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The editorial titled "How does brain stimulation work? Neuroversion and other putative mechanisms of action" explores the evolving field of brain stimulation techniques in psychiatry and neurology. It discusses various methods such as electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation (DBS) that trigger neurochemical and electrophysiological changes in the brain to produce therapeutic effects. The research topic includes 10 articles authored by 76 individuals covering a range of brain stimulation techniques and their applications in neuropsychiatric disorders, aiming to enhance understanding and influence further research and clinical practice. The findings presented in the editorial highlight the diverse applications of brain stimulation techniques and their potential benefits, contributing to the advancement of clinical practice and stimulating further investigation into the mechanisms underlying these therapies. [Extracted from the article]

Low-intensity transcranial electrical stimulation (tES), including techniques like transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS), and oscillatory transcranial direct current stimulation (otDCS), has been widely explored for its neuromodulatory effects on motor, cognitive, and behavioral processes. Despite well-established safety, these techniques can induce varying degrees of discomfort and side effects, potentially impacting their application. This study presents a within-subject sham-controlled experiment directly comparing the subjective experience and side effects of tDCS, tACS, and otDCS. Participants reported their discomfort levels at multiple time points during 20-min stimulation sessions and completed a side-effects questionnaire before and after each session. Results indicated that the overall discomfort levels were low across all conditions, with ≥95% reporting the absence of discomfort or mild procedure-induced discomfort. Nevertheless, tDCS and otDCS were slightly less comfortable compared to sham, especially at the beginning of stimulation, with tACS-induced discomfort levels being overall comparable to sham. The most common side / adverse effects were mild skin sensations, including itching and tingling, particularly with tDCS and otDCS, while tACS occasionally caused phosphenes and blurred vision. These findings provide a systematic comparison of tES-induced discomfort and side effects between different tES techniques, highlighting the high safety of tES, but also the importance of considering within- and between-person variability and time-course effects in tES applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study systematically reviews the literature on transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) interventions for lower-limb endurance performance in healthy adults and provides a summary of the effects and underlying mechanisms of tDCS on lower-limb endurance performance. Systematic searches were performed in PubMed, Web of Science, EBSCO, and ScienceDirect. The risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias assessment tool. The electronic search totaled 341 studies. Twenty-one studies were included in the review after screening. The results show that tDCS effectively improved time to task failure (TTF), increased blood lactate accumulation, and reduced the rating of perceived exertion during cycling. However, the tDCS failed to significantly improve the TTF, relieve muscle pain, and reduce fatigue indices during single-joint fatigue tasks in the knee. Moreover, tDCS intervention caused the effective improvement of the overall lower-limb endurance performance but exerted no uniformly conclusive effect on knee endurance performance. This finding can be partly attributed to varying stimulation protocols across studies. Future studies may focus on the effects of the application of stimulation protocols, such as multitarget stimulation and personalized dosage, to develop targeted stimulation protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Focal epilepsy is common in children and adults with mitochondrial disease. Seizures are often refractory to pharmacological treatment and, in this patient group, frequently evolve to refractory focal status epilepticus (also known as epilepsia partialis continua). Where this occurs, the long-term prognosis is poor. Transcranial DC stimulation (tDCS) is a promising, non-invasive, adjunctive treatment alternative to common surgical procedures. Limited recruitment of study participants with this rare disease and the ethical challenges of administering a treatment to one group and not another, while maintaining strict methodological rigour can pose challenges to the design of a clinical study. Method: We designed the first delayed start, double-blinded, sham-controlled study to evaluate the efficacy of tDCS as an adjunctive treatment for focal epilepsy. We will include participants with a genetically confirmed diagnosis of mitochondrial disease with drug-resistant focal epilepsy aged ≥ 2 years, aiming to collect 30 episodes of focal status epilepticus, each treated for a maximum period of 14 days. The early start intervention arm will receive tDCS from day 1. The delayed start intervention arm will receive sham stimulation until crossover on day 3. Our primary endpoint is a greater than 50% reduction from baseline (on day 0) in seizure frequency assessed by 3x daily reporting, accelerometery, and video monitoring. Changes in the underlying epileptogenic focus within the brain related to the tDCS intervention will be assessed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and/or electroencephalography (EEG). Discussion: Study results in favour of treatment efficacy would support development of tDCS into a mainstream treatment option for focal epileptic seizures related to mitochondrial disease. Trials registration: ISRCTN: 18,241,112; registered on 16/11/2021. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a chronic disorder with various health problems. Reduced functioning of the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC) is associated with impaired regulation of alcohol-seeking behaviors and increased cravings in individuals with AUD. This study aimed to investigate whether 10 add-on sessions of tDCS, over the left DLPFC in detoxified inpatients with AUD could reduce cravings and increase abstinence rates at three months. Methods: Detoxified inpatients with AUD were randomly assigned to either treatment as usual (TAU) plus ten sessions of active tDCS over left DLPFC, or TAU plus ten sessions of sham tDCS treatment twice daily for five consecutive days. Results: The results from the generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) revealed that time had a significant effect on OCDS scores, but neither treatment nor interaction between these two factors had a significant effect on OCDS scores The Chi-square test in the intention- to- treat analysis did not show a significant difference in complete abstinence rates between the active treatment group and the sham treatment group. Conclusions: we found that adding ten sessions of active tDCS over left DLPFC tDCS to the treatment as usual for AUD did not result in improved abstinence rates or reduced craving. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The older population often experiences a gradual age-related decline in the primary motor cortex, leading to muscle weakness that can harm their physical performances. Exercise could improve physical performance and prevent falling in older adults. However, the decrease in motor function and motor skills in older adults reduces the efficiency of fall prevention. