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Cost-effective air pollution emission control has been in focus for decades in international air pollution regulations. Despite large observed emission reductions for many air pollutants, environmental and human health problems persist and more efforts are needed. However, some stakeholders are concerned that the costs for remaining emission control measures are prohibitively high. There are several reasons for concern, and one can be the difference in investment perspectives—i.e. costs of borrowing and time constraints—held by stakeholders. By using the integrated assessment model GAINS, we study whether differences in investment perspectives of Nordic stakeholders influence measures selected for cost-effective emission control and can motivate concerns for high costs of emission control. We distinguish the control cost calculations between a social planner perspective and a corporate perspective and apply these to the GAINS model database on emission control measures. A cost-minimized selection of measures in 2030 is then calculated for increasing environmental and health ambitions for both perspectives. The results show an irregular pattern, but for a range of ambition levels the corporate perspective affects the selection of measures and implies surplus costs for the Nordic social planner of up to 120 million € per year. This is 36% more expensive than the costs of the social planners’ selection. Conversely, from a corporate perspective the social planners’ selection can imply cost increases of up to 180 million €. We therefore suggest that control of investment perspective effects should be standard in analysis of cost-effective air pollution measures.

Carnitine dehydrogenase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa catalyzes the reversible reduction of 3-dehydrocarnitine to carnitine. The enzyme is specific for NADH and 3-dehydrocarnitne in the reduction and for NAD+ and l-carnitine in the oxidation reaction. Carnitine dehydrogenase differs from other dehydrogenases in from other dehydrogenases in the polar structure of both of its substrates, carnitine and 3-dehydrocarnitine. So differences in the enzyme-substrate binding and in the reaction mechanism might be expected. The enzyme used in our experiments was of a high specific activity (600 μmoles NAD+/min/mg protein), purified by means of ammonium sulphate fractionation, gel filtration and DEAE cellulose and hydroxyl apatite chromatography. The dependence of initial velocity on the substrate concentration was investigated in the oxidation and reduction reacations. The results are presented in the form of double reciprocal plots. The slopes and intercepts of these primary plots were replotted versus reciprocal substrate concentrations yielding secondary plots. Slopes and intercepts of these secondary plots correspond to the kinetic parameters ϕ0, ϕ1, ϕ2, ϕ12 (reduction reaction) and ϕ0, ϕ′1, ϕ′2, and ϕ′12, (oxidation reaction). The quotients obtained from these values agree with the conditions for a special case of ordered Bi Bi mechanism, the so-called Theorell-Chance mechanism. The limiting Michaelis constants for both substrates in the reduction and oxidation reactions, the dissociation constants for the binary complexes of the enzyme with NADH or NAD+, and the equilibrium constants of the overall reacrtion are presented. The product inhibition patterns also correspond to those predicted by the Theorell-Chance mechanism.

Despite increasing emission controls, particulate matter (PM) has remained a critical issue for European air quality in recent years. The various sources of PM, both from primary particulate emissions as well as secondary formation from precursor gases, make this a complex problem to tackle. In order to allow for credible predictions of future concentrations under policy assumptions, a modelling approach is needed that considers all chemical processes and spatial dimensions involved, from long-range transport of pollution to local emissions in street canyons. Here we describe a modelling scheme which has been implemented in the GAINS integrated assessment model to assess compliance with PM10 (PM with aerodynamic diameter < 10 μm) limit values at individual air quality monitoring stations reporting to the AirBase database. The modelling approach relies on a combination of bottom up modelling of emissions, simplified atmospheric chemistry and dispersion calculations, and a traffic increment calculation wherever applicable. At each monitoring station fulfilling a few data coverage criteria, measured concentrations in the base year 2009 are explained to the extent possible and then modelled for the past and future. More than 1850 monitoring stations are covered, including more than 300 traffic stations and 80% of the stations which exceeded the EU air quality limit values in 2009. As a validation, we compare modelled trends in the period 2000–2008 to observations, which are well reproduced. The modelling scheme is applied here to quantify explicitly source contributions to ambient concentrations at several critical monitoring stations, displaying the differences in spatial origin and chemical composition of urban roadside PM10 across Europe. Furthermore, we analyse the predicted evolution of PM10 concentrations in the European Union until 2030 under different policy scenarios. Significant improvements in ambient PM10 concentrations are expected assuming successful implementation of already agreed legislation; however, these will not be large enough to ensure attainment of PM10 limit values in hot spot locations such as Southern Poland and major European cities. Remaining issues are largely eliminated in a scenario applying the best available emission control technologies to the maximal technically feasible extent.

