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A modern risk-based meat safety assurance system (RB-MSAS) for poultry includes information systems to better adapt to risks for meat safety. Food Chain Information (FCI) according to Regulation (EC) No 853/2004 includes data on animal health, laboratory test results and further information that is relevant for consumer protection. FCI has to be transferred from the farm to the abattoir where the data analysis leads to adaptations of the slaughter process and/or meat inspection. As the EU regulation describes the required FCI imprecisely and without recommendations for meaningful reactions to specific information, implementation differs between European countries and even between abattoirs within one country. To assess the status quo of transfer, use and the usefulness of FCI in Europe, we conducted a survey on FCI for broilers among European stakeholders. The answers of 32 respondents, working in 14 different European countries as official veterinarians/meat inspection officers, food business operators/quality assurance managers, or in other positions in broiler meat hygiene, were included in the analysis. Overall, 75% (24/32) of the respondents stated they find FCI helpful for decision-making. All respondents (56%, 18/32) with electronic access to FCI find the transmission procedure practical. Most respondents get information about previous ante-mortem (81%, 26/32) and post-mortem (91%, 29/32) inspection results for flocks from the same holding of provenance. Likewise, most respondents receive data on mortality rate (88%, 28/32) and veterinary medications with a withdrawal period that have been administered during the fattening period (84%, 27/32). Overall, 53% of the respondents indicated that the entire fattening period would be the optimal relevant period for recording the administration of veterinary medications with a withdrawal period. In addition to this information, the respondents desired to have more data about further treatment (28%, 9/32) and data from the private veterinarian responsible for the farm (25%, 8/32). Knowledge of these data especially led to various measures being initiated at the abattoir, according to the respondents. In contrast, some specific production data were reported as also an important part of FCI, even though these data have little impact on the measures to protect human health that are taken in the slaughter process or at post-mortem inspection. All respondents transferred information about findings in the abattoir back to the farmers: these data were ante-mortem (72%, 23/32) and post-mortem (100%, 32/32) inspection results as well as further information (28%, 6/32). Our study shows that FCI for broilers is already widely successfully established as part of the RB-MSAS in Europe. Important information, like the ante- and post-mortem inspection results, is mostly available. Recommendations for improvement and for data to be included based on our study and literature are, inter alia: electronic data transfer; on-farm mortality; diseases occurring on-farm, especially those shortly before slaughter; all data on treatment with veterinary medications; EFSA's harmonised epidemiological indicators and; specific production data. Further studies are needed to gain a deeper understanding of correlations between ante-mortem data for the flock and findings at post-mortem inspection. Specific measures to be taken as a result of incoming information need to be stipulated in order that FCI is used more efficiently as a risk assessment tool in RB-MSAS.

In the light of the recent findings of the tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis (EM) in four red foxes from three different locations in Sweden, the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (Vitenskapskomiteen; VKM), Panel of Biological Hazards (Faggruppe hygiene og smittestoffer) took the initiative to undertake a risk assessment regarding the probability of this parasite being introduced to mainland Norway and thus becoming a threat to public health in the country. EM is a small tapeworm that resides in the intestine of carnivores (e.g. foxes, dogs) that function as final hosts for the adult tapeworm. The infection here gives few or no symptoms. Adult tapeworms produce eggs that are released in the faeces of the carnivores and may be ingested by mammals, usually rodents or lagomorphs1, which act as intermediate hosts. In the intermediate hosts, the larval form of the tapeworm produces cysts, predominantly in the liver, where they proliferate and may invade the surrounding tissues. If the infected intermediate host is eaten by a susceptible final host, the adult tapeworm develops in the intestine and the lifecycle is completed. EM is of public health significance as humans may act as accidental intermediate hosts if they ingest eggs, either through contaminated foods or water, or from contact with infected final hosts (dogs, foxes) or their faeces. In untreated patients the disease is often fatal (10 year survival rate of 29 %), and in treated patients the 10 year survival rate is 80 %. The anthelmintic treatment is long-term (for several years, possibly life-long) and expensive. Liver transplantation may be required. Conclusions: Based on the fact that EM is endemic in many European countries, that the incidence in endemic countries is increasing, and that the areas of endemicity are expanding it seems likely that EM will be imported into Norway at some point, perhaps within the next 10 years. Given the high numbers of pets crossing the border between Sweden and Norway and the paucity of checks regarding compliance with treatment legislation, this seems to be a likely route of entry of EM to Norway, should this occur. Introduction of checks may reduce this likelihood. Under the current monitoring conditions, VKM find it less likely that EM will be detected upon the first introduction to Norway. EM will probably only be detected once the prevalence in foxes is greater than 1%. The red fox population size is estimated to be between 70 000 to 120 000 animals. This means between 700 to 1200 red foxes would need to be infected before EM infection is likely to be detected under the current monitoring program. If EM is identified early enough after introduction, then it might be possible to avoid the establishment of EM in Norway and/or to limit the region of endemicity. This is dependent on optimal detection techniques and sufficient monitoring. VKM considers that it is unlikely that EM will be imported to Norway via contaminated produce (berries, fruits and mushrooms). Norway’s strong ‘outdoor’ culture, in which hunting, camping, berry-picking and other outdoor activities play a significant role, may place the Norwegian population at greater likelihood of contracting EM than populations in other European countries. However, it should be noted that even in countries with endemic EM, human echinococcosis is, apparently, relatively rare.

The Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety was asked by the Norwegian Food Safety Authority (Mattilsynet) to evaluate the probability of introduction of rabies to Norway through: The importation of young dogs and cats under the present regulations; The importation of young dogs and cats if the regulations are changed to allow importation of unvaccinated animals younger than three months from certain EEA countries; The importation of dogs and cats from an EEA country when the animals are both identified, vaccinated and have valid serology tests; The free passage of wild animals across the Norwegian border? The first three questions were answered by a quantitative approach using a simulation model. The EEA countries were classified into 4 groups based on the estimated prevalence of rabies in dogs and cats, with the estimate increasing from Group 1 to Group 4. He estimates for the prevalence of rabies were based upon the number of reported cases of rabies in dogs and cats for the years 2003-2004 and corrected for possible underreporting. Group 1 – No rabies cases reported during the last two years (except in bats), AND negligible probability of importation of rabies cases from close areas: Cyprus, Iceland, Ireland, UK, Sweden, Denmark, (Norway). Group 2 – No rabies cases reported during the last two years (except in bats or in imported animals), but non-negligible probability of importation of from close areas: Italy, France, Spain, Greece, Portugal, Belgium, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Finland and Malta. Group 3 – Low-prevalence endemic area, with few rabies cases reported: Germany, Austria, Slovenia, and Czech Republic. Group 4 – Large number of rabies cases reported in domestic and wild animals: Slovak Republic, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and Hungary. Any significant change in the prevalence of rabies in exporting countries will cause a change in the probability of introduction of rabies to importing countries, Therefore, continuous surveillance of rabies is necessary and the probability of the introduction of rabies should be re-evaluated if significant changes in the prevalence of rabies occur in exporting countries. The number of imported cats and dogs is important for assessing the probability of introducing rabies. In this report, three scenarios based upon three different numbers of imported cats and dogs from each of the different groups of countries have been considered (100, 1000 or 10 000). Provided that the current rabies situation in the different group of countries remained constant, it was estimated that with an annual importation of 10 000 vaccinated and tested dogs and cats from countries in Group 3, this would, on average, cause the importation of one rabies infected animal approximately every 11 000 years. With similar importation scenarios from countries in Group 1 and 2, the number of years between every estimated imported case of rabies would be even higher. By annual importation of 10 000 vaccinated and tested dogs/cats from countries in Group 4, it was estimated that on average one rabies infected animal would be imported every 58 years with a 95% confidence interval of 16-194 years. With an annual importation of 10 000 unvaccinated dogs and cats younger than three months from countries in Group 3, it was estimated that this would, on average, cause the importation of one rabies infected animal every 2 000 years. With similar importation scenarios from the countries in Groups 1 and 2, the number of years between every estimated rabies import would be even higher. With an annual importation of 10 000 unvaccinated dogs and cats younger than three months from countries in Group 4, it was estimated that, on average, one rabies infected animal would be imported every 21 years with a 95% confidence interval of 11-35 years. By reducing the number imported in each category to 1000 or 100, the number of years would increase by a factor of 10 or 100, respectively, for each group. The probability of introducing rabies to Norway via wild fauna is most likely low. There are two different ways that rabies could be introduced by wildlife; either by migrating carnivores or through bats. Migration of wild carnivores (in the context red fox, raccoon dog, wolf and Arctic fox) is buffered by the geographical separation of Norway from the epidemic areas. The probability of introduction of rabies to Norway through bats is unknown and could be higher than through wild carnivores.