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive intervention aimed at improving muscle strength in various conditions by utilizing transcranial direct current stimulation applied to the primary motor cortex (M1). Pre- and post-studies were conducted to demonstrate the effects of a single 20-minute session of tDCS alone, as well as to assess any potential side effects. Sixteen older individuals, both male and female, aged 65 years or older, with or without underlying diseases, were assessed for leg and hand grip strength, followed by physical performance tests. Subsequently, they underwent stimulation of the primary motor cortex through the placement of anodal tDCS (a-tDCS) over the left M1 for 20 min. Immediate effects were evaluated within 24 h, and side effects were recorded for up to 2 weeks after the stimulation. The results demonstrated that a single session of tDCS led to a significant increase in leg strength by 13 kg (5.9 to 20.1 kg, p < 0.01). There was also a significant correlation observed with hand grip strength (r = 0.68, p < 0.01). All physical performance tests, except the fastest speed in the 10-meter walk test, showed statistically significant improvements (p < 0.01). Participants reported no serious side effects, and the intervention will now be incorporated into prospective clinical studies involving older populations to compare its effectiveness with other treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) or transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) have made great progress in recent years and offer boundless potential for the neuroscientific research and treatment of disorders. However, the possible use of NIBS devices for neuro-doping and neuroenhancement in healthy individuals and the military are poorly regulated. The great potentials and diverse applications can have an impact on the future development of the technology and society. This participatory study therefore aims to summarize the perspectives of different stakeholder groups with the help of qualitative workshops. Nine qualitative on-site and virtual workshops were conducted in the study with 91 individuals from seven stakeholder groups: patients, students, do-it-yourself home users of tDCS, clinical practitioners, industry representatives, philosophers, and policy experts. The co-creative and design-based workshops were tailored to each group to document the wishes, fears, and general comments of the participants. The outlooks from each group were collected in written form and summarized into different categories. The result is a comprehensive overview of the different aspects that need to be considered in the field of NIBS. For example, several groups expressed the wish for home-based tDCS under medical supervision as a potential therapeutic intervention and discussed the associated technical specifications. Other topics that were addressed were performance enhancement for certain professional groups, training requirements for practitioners, and questions of agency, among others. This qualitative participatory research highlights the potential of tDCS and repetitive TMS as alternative therapies to medication, with fewer adverse effects and home-based use for tDCS. The ethical and societal impact of the abuse of NIBS for non-clinical use must be considered for policy-making and regulation implementations. This study adds to the neuroethical debate on the responsible use and application of NIBS technologies, taking into consideration the different perspectives of important stakeholders in the field.

Abstract Background Focal epilepsy is common in children and adults with mitochondrial disease. Seizures are often refractory to pharmacological treatment and, in this patient group, frequently evolve to refractory focal status epilepticus (also known as epilepsia partialis continua). Where this occurs, the long-term prognosis is poor. Transcranial DC stimulation (tDCS) is a promising, non-invasive, adjunctive treatment alternative to common surgical procedures. Limited recruitment of study participants with this rare disease and the ethical challenges of administering a treatment to one group and not another, while maintaining strict methodological rigour can pose challenges to the design of a clinical study. Method We designed the first delayed start, double-blinded, sham-controlled study to evaluate the efficacy of tDCS as an adjunctive treatment for focal epilepsy. We will include participants with a genetically confirmed diagnosis of mitochondrial disease with drug-resistant focal epilepsy aged ≥ 2 years, aiming to collect 30 episodes of focal status epilepticus, each treated for a maximum period of 14 days. The early start intervention arm will receive tDCS from day 1. The delayed start intervention arm will receive sham stimulation until crossover on day 3. Our primary endpoint is a greater than 50% reduction from baseline (on day 0) in seizure frequency assessed by 3x daily reporting, accelerometery, and video monitoring. Changes in the underlying epileptogenic focus within the brain related to the tDCS intervention will be assessed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and/or electroencephalography (EEG). Discussion Study results in favour of treatment efficacy would support development of tDCS into a mainstream treatment option for focal epileptic seizures related to mitochondrial disease. Trials registration ISRCTN: 18,241,112; registered on 16/11/2021.

Objectives Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is one of the most common problems in the elderly, which causes a decline in their cognitive function. This study aims to compare the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and short-term cognitive rehabilitation on language skills and attention in older people with mild AD. Methods & Materials This is a quasi-experimental study with a pre-test/post-test/follow-up design. Participants were 60 people over 65 years of age with mild Alzheimer’s referred to a neurologist in 2022, who were selected by a convenience sampling method and were randomly assigned into two experimental groups and one control group (20 in each group). Then, the tDCS was applied in one experimental group at 10 sessions of 20 minutes once a week and the short-term cognitive rehabilitation program was provided to the second experimental group at 9 sessions of 90 minutes, once a week. No intervention was provided to the control group. Before, one week after (post-test) and one month after (follow-up) the end of the intervention, the assessments were conducted in all groups using Addenbrooke’s cognitive examination- revised (ACE-R). For data analysis, repeated measures analysis of variance test was used in SPSS software, version 23. Results Both methods improved the writing and naming domains of language skills, but they had no significant effect on the attention variable. Conclusion Both tDCS and short-term cognitive rehabilitation can be used to improve the language skills of older adults with mild AD.

Purpose: Fatigue, imbalance, and walking disorder were commonly observed in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) as debilitating symptoms. Therefore, the present study aims to examine the effect of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) separately and in combination with virtual reality (VR) training on fatigue, balance, and walking (speed and stride length) in patients with MS. Methods: The present clinical trial research was conducted with 30 MS patients aged 18-55 years (including 21 women and 9 men). The random assignment of subjects was assessed into one of three groups, tDCS group, VR group, and combined tDCS-VR training group. In the tDCS group, the M1 motor cortex was stimulated by direct electrical current in five sessions, and VR training patients participated in the VR program for six sessions. In the combination intervention, participants were delivered tDCS before each VR session. Fatigue severity scale (FSS), Berg balance scale (BBS), and 25-foot walk test (T25-FW) were used to evaluate the fatigue, balance, and walking speed respectively as pre and post-tests. Statistical analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to compare the results between the three groups. Results: Our results showed a significant effect of tDCS, VR, and tDCS-VR on fatigue and a significant effect of VR and tDCS-VR on balance and walking speed in patients with MS (P0.05). Conclusion: Despite the positive effect of fatigue, we found VR and tDCS-VR to be a more effective method for treating balance and walking of the patient. The combination effect of tDCS with VR therapy, should be investigated further.

