running in a continuous closed loop. The Tukey HSD test showed significant differences (p < 0.05) between all fields except between the nasal and the temporal fields. Contrast sensitivity was higher in the horizontal fields, and the inferior field was better than the superior. This modified qCSF method decreases the measurement time significantly and allows otherwise unfeasible studies of the peripheral CSF.

The semantics of the linguistic modals is argued to be determined mainly by the power structure of the participants in the interaction. In the deontic uses of the modals, another determining factor is the expectations of the participants' attitudes towards the relevant action. By viewing the evidence as a power in its own right, our analysis can be generalized to the epistemic uses in a coherent way. The epistemic uses are seen as pragmatic strengthenings of the deontic uses, rather than as metaphorical mappings.

A fiber-based device with a novel nematic liquid-crystal overlay compatible with silica fiber at room temperature is reported here to demonstrate polarization-independent modulation. The device is formed using a polished half-coupler block that has been surface treated so that the liquid crystal affects orthogonal polarizations in a similar and simultaneous manner. This permits the modulation of input light of arbitrary polarization on the application of an electric field.

We explore a number of pragmatic principles of communication in a series of computer simulations. These principles characterize both the environment and the behavior of the interacting agents. We investigate how a common language can emerge, and when it will be useful to communicate rather than to try the task without communication. When we include the cost of communicating, it becomes favorable to communicate only when expectations are not met.

Correction and manipulation of peripheral refractive errors are indispensable for people with central vision loss and in optical interventions for myopia control. This study investigates further enhancements of peripheral vision by compensating for monochromatic higher-order aberrations (with an adaptive optics system) and chromatic aberrations (with a narrowband green filter, 550 nm) in the 20° nasal visual field. Both high-contrast detection cutoff and contrast sensitivity improved with optical correction. This improvement was most evident for gratings oriented perpendicular to the meridian due to asymmetric optical errors. When the natural monochromatic higher-order aberrations are large, resolution of 10% contrast oblique gratings can also be improved with correction of these errors. Though peripheral vision is mainly limited by refractive errors and neural factors, higher-order aberration correction beyond conventional refractive errors can still improve peripheral vision under certain circumstances.

Collagen VI-related dystrophies (COL6-RDs) manifest with a spectrum of clinical phenotypes, ranging from Ullrich congenital muscular dystrophy (UCMD), presenting with prominent congenital symptoms and characterised by progressive muscle weakness, joint contractures and respiratory insufficiency, to Bethlem muscular dystrophy, with milder symptoms typically recognised later and at times resembling a limb girdle muscular dystrophy, and intermediate phenotypes falling between UCMD and Bethlem muscular dystrophy. Despite clinical and immunohistochemical features highly suggestive of COL6-RD, some patients had remained without an identified causative variant in COL6A1 , COL6A2 or COL6A3 . With combined muscle RNA-sequencing and whole-genome sequencing we uncovered a recurrent, de novo deep intronic variant in intron 11 of COL6A1 (c.930+189C>T) that leads to a dominantly acting in-frame pseudoexon insertion. We subsequently identified and have characterised an international cohort of forty-four patients with this COL6A1 intron 11 causative variant, one of the most common recurrent causative variants in the collagen VI genes. Patients manifest a consistently severe phenotype characterised by a paucity of early symptoms followed by an accelerated progression to a severe form of UCMD, except for one patient with somatic mosaicism for this COL6A1 intron 11 variant who manifests a milder phenotype consistent with Bethlem muscular dystrophy. Characterisation of this individual provides a robust validation for the development of our pseudoexon skipping therapy. We have previously shown that splice-modulating antisense oligomers applied in vitro effectively decreased the abundance of the mutant pseudoexon-containing COL6A1 transcripts to levels comparable to the in vivo scenario of the somatic mosaicism shown here, indicating that this therapeutic approach carries significant translational promise for ameliorating the severe form of UCMD caused by this common recurrent COL6A1 causative variant to a Bethlem muscular dystrophy phenotype.