On 10. March 2006 , The Norwegian Food Safety Authority (Mattilsynet) decided that, on the basis of VKM’s previous risk assessment (2005), Nutramigen 1 with Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) could not be marketed in Norway as medical foods for infants (0-4 months). In addition, The Norwegian Food Safety Authority (Mattilsynet) decided (08. November 2006) to withdraw permission for marketing of Nutramigen 2 with LGG, which is a milk supplement for infants aged between 4 and 6 months, with cow’s milk and soy protein allergy. On 13. December 2006, Mead Johnson Nutritionals appealed against this decision from The Norwegian Food Safety Authority (Mattilsynet). The Norwegian Food Safety Authority forwarded the appeal from the companies, asked the VKM Panel on biological hazards and the VKM Panel on nutrition, dietetic products, novel food and allergy, for a new risk assessment including the new data provided in the appeal. LGG is one of the most studied probiotic strains. Lactic acid produced by LGG in the human gut results in a decrease in faecal pH, which in turn inhibits colonisation by potentially pathogenic bacteria. Short-term beneficial effects from administration of LGG to infants and young children with infectious diarrhoea have been reported in a number of studies, but a prophylactic effect on diarrhoea has not been documented. Furthermore, whilst some studies have reported a prophylactic, or even a curative, effect of LGG on atopic eczema in young children, more recent studies do not report such effects. Some even suggest an increased incidence of allergic sensitization in children receiving LGG supplemented formula at an early age. There are no published data that demonstrate long-term clinical benefits of infant formula supplemented with LGG for children between 4 months and 3 years, although no immediate deleterious effects of LGG have been found. Possible long-term effects of LGG on intestinal colonisation, and its effects on long-term gastrointestinal and immune functions, are not known. LGG, as an ingredient in infant formula and baby foods, is intended for daily use in the target group, and not for short-term, specific treatment. Furthermore, the targeted consumer group includes children below the age of twelve months. These two aspects demand particular consideration with regard to the unknown effects of long-term treatment with large doses of live bacteria on the ecology of the microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract and on the immune system. Neither of these systems is fully matured in infants and small children, and therefore may be particularly susceptible. There is no documented prophylactic effect of LGG on any disease in children. The effect of treatment with LGG-supplemented formula in small children is questionable, except for a documented short-term effect on infectious diarrhoea. Panel on Biological Hazards and Panel on nutrition, dietetic products, novel food and allergy at the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety find that the data available are not sufficient to support the suggested beneficial effects, or the safety, of LGG in infant formula and baby foods for children aged between 4 months and 3 years, when the products are intended for daily use.

coli is part of the normal gastrointestinal microbial flora of humans and animals. E. coli bacteria causing enteric/diarrhoeal disease are categorized into different groups based on their virulence properties and pathogenic features in humans. Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) are E. coli strains that cause bloody diarrhoea and haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) in humans, and have a defined zoonotic association. The major virulence factor of EHEC (and the actual cause of HUS) is the ability to produce Shiga toxins (Stx), thus the name Shiga Toxin Producing E. coli (STEC). With enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC), the diarrhoea in these patients is due to attaching and effacing (A/E) lesions in the enteric epithelium. This risk assessment was conducted after a human outbreak of STEC O103 in 2006, associated with contaminated dry-fermented sausages. The Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (Vitenskapskomitéen for mattrygghet), Panel on Biological Hazards, was asked by the Norwegian Food Safety Authority (Mattilsynet) for a risk assessment regarding shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) in the Norwegian meat chain, with emphasis on dry-cured sausages. In response, an ad hoc Working Group of experts was appointed with the mandate to draft a risk assessment regarding this issue. The current report approaches the task by following and analysing the entire process, from the origin of the meats at farm level, to the final production and storage of dry-cured sausages. An overall aim of the report has been to identify and describe potential intervention options in various parts of this chain. The main conclusions from the risk assessment are as follows: It is not possible to give any reliable quantitative estimates of the current risk associated with consumption of dry-cured sausages. There are no clear indications of any general change in the epidemiology of STEC infections in humans in Norway over the last decade. There is no documentation that there has been any change in the occurrence of various STEC in the domestic animal reservoir during the last decade. The combination of proper slaughter hygiene and use of thermal decontamination of sheep, cattle and pig carcasses represents an efficient way to reduce STEC contamination. This approach would not only cause a reduction in the contamination level of STEC, but also provide a general beneficial effect on the level of other enteric pathogens, such as Salmonella and Yersinia enterocolitica. Proper use of starter cultures in fermentation, combined with higher fermentation temperatures, will reduce the probability of growth of STEC in contaminated drycured sausages. A combination of higher fermentation temperatures, a lower pH during the process, and heat-treatment of the final product should effectively eliminate the potential risk for transmission of STEC infections from consumption of dry-cured sausages. A 5 log reduction is possible. Technological options are available to reduce significantly the transfer of potential pathogens through meats in general, and specifically through dry-cured sausages. The most important data gap is the lack of information about the actual occurrence of STEC infections in humans in Norway. Improved laboratory diagnostic procedures and epidemiological surveillance, combined with better reporting and tracing in the health care system are necessary. The implementation of properly designed base-line studies of various domestic animals, to provide data on the occurrence of various serotypes and their virulence factors present is recommended. Also, this would provide a better basis for comparison with human isolates.

The Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (VKM) has appointed an ad hoc-group of experts to answer a request from the Norwegian Food Safety Authority regarding benefit and risk assessment of Lactobacillus paracasei ssp. paracasei F19 (F19) in processed cerealbased baby foods intended for small children 1-3 years. This assessment is based on the literature provided by the notifier as well as that found by a MEDLINE search. A notification regarding two products of processed cereal-based baby foods (hereafter called cereals), intended for small children and supplemented with the bacterium F19 initiated this work. A daily supply of a monoculture of a particular bacterial strain in large quantities to an age group without a fully established intestinal flora, may have unknown adverse effects. There are however, to our knowledge, no studies investigating possible short or long term adverse health effects of F19 in processed cereal-based baby food given to children 13 months onwards. The documentation and information provided by the notifier regarding the genetic stability of F19 in the two products during processing and storage, is considered insufficient and does not allow any conclusions to be drawn. Moreover, the documentation obtained is not conclusive regarding the antibiotic resistance pattern of the bacterial strain used in the products in question, as the information on different antibiotics is partly inconsistent. The information about specific localization (chromosomal, plasmid) of the resistance genes is not sufficient. Studies demonstrate that F19, as well as other bacterial strains considered probiotic, is able to “crosstalk” with enterocytes in mice and that the result of the “crosstalk” depends upon the microbiota present. Whether F19 has a similar “crosstalk-profile” in humans is unknown. However, as the strain is originally of human origin, it seems reasonable to assume that such “crosstalk” may occur. Thus, before giving F19 daily for months and years, it seems reasonable to ask for additional molecular and physiological studies to unravel the functional impact of possible changes in genetic expression in children. Lactobacillus infections do occasionally occur, mainly as bacteremia, endocarditis and localized infections (e.g. abscesses, peritonitis, and meningitis) in patients with severe underlying diseases. Most of them are elderly, but children are not excluded. The species most often isolated are L. casei and L. rhamnosus, followed by L. paracasei. The increasing use of immunosuppressive therapy and broad spectrum antibiotics which are ineffective against Lactobacillus, might increase the importance of these bacteria as possible pathogens. In order to be able to draw any conclusions regarding beneficial effects of F19, there is a need for randomized placebo-controlled studies in larger populations and in the relevant age group. According to EFSA, Lactobacillus paracasei ssp. paracasei F19 is sufficiently characterized. The documentation provided is, however, not sufficient to claim positive health effects and thus F19 is not proven to be probiotic. There are no published dose-response studies of F19 in children, neither regarding survival of F19 in the gastrointestinal tract, nor possible negative health effects. Thus the potential for negative health effects as e.g. spreading of antimicrobial resistance or unfavourable impact on the genetic expression in children related to the frequency and/or dose of a monoculture of F19 cannot be assessed.

The Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (VKM) has appointed an ad hoc-group of experts to answer a request from the Norwegian Food Safety Authority regarding benefit and risk assessment of B. lactis Bb12 in baby foods focusing on the age groups 4-6 months, 612 months and 1-3 years. This assessment is based on the literature provided by the notifier as well as that found by a MEDLINE search. An notification for use of processed cereal-based baby foods (from now on called cereals) intended for infants and small children supplemented with the microorganism Bifidobacterium lactis (B. lactis) Bb12 in Norway initiated this work. Studies of potential hazards and positive health effects from cereals containing B. lactis Bb12 intended for infants and young children have not been reported in the available literature. However, reports on safety of and positive health effects from infant and follow on formula supplemented with B. lactis Bb12 are available and have been assessed by VKM. In most of these clinical studies B. lactis Bb12 was administered in combination with other probiotic strains. Clinical studies report no serious adverse events of infant formula supplemented with B. lactis Bb12. The effect of long term daily consumption of such supplemented formula by the actual age groups is not known. A few studies have demonstrated some effect of supplementing baby food with probiotics, including B. lactis Bb12, on diarrhoea and atopic eczema while other studies do not show such effects. Thus, the scientific evidence for a favourable effect of supplementing formula or solid food with B. lactis Bb12, is weak and in some cases lacking. There are no studies demonstrating a positive effect of cereals supplemented with B. lactis Bb12 intended for infants and small children. Several health claims related to probiotics have been assessed by EFSA, including claims on reduction of gastro-intestinal discomfort, normal functioning of the alimentary tract, building of the natural intestinal barrier, improvement of the general immunity, mental and cognitive developments of children and immune system of children during growth. In the opinions so far, EFSA has concluded that a cause and effect relationship has not been established between the consumption of the probiotic containing products and the claimed effect. None of the products assessed so far contained B. lactis Bb12 (1 November 2009). Commercially produced cereals are frequent given to infants and small children in Norway from an early age and this is particularly important for the establishment of the intestinal bacterial flora and the development of the intestinal mucosal immune system. According to the notifier, one portion (25gram) of the cereal powder contains 1 x 109 B. lactis Bb12 in monoculture. Taking into consideration that the daily intake is often greater than one portion of cereals, even in infants below 6 months of age, this would represent a daily intake of 1-2 x 109 cfu B. lactis Bb12 for an infant 4-6 months and even more in infants above 6 months. If a considerable amount of the B. lactis Bb12 survives the transport to the small intestine, it would represent a dominating and monocultural supply, often several times a day, to the small intestine. The immaturity and vulnerability of the intestinal microbiota and the immune system makes the two lowest age groups, 4 – 6 and 6 – 12 months, at the highest risk of unwanted health effects due to the daily intake of probiotics.

Bacitracin is a hexapeptide antibiotic, with a substituted thiazolidine nucleus, produced by some strains of B. licheniformis. It is mainly active against Grampositive bacteria, although many differences in susceptibility exist among the bacterial species.Alpharma A.S. Norway has produced bacitracin for use in human medicine since 1954. Until 1998, the fermentation waste from the production of bacitracin was added to animal feed in some European countries, including Norway, to promote growth of pigs and domestic fowl. In 1998, fermentation waste containing bacitracin as a food additive was banned by the EU to reduce the risk of developing bacitracin-resistant bacteria in animals, and the subsequent possible transfer of such bacteria to humans via the food chain. Use of fermentation waste containing bacitracin as a feed additive has not been officially banned in Norway, but it is no longer used for this purpose. Alpharma is therefore actively seeking alternative uses for their production waste. As the waste material is rich in nutrients, the company proposes that it could be developed as a soil additive by fermenting it with chipped bark and lime. The Norwegian Food Safety Authority (Mattilsynet) commissioned the Panel on Biological Hazards of the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (Vitenskapskomitéen for mattrygghet) to develop a risk assessment regarding the use of composted waste material from Alpharma’s production of bacitracin, as a soil additive. In response, an ad hoc Working Group of experts was appointed with the mandate to draft a risk assessment which should include the following elements: assessment of risk to human health and/or the environment in relation to residual content of bacitracin in the finished soil additive product and assessment of the risk in relation to dissemination of the production strain and antimicrobial resistance genes. The Panel on Biological Hazards concludes that the risks to human health and the environment posed by residual bacitracin present in the finished product are minimal. Furthermore, as Bacillus licheniformis is considered essentially non-pathogenic, occurring rarely as an opportunistic pathogen, the risk posed by this bacterium to human health or the environment is very low. It is reasonable to assume that during the early composting process horizontal transfer of bacitracin and erythromycin resistance genes, from the B. licheniformis producer strain to environmental bacteria, will exceed background levels. However, this is considered to represent a low risk to human health and the environment.

The Norwegian Food Safety Authority (Mattilsynet, NFSA) and the Norwegian Environment Agency (Miljødirektoratet, NEA) requested the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (Vitenskapskomiteen for mattrygghet, VKM) for a scientific opinion on Chronic wasting disease (CWD) in cervids. The project was divided into two phases, and VKM published the scientific opinion from phase I “CWD in Norway” in June 2016. The current report is the result of phase II. VKM was asked to provide updated information on food safety, aspects important for transmission of CWD within and between populations and species, and the potential origin of the disease in Norway. Moreover, VKM was asked to highlight important risk factors with regard to disease transmission, and how these risk factors might affect choice of management strategy. Finally, VKM was asked to highlight relevant management strategies from North America or elsewhere. VKM appointed a working group consisting of one member of the Panel on Microbial Ecology, one member of the Panel on Biological Hazards, and five external experts, as well as VKM`s secretariat to answer the questions from NEA and NFSA. One member of the Panel on Alien Organisms and Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), one member of the Panel on Animal Health and Welfare, as well as one member of the Panel on Biological Hazards commented on the draft report. The Panel on Biological Hazards assessed and approved the final report. Background: Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a prion disease that affects deer, moose, reindeer, and related species (cervids). Prion diseases are chronic neurodegenerative diseases that occur naturally in humans and ruminants, and are invariably fatal. Some prion diseases, such as classical scrapie in sheep and goats and chronic wasting disease (CWD) in cervids, are contagious, spreading directly between animals or via environmental contamination. In contrast, prion diseases known to affect humans are not known to be contagious. Prions are extraordinary agents consisting of misfolded protein aggregates that are remarkably stable and can remain infectious for years in the environment. Prion proteins are present in most animals, but the misfolding makes them very hard to break down. Consequently, misfolded prion proteins accumulate in the brain and eventually in other tissues, causing damage to those tissues. Until recently, CWD was only known from North America and South Korea. During a routine marking event in April 2016, a female reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) of the Nordfjella wild reindeer herd in Norway exhibited unusual behaviour, and died shortly afterwards. This unusual death was routinely investigated, and the animal was diagnosed with CWD. This was the first time CWD had been diagnosed outside North America and South Korea and the first case of natural CWD in reindeer. In addition, two moose (Alces alces) in Selbu, Norway were diagnosed with CWD in May 2016. Selbu is located approximately 300 km northeast of the Nordfjella mountain range. Currently there is considerable uncertainty regarding the nature of the CWD diagnosed in the two moose. Some of the characteristics of these cases indicate consistency with atypical prion disease, as described in domestic animals, but a final conclusion depends on the results from ongoing investigations. Following the diagnosis in reindeer, Norwegian authorities initiated a screening programme in which hunters were requested to collect tissue and the heads of dead cervids during the 2016 hunting season. Animals that had died from causes other than hunting were also tested for CWD. Since March 2016, 4629 samples of moose, 2550 samples of red deer, 627 samples of roe deer, 860 samples of reindeer, 2494 semi-domesticated reindeer, 163 farmed deer and 104 samples of unidentified species were tested for CWD. Two additional cases of CWD were diagnosed in wild reindeer in the Nordfjella population. Together with a clinical, pathological and epidemiological picture consistent with contagious CWD, as described from North America, this indicated that there is an ongoing outbreak of CWD in the wild reindeer population of the northern part of Nordfjella wild reindeer range. Results: An increase in the distribution and prevalence of CWD will increase exposure of other species, including domestic animals and humans, to this infectious agent. There is currently no evidence indicating transmission of CWD to domestic animals or humans, either by direct contact with cervids, cervid meat, or other products from cervids, or through the environment. VKM continues to support the conclusion from phase I concerning food safety of meat from cervids, that the zoonotic risk of CWD (transmission to humans) is very low. Preliminary results from characterisation of the moose cases and the agent involved indicate that important features deviate significantly from those found in the reindeer and in North American cervids, raising uncertainty with regards to the zoonotic potential. Therefore, based on the data currently available, VKM is not able to reach an evidence-based conclusion regarding the food safety of meat from moose and other cervids infected with this potentially new variant of CWD. Whereas direct transmission (animal-to-animal) seems most important in the early phases of a CWD epizootic, the role of indirect transmission (from the environment) increases as the prevalence increases. Once contagious CWD is established, it is very likely that the disease will increase in prevalence within the affected population and spread to contact populations. The rate of increase in prevalence, the resulting impact in a given population, and the efficacy of spread will depend on a range of environmental factors, and the characteristics of the species and population in question. For example, in affected populations of a gregarious species like reindeer, CWD is likely to lead to population decline in the long-term. Experiences from North America indicate that prions aggregate in the environment, making eradication of the disease extremely difficult once it has been allowed to develop and become endemic. It is therefore important that efficient measures are implemented at the VKM Report 2017:9 9 earliest opportunity in order to have a realistic chance of eradicating local occurrence of CWD and preventing further spread. Contagious CWD found in a confinable population, such as many wild reindeer herds, should be managed by eradication of the host population, fallowing of the area (> 5 years), and restocking from a healthy population. The report explains that culling of the Nordfjella reindeer herd is a necessary, immediate response to the current situation. However, as part of an adaptive management strategy, this measure should be under active review and may be revised in the event that new cases of CWD are discovered. In contrast, in continuous populations, such as most red deer, moose, and roe deer populations, spatially targeted culling within a defined containment zone should be used to control a CWD outbreak. Confinement of CWD-infected populations should be increased where possible and contact with other populations of cervids restricted, for example by fencing, herding, enhancing natural or man-made obstacles, or decreasing the densities of the relevant cervid populations. Potential “hotspots” for disease transmission (supplementary salt-licks, supplementary feeding sites etc.) should be eliminated in areas with CWD as well as the surrounding areas, and should further be considered for other parts of the country. Precautionary measures should be implemented to prevent anthropogenic spread of the disease. Finally, increasing the national surveillance of CWD in cervids is essential to ensure that there is a comprehensive basis for future evidence-based management. This is required to ensure that cases and spread of disease are identified as soon as possible, as late discovery will limit the chances for successful eradication of CWD in Norway.