Cognitive deficits in patients with schizophrenia have drawn widespread attention. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) can modulate cognitive processes by altering neuronal excitability. Previous studies have found that interim testing can enhance spatial route learning and memory in patients with schizophrenia. However, there has been limited research on the combined effects of these two methods on spatial route learning in these patients. To investigate whether the combination of tDCS and interim testing can effectively contribute to the maintenance of spatial route memory in patients with schizophrenia. The study involved conducting route learning using interim testing after anodal tDCS treatment on the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (L-DLPFC). Ninety-two patients with schizophrenia were recruited and divided into groups receiving anodal, sham, or no stimulation. The anodal group received L-DLPFC tDCS treatment 10 times over 5 days (twice daily for 20 min). After treatment, spatial route learning was assessed in interim testing. Correct recall rates of landmark positions and proactive interference from prior learning were compared among the groups. Regardless of stimulation type, the interim testing group outperformed the relearning group. Additionally, recall scores were higher following anodal stimulation, indicating the efficacy of tDCS. Both tDCS and interim testing independently enhance the ability to learn new information in spatial route learning for patients with schizophrenia, indicating that tDCS of the left DLPFC significantly improves memory in these patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is characterized by intrusive thoughts and repetitive behaviors, with associated brain abnormalities in various regions. This study explores the correlation between neural biomarkers and the response to transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) in OCD patients. Using structural MRI data from two tDCS trials involving 55 OCD patients and 28 controls, cortical thickness, and gray matter morphometry was analyzed. Findings revealed thicker precentral and paracentral areas in OCD patients, compared to control (p < 0.001). Correlations between cortical thickness and treatment response indicated a significant association between a thinner precentral area and reduced Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (YBOCS) scores (p = 0.02). While results highlight the complexity of treatment response predictors, this study sheds light on potential neural markers for tDCS response in OCD patients. Further investigations with larger datasets are warranted to better understand the underpinnings of these biomarkers and their implications for personalized treatment approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several cortical structures are involved in theory of mind (ToM), including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), and the right temporo- parietal junction (rTPJ). We investigated the role of these regions in mind reading with respect to the valence of mental states. Sixty-five healthy adult participants were recruited and received transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) (1.5 mA, 20 min) with one week interval in three separate studies. The stimulation conditions were anodal tDCS over the dlPFC coupled with cathodal tDCS over the vmPFC, reversed stimulation conditions, and sham in the first study, and anodal tDCS over the vmPFC, or dlPFC, and sham stimulation, with an extracranial return electrode in the second and third study. During stimulation, participants underwent the reading mind from eyes/voice tests (RMET or RMVT) in each stimulation condition. Anodal left dlPFC/cathodal right vmPFC stimulation increased the accuracy of negative mental state attributions, anodal rTPJ decreased the accuracy of negative and neutral mental state attributions, and decreased the reaction time of positive mental state attributions. Our results imply that the neural correlates of ToM are valence-sensitive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We conducted a meta-analysis of twenty-two trials involving 1074 adults with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. • The effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on various on global cognitions were assessed. • The tDCS can ameliorate global cognition of patients with MCI and AD, and it has a better rehabilitation effect than non-tDCS or sham-tDCS. To systematically assess the effectiveness of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on global cognition in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Ten databases were retrieved for pertinent Chinese and English studies published up until February 2023. Two researchers independently selected the literature, extracted the data, evaluated using the Cochrane Collaboration's quality criteria, and then cross-checked. Meta-analysis was performed using RevMan 5.4. 22 studies involving 1074 patients were included. Compared with the control group received the interventions such as pharmacotherapy, cognitive stimulation, et al., with/without sham-tDCS, while the experiment group received tDCS added to the interventions of the control group. The meta-analysis found that tDCS increased MMSE, MoCA, MODA scores and reduced the P300 latency scores (all P < 0.05). The tDCS can ameliorate the global cognition of patients with MCI and AD, and it has a better rehabilitation effect than non-tDCS or sham-tDCS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most common problems in the elderly, which causes a decline in their cognitive function. This study aims to compare the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and short-term cognitive rehabilitation on language skills and attention in older people with mild AD. Methods & Materials This is a quasi-experimental study with a pre-test/post-test/follow-up design. Participants were 60 people over 65 years of age with mild Alzheimer's referred to a neurologist in 2022, who were selected by a convenience sampling method and were randomly assigned into two experimental groups and one control group (20 in each group). Then, the tDCS was applied in one experimental group at 10 sessions of 20 minutes once a week and the short-term cognitive rehabilitation program was provided to the second experimental group at 9 sessions of 90 minutes, once a week. No intervention was provided to the control group. Before, one week after (post-test) and one month after (follow-up) the end of the intervention, the assessments were conducted in all groups using Addenbrooke's cognitive examination- revised (ACE-R). For data analysis, repeated measures analysis of variance test was used in SPSS software, version 23. Results Both methods improved the writing and naming domains of language skills, but they had no significant effect on the attention variable. Conclusion Both tDCS and short-term cognitive rehabilitation can be used to improve the language skills of older adults with mild AD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Brain stimulation lowered alpha when attending to one's body or external stimuli. • Brain stimulation lowered functional connectivity when attending to one's body only. • Brain stimulation had no effects on verbal self-referential processing or resting state. Past self-report and cognitive-behavioural studies of the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) targeting the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) on semantic self-referential processing (SRP) have yielded mixed results. Meanwhile, electroencephalography (EEG) studies show that alpha oscillation (8–12 Hz) may be involved during both semantic and somatic SRP, although the effect of tDCS on alpha-EEG during SRP remains unknown. The current study assessed the EEG and subjective effects of 2 mA tDCS over the mPFC while participants were SRP either on semantic (life roles, e.g., "friend") or somatic (outer body, e.g., "arms") self-referential stimuli compared to resting state and an external attention memory task in 52 young adults. Results showed that whereas mPFC-tDCS did not yield significant changes in participants' mood or experienced attention or pleasantness levels during the SRP task, EEG source analysis indicated, compared to sham stimulation, that tDCS reduced alpha power during somatic but not semantic SRP in the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), and the frontal, parietal, temporal, and somatosensory cortex, and reduced the functional connectivity between the left inferior parietal lobule and the ventral PCC, but only when mPFC-tDCS was applied at the second while not the first experimental session. Our results suggest that while mPFC-tDCS may be insufficient to alter immediate subjective experience during SRP, mPFC-tDCS may modulate the power and functional connectivity of the brain's alpha oscillations during somatic SRP. Future research directions are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Chronic knee pain in older adults is a prevalent condition that significantly impacts quality of life. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) has emerged as a potential non-invasive treatment option. This scoping review aims to evaluate the efficacy of tDCS in treating chronic knee pain among older adults. Methods: A comprehensive search of peer-reviewed articles was conducted, focusing on randomized controlled trials and pilot studies. Studies were included if they met specific Population, Concept, and Context (PCC) criteria. The primary outcomes assessed were pain reduction and functional improvement. Results: Eleven studies met the inclusion criteria, with a total of 779 participants. However, the results varied across studies, with some showing minimal differences between active tDCS and sham treatments. Advanced neuroimaging techniques, such as functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), provided insights into the neuromodulatory effects of tDCS, revealing changes in brain activity related to pain perception. Conclusions: Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) presents a promising avenue for treating chronic knee pain in elderly individuals. However, the current body of research offers mixed results, emphasizing the need for more extensive and standardized studies. Future research should focus on understanding the underlying mechanisms, optimizing treatment protocols, and exploring the long-term effects and safety of tDCS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-invasive brain stimulation, such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), has been shown to increase the outcome of speech and language therapy (SLT) in chronic aphasia. Only a few studies have investigated the effect of add-on tDCS on SLT in the early stage of aphasia; this may be due to methodological reasons, in particular the influence of spontaneous remission and the difficulty of establishing stimulation protocols in clinical routines. Thirty-seven participants with subacute aphasia (PwA) after stroke (23 men, 14 women; mean age 62 ± 12 years; mean duration 49 ± 28 days) were included in two consecutive periods of treatment lasting two weeks each. During the first period (P1) the participants received 10 sessions of SLT, during the second period (P2) the aphasia therapy was supplemented by anodal left hemispheric 2 mA tDCS over the left hemisphere. Severity-specific language tests (Aachen Aphasia Test (AAT), n = 27 and Bielefeld Aphasia Screening-Reha (BIAS-R), n = 10) were administered before P1, between P1 and P2, and after P2. Where information was available, the results were corrected for spontaneous remission (AAT sample), and the therapy outcomes of P1 and P2 were compared. Participants' overall language abilities improved significantly during P1 and P2. However, improvement—as measured by the AAT profile level or the BIAS-R mean percentage value—during P2 (with tDCS) was significantly higher than during P1 (p < 0.001; AAT sample and p = 0.005; BIAS-R sample). Thus, tDCS protocols can be implemented in early aphasia rehabilitation. Despite the limitations of the research design, which are also discussed from an implementation science perspective, this is preliminary evidence that an individually tailored anodal tDCS can have a significant add-on effect on the outcome of behavioral aphasia therapy in subacute aphasia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the correlation between physical and pulmonary function after 6 weeks of training that included transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) with breathing and balance exercises in 26 older adults who were cross-sectionally randomized into 2 Groups: (a) a Sham Group; and (b) an Active Group. The participants were assessed for physical function outcomes including static and dynamic balance, lower-limb strength, and physical endurance. Moreover, they were evaluated for respiratory muscle strength and pulmonary function after using active or sham tDCS with breathing and balance exercises for 6 weeks. The findings showed a significant positive correlation between physical function (only static balance) with expiratory muscle strength and pulmonary function in the Sham Group (P < 0.05) while the Active Group showed a significant positive correlation between physical function (i.e., static balance, lower-limb strength, and physical endurance) with respiratory muscle strength and pulmonary function (P < 0.05). In contrast, there was a negative significant correlation between dynamic balance with respiratory muscle strength and pulmonary function (P < 0.05) in the Active Group. This study showed that the association between physical function outcomes and pulmonary function outcomes in the active tDCS are higher than those in the sham tDCS. The findings confirm the benefit of applying active tDCS with breathing and balance exercises to rehabilitate older adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Language delay cannot be ignored, and there is an urgent need to determine therapies that elicit better results in a short period. However, whether transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) alone or in combination with other therapies can promote recovery of language and cognitive function in children with language delay remains unknown. This study aims to explore the effects of tDCS combined with language-cognitive training and home-based rehabilitation on language and cognitive ability in children with language delay. Methods: Children with language delay who visited the Department of rehabilitation medicine or the pediatric outpatient clinic of the First People’s Hospital of Foshan from January 2019 to December 2021, totaling 190 in number, were included and randomly divided into 4 groups, i.e., the family guidance group, the tDCS group, the language-cognitive training group, and the comprehensive training group. The family guidance group (47 cases) received home training. The tDCS group (46 cases) received home training and tDCS treatment. The language- cognitive training group (49 cases) adopted home training and language-cognitive training. The comprehensive training group (48 cases) took home training, language-cognitive training, and tDCS treatment. All groups received training 5 times a week for 4 weeks. The Sign-significant relations (S-S) test was applied to evaluate the language comprehension, language expression, basic learning ability, and attitude of communication of the children. Results: The language-cognitive training group and the comprehensive training group showed improvement after treatment (p < 0.05) regarding basic learning ability. The communication attitude of the four groups improved after intervention (p < 0.05). Particularly, the comprehensive training group had maximum improvement after intervention. No serious adverse reactions such as epilepsy, headache, and behavioral abnormalities were found. Conclusion: tDCS combined with language-cognitive training and home training can improve language and cognitive ability in children with language delay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ending a romantic relationship is one of the most painful losses an adult experience. Neuroimaging studies suggest that there is a neuropsychological link between breakup experiences and bereaved individuals, and that specific prefrontal regions are involved. The aim of this study was to determine whether enhancement of left DLPFC and right VLPFC activity with a novel intensified anodal transcranial direct current stimulation protocol reduces core symptoms of love trauma syndrome (LTS) and improves treatment-related variables. In this randomized, sham-controlled, single-blind parallel trial, we assessed the efficacy of an intensified anodal stimulation protocol (20 min, twice-daily sessions with 20 min intervals, 5 consecutive days) with two montages (left DLPFC vs right VLPFC) to reduce love trauma symptoms. 