Tonsils in the oral cavity are an important source of contamination during pig slaughter, but have not received as much attention as faecal contamination. In the present study, ten pigs were sampled from tonsils, faeces and three different areas on each carcass. The samples were analysed by both culturing of Escherichia coli and Yersinia enterocolitica and by 16S rRNA gene sequencing to characterize the bacterial communities. Comparing culture data from deep tonsil tissue and tonsil surface showed similar numbers of E. coli but significantly higher numbers of Y. enterocolitica in the deep tissue samples. Microbiota analysis showed similar bacterial communities in the two sample types at phylum level, while comparison at genus level showed significant differences between the relative abundance of several genera in the two sample types. The finding of a significantly higher relative abundance of Yersinia in tonsil tissue compared to tonsil surface supported the culture analysis. The microbiota analysis also investigated characteristics of the bacterial community that could discriminate bacterial transfer from tonsils and faeces to the carcass during slaughter. The microbiota analyses demonstrated that Fusobacteria and Proteobacteria are the most abundant phyla in tonsils, while Firmicutes showed the highest relative abundance in faeces. The dominating phylum on carcasses was Proteobacteria. Besides Proteobacteria, the swabbing area on the forepart of the carcass, showed a higher relative abundance of Firmicutes and Fusobacteria compared to swabbing areas on the rear part and mid-section of the carcass. Principal coordinate analysis showed clear clustering of samples based on sample source (tonsils, faeces and carcass). Carcass swab samples from the forepart tended to cluster closer to the tonsil samples compared to carcass swab samples from the rear part and mid-section. Identification of the genera Fusobacterium, Moraxella, Actinobacillus and non-E. coli genera of the family Enterobacteriaceae in carcass swabs could indicate tonsil contamination, while faecal contamination would more likely include higher prevalence of bacteria belonging to the class of Clostridia. The present study supports that it is possible to identify bacterial groups that are indicative for either tonsil or faecal carcass contamination. The level and composition of Enterobacteriaceae on the carcasses did, however, indicate that other sources of meat contamination than tonsils and faeces may be important, such as the process environment.

The Norwegian department of agriculture decided to re-evaluate the Regulation No. 951 of 4 July 2003 on fertilizers and soil improvers of organic origin. The Norwegian Food Safety Authority (NFSA) requested VKM for a statement on the use of manure from farms where grey water and human waste (sewage) is disposed of directly to the farm manure cellar. Consideration was given to differences in risk according to the types of domestic wastewater, the species of animal from which the manure derived, the extent and type of sanitary facilities, the crops to which the amended manure is applied, and the effects of storage on infection risk. According to current legislation, sewage sludge cannot be spread on land where vegetables, potatoes, berries or fruit are grown. Furthermore, sewage cannot be spread on meadows or used for horticultural purposes. In private gardens, parks, playgrounds and similar residential areas, sewage may be used only as a component in a fertiliser, and not applied at the surface. Use of sewage as a fertilizer for the cultivation of grains is permitted. Sewage can also be used when establishing vegetation along roads and embankments. VKM concludes that manure cellars, to which wastewater, from private household use, and sewage from toilets in the outbuildings are drained, may contain pathogens from humans, in addition to those pathogens originating from animals. The quantity and species of pathogens in this sewage-amended manure would reflect the species and prevalence of pathogens in the population using the facilities. Although the prevalence of intestinal pathogens in the Norwegian human population is relatively low, it should be noted that farms in Norway often provide tourist accommodation, camping facilities, and may house migrant short-term employees during the summer season during which labour requirements are increased. Thus non-Norwegian populations may also use toilet facilities on these farms, and thus when considering the risk of human pathogens, consideration should also be given to people from countries where the prevalence of such pathogens may be higher. As many viruses and parasites are host-specific, the risk of contamination of produce with human pathogens from such manure is likely to be greater than from manure which has not been amended with untreated sewage. Pathogen survival is affected by storage, but it should be noted that some pathogens have robust and environmentally resistant transmission stages (e.g. parasite oocysts, cysts and eggs), a proportion of which may survive for prolonged periods in stored manure.

Purpose of Review Ensuring broilers’ meat safety is a priority to policy makers, producers, and consumers. This systematic review aims to update the recent knowledge on pre-harvest interventions to control main foodborne pathogens in broilers and to assess their effectiveness. Recent Findings A total of 815 studies were retrieved from PubMed® and Web of Science for 13 pathogens. In total, 51 studies regarding Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., VTEC, ESBL-AmpC Escherichia coli, and Clostridium perfringens were included in this review. Summary Research mostly focused on Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp. Biosecurity and management interventions had mixed outcomes, while the effectiveness of feed additives, though intensively researched, remains controversial. Research on other pathogens (i.e. ESBL-AmpC E. coli/Salmonella, and Toxoplasma gondii) was scarce, with publications focusing on epidemiology and/or on source-attribution studies. This is also true regarding research on Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens, and Staphylococcus aureus as these are frequently controlled by post-harvest interventions. Overall, studies on recent developments of novel pathogen-specific immunisation strategies are lacking.

This preliminary risk assessment is a result of self-tasking by the Panel on Biological Hazards, Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety. The suggestion was offered to the Norwegian Food Safety Authority (Mattilsynet), which responded and requested a risk profile, or a preliminary risk assessment, to evaluate whether a full risk assessment would be needed at a later date. Yersinia enterocolitica is one of a few zoonotic bacteria that have a stable reservoir within the domestic animal population in Norway. This bacterial species has been isolated from human patients with acute enteritis, who sometimes exhibit symptoms resembling appendicitis. Y. enterocolitica has attracted considerable attention due to its ability to cause serious post-infectious complications. Serious clinical consequences occur relatively often with Y. enterocolitica as a relatively high frequency of people in Norway possess the tissue type HLA-B27. A severe sequela linked to this tissue type is reactive arthritis. The cold climate in Norway may enhance growth of Y. enterocolitica. Although the predominant cause of yersiniosis in Norway is Y. enterocolitica O:3, and the pig is considered the main source of infection, the relative contribution of pork consumption compared with other risk factors, for example drinking untreated water, is unknown. In Norway, a decline in human cases of yersiniosis has been recorded since the beginning of the 1990s. This decline has been attributed to implementation of improved slaughtering methods, including enclosure of the anus into a plastic bag after rectum-loosening. In Norway, most fattening pigs are slaughtered at the age of 150 to 180 days. By this age the tonsils may be an even more significant source of human pathogenic Y. enterocolitica than intestinal contents, since the occurrence in the intestinal tract and faeces is reduced at the time of slaughter. Accordingly, hygienic handling of the head and the plucks during slaughter and dressing is very important to avoid contamination of the carcass. The most efficient way to limit the spread from tongue and tonsils is probably decapitation early on in the carcass dressing procedure. In such a procedure, the head, including tongue and tonsils, should be removed on a separate line. Also, avoidance of incision of the sub-maxillary lymph nodes might reduce the spread, Epidemiological data suggest that it is possible to reduce the herd prevalence of Y. enterocolitica O:3 by minimising contact between infected and noninfected herds. Further, attempts to reduce the prevalence at the top levels of the breeding pyramids may be beneficial for the industry as a whole. The meat industry might be able to categorise herds using serological methods, and use these results in its strategy to reduce the risks for consumers. However, such a strategy has to be evaluated in a cost benefit context. The apparently low prevalence of pathogenic Y. enterocolitica in food may be due to lack of suitable selective methods. The culturing methods, which are used routinely in microbiological laboratories, are insufficiently sensitive. There is a need for a standardised DNA-based technique, with improved sensitivity, for the detection of Y. enterocolitica in clinical, food and environmental samples.

Pasteurisation of all consumer milk became mandatory in Norway in 1953, and this has been an important component of the protective measures that have reduced the incidence of milk and food borne diseases. In 2004, a complete recast of the hygiene legislation addressing both food hygiene and veterinary aspects was adopted by the European Union, the so-called “Hygiene package”. According to this legislation, each member state may, on its own initiative, prohibit or restrict the marketing of some foods like raw milk or raw cream, intended for direct human consumption within its territory. In response to this, the Norwegian Food Safety Authority (Mattilsynet) commissioned the Panel on Biological Hazards of the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (Vitenskapskomitéen for mattrygghet), to prepare a risk assessment regarding the consumption of raw milk and raw cream. In response, an ad hoc Working Group of experts was appointed with the mandate to draft a risk assessment which should include the following components: identification and characterization of microbiological hazardous agents present in Norwegian raw milk; characterization of the public health consequences of these agents; assessment of the probability of transmission of these agents to humans by distribution of raw milk and cream. Additionally, the risk assessment should identify potential hazards to human health from the importation of raw milk, identify hazards associated with equipment used for production and storage of raw milk, and assess the risks associated with the potential transfer of antimicrobial resistance genes. Observations concerning infections related to consumption of raw milk and raw cream in Norway, other European countries and North America, show that a number of pathogenic microorganisms, including emerging pathogens, can occur in raw milk and raw cream. These pathogenic microorganisms and their toxins may represent a real threat to human health. The panel concluded that the risks associated with E. coli O157:H7 and other EHEC, C. jejuni and L. monocytogenes in raw milk and cream are high. Furthermore the importation of raw milk to Norway may result in the (re)introduction of microorganisms, which have been eradicated, or never previously have been present, in Norway. This can have serious consequences for both human and animal health.

Potentially toxic metals (PTM), along with PTM-resistant bacteria and PTM-resistance genes may be introduced to soil and water through sewage systems, direct excretion, land application of biosolids (organic matter recycled from sewage, especially for use in agriculture) or animal manures as fertilisers, and irrigation with wastewater or treated effluents. The Norwegian Food Safety Authority (NFSA) asked the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (Vitenskapskomiteen for mattrygghet, VKM) for an assessment of the link between antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and potentially toxic metals (PTM) in soil and fertilising products. The NFSA would like VKM to give an opinion on the following question related to the influence of potentially toxic metals on antimicrobial resistance: Can the content of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (CrIII + CrVI), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn) in soil and fertilising products that are relevant for Norway play a role in the development, spreading, and persistence of bacterial resistance to these elements, as well as cross or co-resistance to antimicrobial agents? VKM appointed a working group, consisting of two members of the Panel on Biological Hazards, to prepare a draft Opinion document and answer the questions. The Panel on Biological Hazards has reviewed and revised the draft prepared by the working group and approved the Opinion document “The link between antimicrobial resistance and the content of potentially toxic metals in soil and fertilising products”. In this report we assess the following PTM: arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn), because of their possible presence in fertilisers and their potential to induce AMR in bacteria. This assessment is based on internationally published data. There is no systematic monitoring for toxic metals in soils in Norway, and the levels are expected to be highly variable depending on the input sources, previous and current agricultural practices, and the characteristics of the soil. Data on PTM in fertilising products added to soil are also fragmented and limited. Fertilising materials, in the form of sewage sludge or livestock manure, will add toxic metals to the existing levels in soil, and in areas of intensive agriculture, the levels will be expected to be highest. The additive effect of toxic metals in fertilising materials must be assessed from a long-term perspective, as these metals accumulate in the environment. Development of AMR can be partly regarded as a dose- and time-dependant response to exposure to different drivers for resistance. There is an indication that the presence of potentially toxic metals is a driver for development of AMR in exposed bacteria, but the dose and time exposure most likely to cause this effect is not known. Investigation of PTM-driven co-selection of AMR in environments impacted by agriculture and aquaculture should focus especially on Cu and Zn, which are added to animal feed, and on Cd because of its high concentration, in comparison with other PTM, in inorganic fertilising products. The naturally occurring background resistance in environmental bacteria complicates the estimation of the effect of PTM exposure on development of resistance. In addition, it is difficult to distinguish between the natural resistome and an elevated abundance of AMR in environmental samples. Spreading of resistance towards the PTM evaluated in this assessment involves cross- and co-resistance to antimicrobial agents used in prophylaxis and therapy in animals and people. Most important are those cases where toxic metal resistance is coupled to resistance towards highly important and critically important antibiotics. This has been described in some of the published articles included in this assessment. We do not fully understand the mechanisms behind persistence of AMR, and removing drivers for development and spread of resistance may result in a decrease in the levels of resistance, but not necessarily full disappearance. There is lack of knowledge regarding links between the level and concentration of PTM in fertilising products and soil and development of resistance in bacteria. Data regarding the routes and frequencies of transmission of AMR from bacteria of environmental origin to bacteria of animal and human origin were lacking in the published articles reviewed here. Due to the lack of such data, it is difficult to estimate the probability of development, transmission, and persistence of PTM resistance in the Norwegian environment. More research is needed to explain the relationship between development of resistance against potential toxic metals and resistance toward antimicrobial agents in bacteria.

The traditional meat safety system has significantly contributed to public health protection throughout the last century. However, it has been recognised that this system suffers many flaws – the main being its limited ability to control the currently most important meat-borne hazards. The European Food Safety Authority evaluated meat inspection in the public health context, prioritised meat-borne hazards and proposed a generic framework for a new, risk-based meat safety assurance system. The proposed system aims to combine a range of preventive and control measures, applied at farms and abattoirs and integrated longitudinally, where official meat inspection is incorporated with producers' food safety management systems into a coherent whole. The modernisation process has recently started as a direct result of changes to relevant legislation in the European Union. Many challenges have been experienced while many opportunities are foreseen. More focus on targeted and risk-based inspection along the supply chain as well as use of new technologies may be a cost-effective and feasible way forward. Practical implementation of the system is expected to be a slow and careful process followed by thorough development, fine-tuning, and testing of practical feasibility and general impacts. Further progress that will lead to the full implementation is dependent on intensive research to fill knowledge gaps, enhance education and training and foster close collaboration of all the new system's stakeholders.

The aim of the study was to compare two analytical methods; 3M Petrifilm™ Select E. coli and SimPlate® Coliforms &E. coli, for detection and enumeration of E. coli using swab samples from naturally contaminated pork and lamb carcasses that were collected before and after chilling. Blast chilling was used for pork carcasses. Swab samples (n=180) were collected from 60 warm and 60 chilled pork carcasses, and 30 warm and 30 chilled lamb carcasses, and analysed in parallel. The concordance correlation coefficient between Petrifilm and SimPlate was 0.89 for pork and 0.81 for lamb carcasses. However, the correlation was higher for warm carcasses (0.90) than chilled carcasses (0.72). For chilled lamb carcasses, the correlation was only 0.50, and SimPlate gave slightly higher results than Petrifilm (P=0.09). Slower chilling gave slightly lesser agreement between methods than for blast chilling, however, both Petrifilm and SimPlate methodologies are suitable and recommended for use in small laboratories in abattoirs.

The aim of this study was to describe slaughter hygiene in a selection of ovine and bovine abattoirs in Europe, as assessed by microbiological testing and Hygiene Performance Rating (HPR) audits, and to compare the results obtained by these different approaches. Two types of microbiological testing were used: standardized study testing, which was similar in all abattoirs, and the abattoirs' own mandatory microbiological testing. Ten cattle slaughter lines were visited in Norway, Denmark, Germany, and Spain and 10 sheep slaughter lines were visited in Norway, UK, and Spain. HPR scores were obtained for each operation along the slaughter line and summed up into a total score (%). For the standardized study testing, gauze-cloth swabbing of approximately 800 cm2 of cattle carcasses and 600 cm2 of sheep carcasses was used on 25 warm carcasses at each slaughter line. In contrast, the mandatory microbiological testing conducted by the abattoirs used different types of equipment, methods, and analyses. Higher mean counts of Enterobacteriaceae and E. coli were obtained from sheep carcasses (−0.6 and −0.9 log CFU/cm2, respectively) than from cattle carcasses (−1.4 and −2.5 log CFU/cm2, respectively), and the numbers of E. coli detected on cattle carcasses were particularly low. A close relationship was found between the total HPR score and the Enterobacteriaceae and E. coli results obtained by the standardized study testing. For cattle, R2 values were 0.69 and 0.62 for Enterobacteriaceae and E. coli, respectively, and for sheep the equivalent values were 0.62 and 0.60. The correlations between the HPR results and the microbiological results from the abattoirs’ mandatory sampling were low, which could reflect fact that in 90% of the samples, bacteria tested were below the limit of detection with the methods used. This study reports the methodology and results from the first European baseline study on slaughter hygiene. The correlation between the HPR results and the standardized study testing of the carcasses suggests that HPR could be a useful proxy measure for improving slaughter hygiene and risk management.