36 participants with love trauma syndrome were randomized in three tDCS condition (left DLPFC, right VLPFC, sham stimulation). LTS symptoms, treatment-related outcome variables (depressive state, anxiety, emotion regulation, positive and negative affect), and cognitive functions were assessed before, right after, and one month after intervention. Both DLPFC and VLPFC protocols significantly reduced LTS symptoms, and improved depressive state and anxiety after the intervention, as compared to the sham group. The improving effect of the DLPFC protocol on love trauma syndrome was significantly larger than that of the VLPFC protocol. For emotion regulation and positive and negative affect, improved regulation of emotions and positive affect and reduced negative affect were revealed after intervention in the two real stimulation conditions compared to the sham. For cognitive functions, no significant difference was observed between the groups, but again a positive effect of intervention within groups in the real stimulation conditions (DLPFC and VLPFC) was found for most components of the cognitive tasks. Enhancement of left DLPFC and right VLPFC activity with intensified stimulation improves LTS symptoms and treatment-related variables. For LTS symptoms, DLPFC stimulation was more efficient than VLPFC stimulation., For the other variables, no significant difference was observed between these two stimulation groups. These promising results require replication in larger trials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Research has shown that visual perceptual learning (VPL) is related to modifying neural activity in higher level decision‐making regions. However, the causal roles of the prefrontal and visual cortexes in VPL are still unclear. Here, we investigated how anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of the prefrontal and visual cortices modulates VPL in the early and later phases and the role of multiple brain regions. Methods: Perceptual learning on the coherent motion direction identification task included early and later stages. After early training, participants needed to continuously train to reach a plateau; once the plateau was reached, participants entered a later stage. Sixty participants were randomly divided into five groups. Regardless of the training at the early and later stages, four groups received multitarget tDCS over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (rDLPFC) and right middle temporal area (rMT), single‐target tDCS over the rDLPFC, and single‐target tDCS over the rMT or sham stimulation, and one group was stimulated at the ipsilateral brain region (i.e., left MT). Results: Compared with sham stimulation, multitarget and two single‐target tDCS over the rDLPFC or rMT improved posttest performance and accelerated learning during the early period. However, multitarget tDCS and two single‐target tDCS led to equivalent benefits for VPL. Additionally, these beneficial effects were absent when anodal tDCS was applied to the ipsilateral brain region. For the later period, the above facilitating effects on VPL induced by multitarget or single‐target tDCS disappeared. Conclusions: This study suggested the causal role of the prefrontal and visual cortices in visual motion perceptual learning by anodal tDCS but failed to find greater beneficial effects by simultaneously stimulating the prefrontal and visual cortices. Future research should investigate the functional associations between multiple brain regions to further promote VPL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individuals with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) struggle with the interaction of attention and emotion. The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) are assumed to be involved in this interaction. In the present study, we aimed to explore the effect of stimulation applied over the dlPFC and vmPFC on attention bias in individuals with ADHD. Twenty-three children with ADHD performed the emotional Stroop and dot probe tasks during transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in 3 conditions: anodal dlPFC (F3)/cathodal vmPFC (Fp2), anodal vmPFC (Fp2)/cathodal dlPFC (F3), and sham stimulation. Findings suggest reduction of attention bias in both real conditions based on emotional Stroop task and not dot probe task. These results were independent of emotional states. The dlPFC and vmPFC are involved in attention bias in ADHD. tDCS can be used for attention bias modification in children with ADHD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Fatigue, imbalance, and walking disorder were commonly observed in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) as debilitating symptoms. Therefore, the present study aims to examine the effect of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) separately and in combination with virtual reality (VR) training on fatigue, balance, and walking (speed and stride... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low-intensity transcranial electrical stimulation (tES), including techniques like transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS), and oscillatory transcranial direct current stimulation (otDCS), has been widely explored for its neuromodulatory effects on motor, cognitive, and behavioral processes. Despite well-established safety, these techniques can induce varying degrees of discomfort and side effects, potentially impacting their application. This study presents a within-subject sham-controlled experiment directly comparing the subjective experience and side effects of tDCS, tACS, and otDCS. Participants reported their discomfort levels at multiple time points during 20-min stimulation sessions and completed a side-effects questionnaire before and after each session. Results indicated that the overall discomfort levels were low across all conditions, with ≥95% reporting the absence of discomfort or mild procedure-induced discomfort. Nevertheless, tDCS and otDCS were slightly less comfortable compared to sham, especially at the beginning of stimulation, with tACS-induced discomfort levels being overall comparable to sham. The most common side / adverse effects were mild skin sensations, including itching and tingling, particularly with tDCS and otDCS, while tACS occasionally caused phosphenes and blurred vision. These findings provide a systematic comparison of tES-induced discomfort and side effects between different tES techniques, highlighting the high safety of tES, but also the importance of considering within- and between-person variability and time-course effects in tES applications.

Abstract Children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) typically exhibit difficulties in emotion regulation. It has been shown that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) are crucially involved in these deficient processes. In this study, we aimed to explore the impact of electrical stimulation over the left dlPFC and right vmPFC on emotion regulation in children with ADHD. Twenty-four children with ADHD completed the Emotional Go/No-Go and Emotional 1-Back tasks while undergoing transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in three separate sessions, each with a different electrode placement: anodal dlPFC (F3)/cathodal vmPFC (Fp2), anodal vmPFC (Fp2)/cathodal dlPFC (F3), and sham stimulation. During both real tDCS conditions, the accuracy of pre-potent inhibitory control and working memory performance improved, but not speed. This study provides evidence that the left dlPFC and the right vmPFC are involved in emotion regulation in ADHD.

Abstract The causal role of the cerebral hemispheres in positive and negative emotion processing remains uncertain. The Right Hemisphere Hypothesis proposes right hemispheric superiority for all emotions, while the Valence Hypothesis suggests the left/right hemisphere's primary involvement in positive/negative emotions, respectively. To address this, emotional video clips were presented during dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) electrical stimulation, incorporating a comparison of tDCS and high frequency tRNS stimulation techniques and manipulating perspective-taking (first-person vs third-person Point of View, POV). Four stimulation conditions were applied while participants were asked to rate emotional video valence: anodal/cathodal tDCS to the left/right DLPFC, reverse configuration (anodal/cathodal on the right/left DLPFC), bilateral hf-tRNS, and sham (control condition). Results revealed significant interactions between stimulation setup, emotional valence, and POV, implicating the DLPFC in emotions and perspective-taking. The right hemisphere played a crucial role in both positive and negative valence, supporting the Right Hemisphere Hypothesis. However, the complex interactions between the brain hemispheres and valence also supported the Valence Hypothesis. Both stimulation techniques (tDCS and tRNS) significantly modulated results. These findings support both hypotheses regarding hemispheric involvement in emotions, underscore the utility of video stimuli, and emphasize the importance of perspective-taking in this field, which is often overlooked.