This study investigated the bacterial dynamics along the beef chain for clean and dirty cattle in the slaughter and processing lines, using classic quantitative methods and molecular analyses. In addition, the Norwegian national guidelines for Good Hygiene Practices in Norway were evaluated. In these guidelines, cattle presented for slaughter are categorised according to hide cleanliness, resulting in separate processing lines for meat from very dirty animals and reduced prices to farmers. The study was conducted in two commercial abattoirs in Norway. Two groups were compared; 40 visually clean cattle and 40 visually dirty cattle presented for slaughter, with 20 from each group at each abattoir. The same animals were sampled at five sampling sites: hides, carcass surfaces after dehiding, just before chilling, after chilling, and meat trimmings. Meat trimmings were sampled in only one abattoir. Three hundred and sixty samples were collected by swabbing 100 cm(2) of the brisket area at the first four sampling sites, and sampling 200 g of meat trimmings at the fifth site. The results showed that the hides of dirty cattle had more Enterobacteriaceae and higher Aerobic Plate Counts (APC) than visually clean cattle (P

The Meat Factory Cell (MFC) concept differs from conventional abattoirs by partly working in cell stations instead of production lines. It combines and merges elements of today's separate processes and disciplines, namely “slaughter” and “meat primal cutting”, and “disassembles” the carcass from outside-in where limbs, neck, back and loin are removed before internal organs. The aim of this work is to qualitatively assess future meat inspection and hygiene of pork carcasses in the MFC. A holistic assessment of the carcass parts is needed to interpret the significance of findings on separate parts. The MFC offers some opportunities for targeted inspection with cutting edge diagnostic technology. Improved hygiene is expected from the MFC concept due to the fact that limbs, neck and loin are removed first and are not subject to faecal contamination from intestinal content. The MFC provides opportunities for customized chilling regime for different parts, targeted decontamination or pathogen killing processing, which should contribute to safer meat products and less energy consumption. We expect that the MFC approach will potentially fulfill the principles of Codex alimentarius and will improve public health compared to conventional slaughter and meat inspection.

In March 2016, the EU Commission presented a proposal for new regulations on fertilising material. The regulation includes product rules for a wide range of organic and inorganic products. Microbial biostimulants is one of the categories of products that are included. Biostimulants, in the draft EU regulation, are defined as fertilising materials that affect nutrient processes independently of the product's own nutrient content and with the purpose of improving nutrient utilisation, tolerance for abiotic stress or quality of the crop. Positive list in which species of these bacterial genera are listed: Azotobacter spp, Rhizobium spp., Azospirillum spp and Mycorrhizal fungi are a part of the regulation. Since the import and use of these organisms are the responsibility of both the Norwegian Food Safety Authority and the Norwegian Environment Agency, they asked VKM to submit a joint report on effects on health (humans, plants and animals), biodiversity and dispersal, quality of agricultural land and on soil environment. Conclusions: Health risks: Based upon our literature review, we have found no indication of any specific diseases in plants, animals or humans induced by the discussed microorganisms. A few reported cases of human disease are caused through wound infections or injections in immunocompromised patients. These represent a situation where any microorganism may induce infections and is not specific for the agents discussed in this report. In summary, the risk of any disease caused by the discussed microorganisms is considered negligible. Environmental risks: In soil the biodiversity, competition, adaptation and functional redundancy of microorganisms are extremely high. This means that introduced microorganisms have a very small chance for establishing, and even less so for affecting biodiversity and soil functioning. Introduction of nitrogen fixing species or fungi that can transport P to plants (mycorrhiza) will lead to an increase in the primary production. However, even a large increased activity for these processes will not outcompete naturally occurring symbiotic N-fixation or growth of inherently non-mycorrhizal plant species. Thus, the risks associated with introduced non-pathogenic microorganisms are very low.

The Norwegian Scientific Commitee for Food Safety (VKM) appointed a working group of experts to answer a request from the Norwegian Food Safety Authority regarding health risk assessment of Lactobacillus reuteri Protectis® in a food supplement intended for use by infants and young children. The mandate of this health risk assessment was not to evaluate the health claims related to the products as such health claims are assessed by EFSA. The specific strain DSM 17938 is a “daughter strain” of the strain ATCC 55730 which was originally isolated from normal human milk. ATCC 55730 harbours two plasmids carrying transferable resistance genes against tetracycline and lincosamides respectively. The “daughter strain” DSM 17938 was established in 2008 by curing the ATCC 55730 for these plasmids, but is in all other respects claimed to be identical to ATCC 55730 and bioequivalence of the two strains has been suggested. The strain DSM 17938 was still resistant to tetracycline (although at a considerably lower level than ATCC 55730) and a number of other antibiotics, but these resistances were all considered being intrinsic by FBO. The absence of possible transferable/mobile genes has, to our knowledge, not been confirmed in later studies. We are not aware of any data indicating that L. reuteri has been the cause of serious human diseases – and none of the studies examined has reported any adverse or undesirable short time effects. It has also been used in preterm infants with dosage corresponding to the actual recommended doses - without reporting any adverse, short term reaction. There is therefore no evidence leading to consider the strain DSM 17938 at the dosage recommended as unsafe. However, more long-term data are still lacking and the long-term safety for the age groups considered in this assessment cannot be established. As evidence is accruing that the early microbial composition of the infant gut is important for the development of the gut flora and the immune system of the growing child, it is not possible to exclude that a daily supply of a particular bacterial strain over a prolonged period of time to an immature gastro-intestinal tract may have long-term, albeit still unknown, adverse effects on it’s development. As the long-term data are lacking it is not possible to answer whether the amount of the food supplement or the age of the infant or young child is of importance. However, if later long-term data should reveal any adverse reaction, it is reasonable to assume that the actual age group will be the most vulnerable. As the safety was not entirely established, the question of whether there are any vulnerable groups (i.e. premature, infants or children with diseases) where there are health risks associated with the intake of Lactobacillus reuteri Protectis®, as a food supplement was not considered.

The Norwegian Food Safety Authority (NFSA) and Norwegian Environmental Authority (NEA) asked the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (Vitenskapskomiteen for mattrygghet, VKM) for an opinion on factors associated with the introduction of Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) to Norway. VKM appointed a working group consisting of two members of the Panel on Biological Hazards, one member of Panel on Animal Health and Welfare, and two external experts to prepare the answer to the questions. The Panel on Biological Hazards has reviewed and revised the draft prepared by the working group and approved the opinion. CWD was diagnosed in March 2016 in a wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) from the Nordfjella mountain area in Norway and in May and June in two mooses (Alces alces) in Selbu in South Trøndelag County, approximately 300 km north from the first case. There is currently no information to determine the origin(s) of CWD agents in Norway. However, the sporadic or genetic (somatic mutation) occurrence of prion disease in cervids cannot be excluded, nor can introduction from North America or other countries. Furthermore, there is no evidence that it has not been circulating at low levels in the Norwegian cervid populations for years, but has not previously been identified. In this scientific opinion, information on prion diseases in general, and CWD in particular, is presented in the light of experiences with this disease in North America. Prions are among the most resilient pathogens known and dissemination of prions into ecosystems is likely to result in long-term problems. Prions bind strongly to soil and remain infectious. In CWD, prions are present in most peripheral organs and also shed into the environment via saliva, faeces, and urine, as well as with the placenta. CWD transmits easily among cervids, either through direct contact, or indirectly via the environment. Migration of animals is relevant for the spread between areas. Strain diversification might occur in CWD and may influence transmission properties of the agents. Clinical signs of CWD are non-specific and do not alone enable confirmation of the diagnosis. Analysis of tissue from the brainstem at the level of the obex by approved methods is necessary for diagnosis of CWD. Prion infectivity is assessed by bioassays, often involving transgenic mice. In vitro conversion assays, like protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA), provide sensitive quantification of converting activity, which is a good approximation of infectivity. Genetic variation (polymorphisms) in the gene that encodes PrP (PRNP) can modulate sensitivity towards CWD. The level of such genetic variation in Norwegian wild and semi-domesticated cervids is currently unknown. Cattle and sheep are at very low risk of developing CWD and it is highly unlikely that prion diseases in sheep or cattle are the origin of CWD. Although transmission of CWD to humans has never been known to occur, and animals other than cervids have not been found to be infected, indicating a species barrier, this possibility cannot be excluded. Thus, measures for reduction of human exposure are recommended. Taking into account uncertainties regarding the plasticity of the CWD agents and the lack of transmission data from the Norwegian isolates, this scientific opinion considers the zoonotic risk of CWD to be very low.

The Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (Vitenskapskomiteen for mattrygghet, VKM) has, at the request of the Norwegian Food Safety Authority (Mattilsynet; NFSA), assessed the risk of "other substances" in food supplements sold in Norway. These risk assessments will provide NFSA with the scientific basis for regulation of the addition of “other substances” to food supplements and other foods. "Other substances" are described in the food supplement directive 2002/46/EC as substances other than vitamins or minerals that have a nutritional and/or physiological effect. It is added mainly to food supplements, but also to other foods. VKM has not in this series of risk assessments of "other substances" evaluated any claimed beneficial effects from these substances, only possible adverse effects. The present report is a risk assessment of Lactobacillus rhamnosus Rosell-11 ND, Lactobacillus rhamnosus W71, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and Lactobacillus rhamnosus Lr-329 based on previous risk assessments and also publications retrieved from literature search. The risk of the Lactobacillus strains listed above was assessed for the general population. However, in previous assessments of probiotics published by VKM, concerns have been identified for specific groups. Therefore, the risk was assessed for the age group with immature gastro-intestinal microbiota (age group 0-36 months), population with mature gastro-intestinal microbiota (>3 years) and vulnerable groups with mature gastro-intestinal tract. VKM has also assessed the risk of L. rhamnosus Rosell-11 ND, L. rhamnosus W71, L. rhamnosus GG and L. rhamnosus Lr-329 in food supplements and other foods independent of the dose and have assessed exposure in general terms. VKM concludes that it is unlikely that L. rhamnosus Rosell-11 ND, L. rhamnosus W71, L. rhamnosus GG and L. rhamnosus Lr-329 would cause adverse health effects in the general healthy population with mature gastro-intestinal tract. However, no data on long-term adverse effects on infants and young children were identified. As evidence is accruing that the early microbial composition of the neonatal gut is important for the development of the gut microbiota and the immune system of the growing child, it is not possible to exclude that a daily supply of a single particular bacterial strain over a prolonged period of time to an immature gastro-intestinal tract may have long-term, although still unknown, adverse effects on that development.

The Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (Vitenskapskomiteen for mattrygghet, VKM) has, at the request of the Norwegian Food Safety Authority (Mattilsynet; NFSA), assessed the risk of "other substances" in food supplements sold in Norway. These risk assessments will provide NFSA with the scientific basis for regulation of the addition of “other substances” to food supplements and other foods. "Other substances" are described in the food supplement directive 2002/46/EC as substances other than vitamins or minerals that have a nutritional and/or physiological effect. It is added mainly to food supplements, but also to other foods. VKM has not in this series of risk assessments of "other substances" evaluated any claimed beneficial effects from these substances, only possible adverse effects. The present report is a risk assessment of Lactobacillus acidophilus W37, Lactobacillus acidophilus DDS-1, Lactobacillus acidophilus La-5 and Lactobacillus acidophilus La-14 based on previous risk assessments and also publications retrieved from literature search. The risk of the Lactobacillus strains listed above was assessed for the general population. However, in previous assessments of probiotics published by VKM, concerns have been identified for specific groups. Therefore, the risk was assessed for the age group with immature gastro-intestinal microbiota (age group 0-36 months), population with mature gastro-intestinal microbiota (>3 years) and vulnerable groups with mature gastro-intestinal tract. VKM has also assessed the risk of L. acidophilus W37, L. acidophilus DDS-1, L. acidophilus La-5 and L. acidophilus La-14 in food supplements and other foods independent of the dose and have assessed exposure in general terms. VKM concludes that it is unlikely that L. acidophilus W37, L. acidophilus DDS-1, L. acidophilus La-5 and L. acidophilus La-14 would cause adverse health effects in the general healthy population with mature gastro-intestinal tract. However, no data on long-term adverse effects on infants and young children were identified. As evidence is accruing that the early microbial composition of the neonatal gut is important for the development of the gut microbiota and the immune system of the growing child, it is not possible to exclude that a daily supply of a single particular bacterial strain over a prolonged period of time to an immature gastro-intestinal tract may have long-term, although still unknown, adverse effects on that development.

The Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (Vitenskapskomiteen for mattrygghet, VKM) has, at the request of the Norwegian Food Safety Authority (Mattilsynet; NFSA), assessed the risk of "other substances" in food supplements sold in Norway. These risk assessments will provide NFSA with the scientific basis for regulation of the addition of “other substances” to food supplements and other foods. "Other substances" are described in the food supplement directive 2002/46/EC as substances other than vitamins or minerals that have a nutritional and/or physiological effect. It is added mainly to food supplements, but also to other foods. VKM has not in this series of risk assessments of "other substances" evaluated any claimed beneficial effects from these substances, only possible adverse effects. The present report is a risk assessment of Bifidobacterium lactis Bi-07, Bifidobacterium bifidum W23, Bifidobacterium longum Rosell-175, Bifidobacterium breve Rosell-70, and Bifidobacterium animalis sub. lactis Bb12 based on previous risk assessments and also publications retrieved from literature search. The risk of the Bifidobacterium strains listed above was assessed for the general population. However, in previous assessments of probiotics published by VKM, concerns have been identified for specific groups. Therefore, the risk was assessed for the age group with immature gastro-intestinal microbiota (age group 0-36 months), population with mature gastro-intestinal microbiota (>3 years) and vulnerable groups with mature gastro-intestinal tract. VKM has also assessed the risk of Bifidobacterium spp. in food supplements and other foods independent of the dose and have assessed exposure in general terms. VKM concludes that it is unlikely that B. lactis Bi-07, B. bifidum W23, B. longum Rosell-175, B. breve Rosell-70, and B. animalis sub. lactis Bb12 would cause adverse health effects in the general healthy population with mature gastro-intestinal tract. However, no data on long-term adverse effects on infants and young children were identified. As evidence is accruing that the early microbial composition of the neonatal gut is important for the development of the gut microbiota and the immune system of the growing child, it is not possible to exclude that a daily supply of a single particular bacterial strain over a prolonged period of time to an immature gastro-intestinal tract may have long-term, although still unknown, adverse effects on that development.

In order to reduce hide-to-carcass contamination during slaughtering and dressing of cattle, the meat industry in Norway has developed national guidelines for Good Hygiene Practices based on hide cleanliness. Three categories of hide cleanliness have been described in Norway: Category 0 is clean, Category 1 is moderately dirty, and Category 2 is very dirty. For hides classified as either Category 1 or Category 2 payments to farmers are reduced. The aim of our study was to evaluate microbiological carcass contamination associated with hide cleanliness and the slaughtering and dressing process. A total of 324 swab samples were taken from abdomen and brisket areas (100 cm 2 per sample) of 81 naturally contaminated beef carcasses at two commercial abattoirs. Samples were collected immediately after dehiding, at the start of the slaughter-line, and also at the end of the slaughter-line, just before chilling. Carcasses derived from dirty animals (Category 1 and Category 2 combined ( n = 34)), were more contaminated just after dehiding than clean animals (Category 0, n = 47), as determined by aerobic plate counts (APC) ( P Escherichia coli levels ( P P E. coli at the end of the slaughter-line than at the start for all categories ( P P P = 0.05). The carcasses adjacent to carcasses classified as belonging to Categories 1 or 2, hanging just behind them on the conveyor-belt, were evaluated separately in order to investigate cross-contamination. At the end of the slaughter-line, carcasses that were adjacent to Category 2 carcasses had higher E. coli values than carcasses in all other categories. The national guidelines consider Category 2 carcasses as high-risk carcasses and they are processed separately, with heat treatment of the meat products. However, this study suggests that Category 2 carcasses seem to be of the same hygienic standard as those in other categories, perhaps because Category 2 carcasses are dehided and trimmed more carefully. However, since trimming of visual spot contamination seems sufficient for reducing microbial contamination to adequate levels, similar to those of cleaner animals, directing these carcasses into a separate meat process line, as demanded by the national guidelines, may be unnecessary.

This work provided a HACCP plan for mycotoxigenic hazards associated with dry-cured meat production facility. Mycotoxigenic hazards that could emerge at each stage of the production were described. Pathogenic yeasts, toxic secondary metabolites of toxigenic moulds were identified as the potential hazards. Smoking and the dry-ripening stages of production were the critical control points identified. Critical limits for the critical control points were set based on scientific premises and recommendations set by legislative authorities. The status of the critical limits at the identified critical control points need to be monitored, verified and recorded.

Although hot water pasteurisation of carcasses is accepted as a general intervention in USA, this is not the case in Europe. The aims of this study were (i) to evaluate the microbiological effects of hot water pasteurisation of lamb carcasses, both after slaughtering and dressing and following subsequent chilling and storage; (ii) to discuss hot water pasteurisation from a public health and cost-benefit perspective; (iii) to discuss the benefits of hot water pasteurisation compared with use of separate meat processing streams for high-risk carcasses; (iv) to evaluate the use of recycled hot water in a hygienic context and in relation to EU regulations; and (v) to consider the technological and sensory aspects of hot water pasteurisation of lamb carcasses. Samples were collected from 420 naturally contaminated lamb carcasses, with 50% of the carcasses (n=210) subject to hot water pasteurisation at 82 °C for 8s immediately after slaughter. Surface swab samples from 4500 cm² areas on carcasses were collected at slaughter, after chilling for 24 h, and after chilling for five days. The microbial analyses included Escherichia coli, Enterobacteriaceae, Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens and aerobic plate count (APC). A resuscitation step using Tryptone Soya Agar was included in the microbiological analyses. Hot water pasteurisation significantly reduced the levels of E. coli, Enterobacteriaceae, B. cereus and APC (all P

Performances of SAS-super-180 air sampler and settle plates were investigated for the assessment of airborne fungal food contamination. Air samples were taken from processing rooms of a dry-cured production facility and outdoors. Fungal colonies and numbers of species were counted and compared. Quantitatively, the air sampler showed higher numbers of species and mean CFU/plate compared to settle plates. Qualitatively, the two methods showed similar dominating fungal genera and species associated with dry-cured meat products. The study showed settle plates could provide important qualitative information for food processing plants where airborne fungi associated with food products are the targets.

This study investigate the diversity and dynamics of yeasts in the production processes of one unsmoked and two smoked dry-cured meat products of a Norwegian dry-cured meat production facility. A longitudinal observational study was performed to collect 642 samples from the meat, production materials, room installations and indoor and outdoor air of the production facility. Nutrient rich agar media were used to isolate the yeasts. Morphologically different isolates were re-cultivated in their pure culture forms. Both classical and molecular methods were employed for species identification. Totally, 401 yeast isolates belonging to 10 species of the following six genera were identified: Debaryomyces, Candida, Rhodotorula, Rhodosporidium, Cryptococcus and Sporidiobolus. Debaryomyces hansenii and Candida zeylanoides were dominant and contributed by 63.0% and 26.4% respectively to the total isolates recovered from both smoked and unsmoked products. The yeast diversity was higher at the pre-salting production processes with C. zeylanoides being the dominant. Later at the post-salting stages, D. hansenii occurred frequently. Laboratory studies showed that D. hansenii was more tolerant to sodium chloride and nitrite than C. zeylanoides. Smoking seems to have a killing or a temporary growth inhibiting effect on yeasts that extend to the start of the drying process. Yeasts were isolated only from 31.1% of the environmental samples. They belonged to six different species of which five of them were isolated from the meat samples too. Debaryomyces hansenii and Rhodotorula glutinis were dominant with a 62.6% and 22.0% contribution respectively. As none of the air samples contained D. hansenii, the production materials and room installations used in the production processes were believed to be the sources of contamination. The dominance of D. hansenii late in the production process replacing C. zeylanoides should be considered as a positive change both for the quality and safety of the products, as C. zeylanoides has been documented as an emerging pathogen.

Globally, Salmonella is one of the most important food borne zoonotic pathogens. Norway has a favourable situation regarding Salmonella , as these bacteria are virtually absent in food producing animals and domestically produced food, including products from fish. Consequently, Norway has a low incidence of domestically acquired salmonellosis in the human population. Some Salmonella serovars can however occasionally be found in animal feed and its ingredients, as well as in the feed production facilities. During the years from 2000 to 2004, the prevalence of Salmonella in samples of feed materials varied from 0.14 to 0.33%. Of environmental samples obtained at Norwegian fish feed production facilities, 3.78% of the examined samples were positive. During the same period, the prevalence of Salmonella in Norwegian ready to use compound fish feed were shown to be 0.3%. The predominant serovars found in fish meal were S. Senftenberg and S . Montevideo. The same serovars were dominating in isolates from the production environment, and could in these cases be considered “house strains”. In ready to use compound fish feed, the most common serovars were found to be S . Senftenberg, S . Agona, S . Montevideo and S . Kentucky. Under natural rearing conditions for farmed Atlantic salmon in Norway, and with low concentrations of Salmonella in the feed, the risk of transmission to humans via fish products is minimal. Epidemiological data on salmonellosis from the Norwegian Surveillance System for Communicable Diseases, show that the most common serovars in fish feed ingredients, fish feed and fish feed factories accounts for approximately 2 % of clinical Salmonella isolates from domestically acquired cases in Norway. There is no evidence for transmission of Salmonella from fish feed to humans. However, there is little information on the risk of Salmonella cross-contamination from fish feed, the ingredients and the factories to other parts of society, including wildlife. A probable cross-contamination between fish feed factories and seagulls have been described. The prevalence of antimicrobial resistant Salmonella strains isolated from fish feed, its ingredients and the production environment have so far been very low.

The study aimed at substituting nitrite with carbon monoxide (CO) in cooked or fermented meat batter products by investigating color and color stability in myoglobin solutions, model meat systems, and full-scale hotdog and salami sausages of pork and beef. For cooked model meat systems and hotdogs at 75 to 80 °C core temperatures, direct flushing with a 1% CO gas mixture during the last stage of the batter chopping produced an initial red color equal to nitrite or more intense than with nitrite. For fermented model meat systems and salami sausages with a final pH of 4.7, pretreatment and storage of ground raw meat in a 1% CO mixture, and later use of the pretreated meat in batters, also formed an initial red color in the final products. The color stability during air and light display of cooked and fermented meat products with CO was inadequate compared to products with nitrite, although the red color of CO products was largely maintained by anaerobic packaging and storage. Spectra of carboxy- and nitrosomyoglobin at pH 4.7 demonstrated higher absorbance for carboxymyoglobin.

This study was performed to evaluate testing methods of pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica in pigs at different ages. Relevant tools and procedures are crucial if pig herds should be declared free from pathogenic Y. enterocolitica. Historical data based on serology showed that the two farms investigated in this study (herds A and B) were contaminated with Y. enterocolitica O:3 since at least 1995. Laboratory investigations of 60 pigs were sampled one to four times (herd A) and 20 pigs were sampled one to three times (herd B) at different ages were the basis for this report. The following testing procedures could be used to conclude that a herd is free from pathogenic Y. enterocolitica: — serological testing of pigs could be performed as a basis for categorisation for all ages from about 100 days including at slaughter when the pigs are 150–180 days old, — bacteriological examination of faeces could be used as a basis for categorisation at all ages from 85 days until about 135 days, — bacteriological examination of tonsils could be used as a basis for categorisation at all ages from 85 days including at slaughter when the pigs are 150–180 days old. However, due to animal welfare aspects, one should avoid sampling of tonsils. Accordingly, the serological method or bacteriological examination of faeces at relevant ages should be preferred. One aspect related to slaughter hygiene is that in pigs slaughtered at the age of 135 days or more, the tonsils may be a more significant source of human pathogenic Y. enterocolitica than faeces.

Compared with traditional boning of split refrigerated carcasses, hot boning of intact carcasses (the removal of meat from the skeleton prerigor) provides several commercially important cuts, may improve quality and reduce refrigeration costs, and may reduce the contamination of carcasses with central nervous system (CNS) tissue. In a comparative study of hot boning of intact and split carcasses, the CNS tissue contamination of intact carcasses was negligible (as measured with the CNS-related proteins glial fibrillary acidic protein and S-100 protein), but split carcasses were highly contaminated. The same trends were observed for dissection worktables used during the boning process. Most current boning plants have processing lines that are organized for boning carcass quarters, where the carcasses, in addition to transversal division, also are split horizontally. This part of the boning process was incorporated in the design of our study. Nine of the 18 intact carcasses were split horizontally between thoracic vertebrae 10 and 11 before they were hot boned. CNS tissue contamination was not detected on the carcass site related to this procedure. The amount of CNS tissue contamination was similar in boned cuts and minced meat from split and intact carcasses, except in the forerib. Boning of split carcasses appears to reduce CNS tissue contamination significantly to a level comparable to that of intact hot-boned carcasses.

The agreements between various culturing-method combinations and specimens to detect sheep naturally infected by Salmonella enterica IIIb 61:k:1,5,(7) were tested. Rectal swabs, faecal samples and ileo-caecal lymph nodes were collected from each individual. Rectal swabs called “group I” ( n =54) were cultured directly on selective media (selenite cysteine, SC). Rectal swabs called “group II” ( n =47) were pre-incubated in buffered peptone water. The four other combinations of culturing-method and specimen (one lymph node and three faecal) in each of the two groups were cultured directly on SC. The results from all the combinations of method and specimens were compared to the result from the rectal-swab test by kappa and McNemar’s chi-square. Kappas for the agreement between rectal swabs and faecal sample tests were only 0.4. The lymph-node test agreed even-more poorly, with mean kappa value −0.02. The McNemar’s test revealed that the discordancies between the rectal-swab test and all of the other tests went in both directions but sometimes did show bias (directionality) in the discordancies.