Children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) typically exhibit difficulties in emotion regulation. It has been shown that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) are crucially involved in these deficient processes. In this study, we aimed to explore the impact of electrical stimulation over the left dlPFC and right vmPFC on emotion regulation in children with ADHD. Twenty-four children with ADHD completed the Emotional Go/No-Go and Emotional 1-Back tasks while undergoing transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in three separate sessions, each with a different electrode placement: anodal dlPFC (F3)/cathodal vmPFC (Fp2), anodal vmPFC (Fp2)/cathodal dlPFC (F3), and sham stimulation. During both real tDCS conditions, the accuracy of pre-potent inhibitory control and working memory performance improved, but not speed. This study provides evidence that the left dlPFC and the right vmPFC are involved in emotion regulation in ADHD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vascular dementia, the second most common type of dementia, currently lacks a definitive cure. In the pursuit of therapies aimed at slowing its progression and alleviating symptoms, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) emerges as a promising approach, characterized by its non-invasive nature and the ability to promote brain plasticity. In this study, the primary objective was to investigate the effects of a two-week cycle of tDCS on the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and neurophysiological functioning in thirty patients diagnosed with vascular dementia. Each participant was assigned to one of two groups: the experimental group, which received anodal tDCS to stimulate DPCFL, and the control group, which received sham tDCS. Neurophysiological functions were assessed before and after tDCS using P300 event-related potentials (ERPs), while neuropsychological function was evaluated through a Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). The results showed a reduction in P300 latency, indicating a faster cognitive process; an increase in P300 amplitude, suggesting a stronger neural response to cognitive stimuli; and a significant improvement in MMSE scores compared to the control group, indicating an overall enhancement in cognitive functions. These findings suggest that tDCS could represent a promising therapeutic option for improving both neurophysiological and cognitive aspects in patients with vascular dementia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Background: Transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS) is a form of noninvasive transcranial electrical stimulation that applies alternating current in various randomized frequencies to the cortex, thereby improving cognitive functioning in multiple domains. However, the precise mechanism of tRNS, as well as its impact on human electroencephalography (EEG), remains unclear. This is partly because most studies have used tRNS in conjunction with a cognitive task, making it difficult to tease apart whether the observed changes in EEG are a result of tRNS, the cognitive task, or their interaction. Methods: Forty-nine healthy individuals participated in this study and were randomly assigned to active tRNS (n = 24) and sham (n = 25) groups. tRNS was delivered for 20 minutes over Fp1/Fp2 and Oz. Resting-state EEG data were collected before and after either tRNS or sham stimulation. Results: Cluster-based permutation tests using FieldTrip revealed no frequency-specific effect of tRNS on resting-state EEG data across four frequency bands (theta, alpha, beta, gamma). Conclusions: These observations suggest that tRNS itself does not target or alter specific EEG frequencies. Rather, tRNS most likely interacts with the cognitive task/activity at hand to produce an observable difference in post-tRNS EEG. Positive tRNS-EEG findings from previous studies are also likely to have resulted from the interactive and cognitive activity-dependent nature of tRNS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Stroke is one of the most debilitating diseases among adults worldwide and leads to persistent rehabilitation needs even at the chronic stage. Achieving good postural control is a critical requirement for daily activities which enhances quality of life (QoL) in patients with stroke. There is increasing evidence that transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) can be considered a promising adjunct technique to improve motor recovery after stroke. Evidence of augmented neuroplasticity after tDCS suggests that paired rehabilitation followed by consecutive use of tDCS may optimize recovery outcomes. Although a few randomized controlled trials have been conducted on upper limb rehabilitation in chronic stroke using tDCS, no study focused on balance training in chronic stroke patients. The present randomized, sham-controlled, double-blinded clinical study addresses brain stimulation targeting postural control using tDCS in chronic stroke. Methods: The study participants included chronic ischemic stroke individuals with postural control impairments who passed the exclusion criteria. Active or sham anodal tDCS was delivered to the lesioned leg motor cortex combined with balance training. The experimental group received active anodal tDCS stimulation (2 mA) for 20 min, daily for 5 days paired with balance training. Linear and nonlinear approaches were used to analyze postural sway changes pre-and post-intervention. Postural sway fluctuation, functional balance assessment using the Berg balance scale, and timed up-and-go test were conducted to compare the active and sham groups. Conclusion: This trial could have significant implications for balance rehabilitation after stroke in the ambulatory setting. If effective, this novel approach may improve rehabilitation protocol in this population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The implicit moral decision exists widely in our daily life, such as the non-deceptive counterfeit luxury consumption, but its moral decision mechanism remains to be clarified. This study is dedicated to studying how moral beliefs affect individuals' moral decision process and decision outcomes in implicit moral decisions, as well as the effect of attitude function, which can impact the implicit degree of moral decision. We employed transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to examine neural underlying and effect of moral belief on counterfeit luxury consumption. In this study, we adopted 2 (stimulation group: active vs. sham, between-subject) × 2 (attitude function: social-adjustive vs. value-expressive, within-subject) mixed design. 58 participants were randomly assigned to either active or sham tDCS groups (a-tDCS vs. s-tDCS). Our results showed that the moral belief of counterfeit luxury consumption was higher for a-tDCS group (left anodal/right cathodal tDCS over dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) than s-tDCS group (sham stimulation). The counterfeit luxury purchase intention of s-tDCS group is higher. Moreover, we also found reaction time of value-expressive function is longer for a-tDCS group. Hence, these results suggested that moral beliefs can change implicit moral decisions, which is also related to left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Besides, attitude functions can affect the relationship between moral beliefs and moral decision processes. In summary, the current study's research findings can help understand and solve the social problems caused by implicit moral decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses musician's dystonia and proposes novel treatment strategies. The authors emphasize the importance of early and precise diagnosis and advocate for a comprehensive approach to treatment that considers the neurobiological and psychosocial aspects of the condition. They suggest interventions targeting the sensorimotor system, as well as interventions addressing memory consolidation, identity integration, and emotion regulation. The article also highlights the potential benefits of personalized physiotherapy and psychotherapy. The text discusses a therapeutic approach called EMDR+ R that incorporates music and bilateral sound stimulation to address task-specific focal dystonia in musicians. It also discusses the use of personalized neuromodulation techniques to alleviate sensorimotor integration deficits. The proposed multidimensional therapeutic strategy includes personalized psychotherapy, sensory-motor retuning, and neuromodulation, with the option for remote treatment. The text acknowledges the need for further research and clinical trials to evaluate the effectiveness of these approaches. This document is a list of references for various scientific articles related to the treatment and understanding of focal hand dystonia in musicians. The articles cover topics such as the effectiveness of behavioral treatment, the role of somatosensory cortical organization, the impact of stress on motor performance, and the use of neuromodulation techniques. [Extracted from the article]

BackgroundAimsMethods & ProceduresOutcomes & ResultsSemantic variant of primary progressive aphasia (svPPA) is a form of dementia leading to progressive language comprehension and production difficulties.We investigated whether a phonological approach combined with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) would improve naming skills in semantic-based word finding difficulties due to svPPA.A 58-year-old female with svPPA was treated with phonological components analysis (PCA) combined with anodal transcranial direct current simulation (atDCS) of the left anterior temporal lobe. She completed four structured therapy blocks, each lasting two weeks and separated by a minimum two-week break including two interim tests. Before and after the intervention, we additionally assessed the participant’s general cognitive and language skills.Logistic regression showed that the participant’s ability to name trained and untrained items improved significantly. Furthermore, her overall cognitive and language abilities seemed to stagnate over the eight months, which seems surprising given the underlying progressive svPPA. We therefore concluded that phonological approaches combined with tDCS can enhance naming abilities even though the difficulties are mainly semantically driven. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study compares the effectiveness of mindfulness meta-cognitive therapy and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on experiential avoidance, negative strategies of cognitive emotion regulation, and emotional processing in people with general anxiety disorder (GAD). Methods: This was a semi-experimental research with experimental and control groups. A total of 45 patients with GAD were selected using the purposeful sampling method. One group received 8 sessions of mindfulness meta-cognitive therapy (one session per week), and another group received 15 sessions of tDCS (three sessions per week; each session was 20 min in F3/F4 with an intensity of 2 mA). All subjects in two treatment groups and one waitlist control group were evaluated before and after the treatment using an acceptance and action questionnaire, cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire, and emotional processing scale. The data were analyzed by multivariate analysis of covariance and the Tukey test. The data were analyzed using the SPSS software, version 19. Results: The results showed that tDCS and mindfulness meta-cognitive therapy are effective in experiential avoidance (F=98.53, η2=0.744), negative strategies for cognitive emotion regulation (F=102.26, η2=0.824), and emotional processing (F=121.26, η2=0.931) in people with GAD. There is no significant difference in the experiential avoidance variable (md=0.735, P=0.575) and emotional processing (md=0.731, P=0.134) between mindfulness meta-cognitive therapy and tDCS therapy; however, in the rumination subscale, only mindfulness metacognitive therapy treatment method has been effective in the variable of negative strategies of cognitive emotion regulation (md=4.63, P=0.008). Conclusion: tDCS and mindfulness meta-cognitive therapy were both effective in improving GAD symptoms, but mindfulness meta-cognitive therapy had more effects on clients' rumination. As a result, to control the negative strategies for cognitive emotion regulation, mindfulness meta-cognitive therapy has a better effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Bipolar disorder is classified as one of the most debilitating mental diseases. Although patients receive medical treatment, cognitive deficits remain in the euthymic phase in many patients. It is hypothesized that brain electrical stimulation protocols that increase cognitive function may increase the quality of life. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of transcranial direct current stimulation in improving cognitive function in bipolar patients in the euthymic phase. Methods & Materials: In a double-blind, sham-controlled- clinical trial, 46 euthymic bipolar patients diagnosed based on DSM-V were randomly divided into the two intervention and control groups. tDCS was applied for the intervention group using an anode electrode at the left dorsolateral-peripheral cortex (F3) and the cathode at the right dorsolateral-frontal (F4) (based on the 10/20 system) at 2 mA for 20 min. The Strop Color and Word Test, The Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT), and The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAISR) were evaluated before, at the end of the third and the seventh weeks of the intervention. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS v 16. Results: The scores of immediate and delayed auditory memory and visual memory in the intervention group, unlike the control group, improved significantly after treatment. Moreover, Wechsler's working memory score in the intervention group improved significantly after treatment. Consistent and inconsistent answers scores were also significantly improved in the intervention group compared with the controls. Conclusion: The present study indicated that tDCS might be an efficient and safe method for improving cognitive function in euthymic bipolar patients.

Abstract Background Research has shown that visual perceptual learning (VPL) is related to modifying neural activity in higher level decision‐making regions. However, the causal roles of the prefrontal and visual cortexes in VPL are still unclear. Here, we investigated how anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of the prefrontal and visual cortices modulates VPL in the early and later phases and the role of multiple brain regions. Methods Perceptual learning on the coherent motion direction identification task included early and later stages. After early training, participants needed to continuously train to reach a plateau; once the plateau was reached, participants entered a later stage. Sixty participants were randomly divided into five groups. Regardless of the training at the early and later stages, four groups received multitarget tDCS over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (rDLPFC) and right middle temporal area (rMT), single‐target tDCS over the rDLPFC, and single‐target tDCS over the rMT or sham stimulation, and one group was stimulated at the ipsilateral brain region (i.e., left MT). Results Compared with sham stimulation, multitarget and two single‐target tDCS over the rDLPFC or rMT improved posttest performance and accelerated learning during the early period. However, multitarget tDCS and two single‐target tDCS led to equivalent benefits for VPL. Additionally, these beneficial effects were absent when anodal tDCS was applied to the ipsilateral brain region. For the later period, the above facilitating effects on VPL induced by multitarget or single‐target tDCS disappeared. Conclusions This study suggested the causal role of the prefrontal and visual cortices in visual motion perceptual learning by anodal tDCS but failed to find greater beneficial effects by simultaneously stimulating the prefrontal and visual cortices. Future research should investigate the functional associations between multiple brain regions to further promote VPL.

Neurobehavioral studies have provided evidence for the effectiveness of anodal tDCS on language production, by stimulation of the left Inferior Frontal Gyrus (IFG) or of left Temporo-Parietal Junction (TPJ). However, tDCS is currently not used in clinical practice outside of trials, because behavioral effects have been inconsistent and underlying neural effects unclear. Here, we propose to elucidate the neural correlates of verb and noun learning and to determine if they can be modulated with anodal high-definition (HD) tDCS stimulation. Thirty-six neurotypical participants were randomly allocated to anodal HD-tDCS over either the left IFG, the left TPJ, or sham stimulation. On day one, participants performed a naming task (pre-test). On day two, participants underwent a new-word learning task with rare nouns and verbs concurrently to HD-tDCS for 20 min. The third day consisted of a post-test of naming performance. EEG was recorded at rest and during naming on each day. Verb learning was significantly facilitated by left IFG stimulation. HD-tDCS over the left IFG enhanced functional connectivity between the left IFG and TPJ and this correlated with improved learning. HD-tDCS over the left TPJ enabled stronger local activation of the stimulated area (as indexed by greater alpha and beta-band power decrease) during naming, but this did not translate into better learning. Thus, tDCS can induce local activation or modulation of network interactions. Only the enhancement of network interactions, but not the increase in local activation, leads to robust improvement of word learning. This emphasizes the need to develop new neuromodulation methods influencing network interactions. Our study suggests that this may be achieved through behavioral activation of one area and concomitant activation of another area with HD-tDCS.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) targeting the prefrontal cortex has emerged as a valuable tool in psychiatric research. Understanding the impact of affective states, such as stress at the time of stimulation, on the efficacy of prefrontal tDCS is crucial for advancing tDCS interventions. Stress-primed tDCS, wherein stress is used as a priming agent, has the potential to modulate neural plasticity and enhance cognitive functions, particularly in emotional working memory. However, prior research using stress-primed tDCS focused solely on non-emotional working memory performance, yielding mixed results. In this sham-controlled study, we addressed this gap by investigating the effects of stress-primed bifrontal tDCS (active versus sham) on both non-emotional and emotional working memory performance. The study was conducted in 146 healthy individuals who were randomly assigned to four experimental groups. The Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) or a control variant of the test was used to induce a stress versus control state. The results showed that stress priming significantly enhanced the effects of tDCS on the updating of emotional content in working memory, as evidenced by improved accuracy. Notably, no significant effects of stress priming were found for non-emotional working memory performance. These findings highlight the importance of an individual's prior affective state in shaping their response to tDCS, especially in the context of emotional working memory.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common degenerative neurological disorder, characterized by static tremor, bradykinesia, myotonia and postural abnormalities. Dopaminergic drugs are the main drugs in the treatment of PD, but long-term use will lead to drug efficacy loss, and even cause some adverse reactions such as dyskinesia and "on-off" phenomenon. Neuromodulation is a kind of biomedical engineering technology that can stimulate or inhibit the activity of brain neurons and regulate the changes of neuroplasticity by means of electric energy, magnetic field, ultrasound and other methods, so as to achieve treatment and improvement of diseases. In the non-drug treatment of PD, neuromodulation, as a new therapeutic means, has shown good efficacy, and has the advantages of small adverse reactions and easy tolerance. Based on this, this article reviews the research progress of several common neuromodulation in PD, including deep brain stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation, transcranial direct current stimulation and transcranial focused ultrasound.

Abstract Background Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a highly effective treatment for depressive disorder. However, the use of ECT is limited by its cognitive side effects (CSEs), and no specific intervention has been developed to address this problem. As transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a safe and useful tool for improving cognitive function, the main objective of this study was to explore the ability to use tDCS after ECT to ameliorate the cognitive side effects. Methods 60 eligible participants will be recruited within two days after completing ECT course and randomly assigned to receive either active or sham stimulation in a blinded, parallel-design trial and continue their usual pharmacotherapy. The tDCS protocol consists of 30-min sessions at 2 mA, 5 times per week for 2 consecutive weeks, applied through 15-cm2 electrodes. An anode will be placed over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), and a cathode will be placed over the right supraorbital cortex. Cognitive function and depressive symptoms will be assessed before the first stimulation (T0), after the final stimulation (T1), 2 weeks after the final stimulation (T2), and 4 weeks after the final stimulation (T3) using the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB). Discussion We describe a novel clinical trial to explore whether the administration of tDCS after completing ECT course can accelerates recovery from the CSEs. We hypothesized that the active group would recover faster from the CSEs and be superior to the sham group. If our hypothesis is supported, the use of tDCS could benefit eligible patients who are reluctant to receive ECT and reduce the risk of self-inflicted or suicide due to delays in treatment. Trial registration details The trial protocol is registered with https://www.chictr.org.cn/ under protocol registration number ChiCTR2300071147 (date of registration: 05.06.2023). Recruitment will start in November 2023.

Study purpose. At the end of the twentieth century, the development of highly reliable and painless non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation techniques and devices has aroused great scientific and clinical interest in numerous fields. In neuroscience, since the introduction of innovative and non-invasive devices such as the brain stimulator, the investigation of cortical processes and their neural basis has played a fundamental role. Furthermore, neuroscientists are attracted to therapeutic applications for the treatment of food craving. This narrative review is aimed to explain the growing and constant interest of neuroscientific experimentation in the field of non-invasive transcranial stimulation. Material and methods. After an introduction explaining the historical evolution of NIBS, we will try to provide an overview of the two stimulation techniques (TMS and tDCS); we will describe the different types of stimulation that can be performed using these techniques, the excitatory/inhibitory effects, and the various mechanisms of action at the level of brain activity. Results. We will also provide some elucidations regarding the implications of the facilitative/inhibitory effects, and how these stimulation methods can be used to advance knowledge of the neurofunctional organization of the brain. Conclusion. The results of the study showed the effect of brain neuromodulation on sports and nutrition.