Simple models are often used to assess the potential impact of acidifying and eutrophying substances released during the life cycle of products. As fate, background depositions, and ecosystem sensitivity are not included in these models, environmental life-cycle assessment of products (LCA) may produce incorrect results for these impact categories. This paper outlines the spatially explicit regional air pollution information and simulation model (RAINS-LCA), which was developed for the calculation of acidification and terrestrial eutrophication potentials of ammonia (NH3) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) air emissions and acidification potentials for sulfur dioxide (SO2) air emissions for Europe and a number of European regions, taking fate, background depositions and effects into account. Two impact definitions are explored in the calculations: 1) the marginal change in the hazard index of all ecosystems in Europe and 2) the marginal change in the hazard index of ecosystems in Europe where the critical load is actually exceeded. The inclusion of fate, background depositions, and ecosystem sensitivity results in a different ranking of substances compared to simpler model outcomes. In the context of acidification, emissions of nitrogen compounds are regarded as about a factor 2 less important relative to sulfur compounds. Furthermore, using RAINS-LCA as opposed to simpler models, it was found that region-specific differences in terrestrial eutrophication and acidification potentials range up to 1.5 and 3.5 orders of magnitude, respectively. By means of scenario analysis, it was also shown that "only above critical load" terrestrial eutrophication and acidification potentials for the years 1995 and 2010 differ up to 0.6 order and 1 order of magnitude, respectively. These results imply that it is important to use region-specific and time-specific acidification and terrestrial eutrophication potentials, if it is expected that life-cycle emissions of acidifying and eutrophying air pollutants are predominantly situated in a few (European) regions and within a specific year. Further improvements in RAINS-LCA may be established by including source-receptor matrices of the Northern Hemisphere instead of Europe and using the probability of species occurrence as a basis for the effect assessment.

In this paper, simplified ozone models for potential use in integrated assessment are developed from the EMEP ozone model, which is a single-layer Lagrangian trajectory model. The simplification method uses fuzzy rule generation methodology to represent numerous results of the EMEP model as a response surface describing the source–receptor relationships between ozone precursor emissions and daily tropospheric ozone concentrations.

In current life-cycle impact assessment, little attention is paid to the spatial aspects of emissions: the place where an emission is released and the area and or target system on which the emission has its impact. This lack of differentiation affects the relevance of the assessed impact. This paper presents factors for Europe that relate the region of emission to the acidifying impact on its deposition area.

Summary The lack of spatial differentiation in current life-cycle impact assessment (LCIA) affects the relevance of the assessed impact. This article first describes a framework for constructing factors relating the region of emission to the acidifying impact on its deposition areas. Next, these factors are established for 44 European regions with the help of the RAINS model, an integrated assessment model that combines information on regional emission levels with information on long-range atmospheric transport to estimate patterns of deposition and concentration for comparison with critical loads and thresholds for acidification, eutrophication via air; and tropospheric ozone formation. The application of the acidification factors in LCIA is very straightforward. The only additional data required, the geographical site of the emission, is generally provided by current life-cycle inventory analysis. The acidification factors add resolving power of a factor of 1,000 difference between the highest and lowest ratings, while the combined uncertainties in the RAINS model are canceled out to a large extent in the acidification factors as a result of the large number of ecosystems they cover The framework presented is also suitable for establishing similar factors for eutrophication and tropospheric ozone formation for regions outside Europe as well.

Two acid deposition scenarios were simulated for six European forest sites situated in Germany, Denmark, Russia, Switzerland, Spain and Ireland. Three models were used in combination; the RAINS (Regional Acidification INformations and Simulation) model, the SAFE (Simulating Acidification in Forest Ecosystems) model and the MakeDep model. The scenarios used were based on results from international negotiations (the Oslo and Sofia protocols) and on calculations of what could be achieved using the best available technology at a reasonable cost. The parameters chosen for studying the course of acidification were base saturation, BC:Al molar ratio in soil solution and pH. Furthermore, the sites were compared with respect to deposition regimes as well as ion exchange and weathering rates, nutrient uptake and nutrient cycling. The results show, that all sites have undergone acidification. Three of the sites show BC:Al molar ratios below or very close to the threshold value of 1. Currently accepted reductions in S and N emissions will lead to a halt in acidification in all cases and a partial regeneration of the soil buffer capacity in some cases. Introducing maximum feasible reductions would improve soil conditions remarkably at all six sites. The differences in degree and course of acidification can be derived from differences in weathering rate and soil buffer capacity as well as from the deposition regimes. Detailed information on future anthropogenic base cation deposition is shown to be less important for the outcome of the scenarios than expected.

NO2 concentrations at the street level are a major concern for urban air quality in Europe and have been regulated under the EU Thematic Strategy on Air Pollution. Despite the legal requirements, limit values are exceeded at many monitoring stations with little or no improvement during recent years. In order to assess the effects of future emission control regulations on roadside NO2 concentrations, a downscaling module has been implemented in the GAINS integrated assessment model. The module follows a hybrid approach based on atmospheric dispersion calculations and observations from the AirBase European air quality data base that are used to estimate site-specific parameters. Pollutant concentrations at every monitoring site with sufficient data coverage are disaggregated into contributions from regional background, urban increment, and local roadside increment. The future evolution of each contribution is assessed with a model of the appropriate scale – 28 × 28 km grid based on the EMEP Model for the regional background, 7 × 7 km urban increment based on the CHIMERE Chemistry Transport Model, and a chemical box model for the roadside increment. Thus, different emission scenarios and control options for long-range transport, regional and local emissions can be analysed. Observed concentrations and historical trends are well captured, in particular the differing NO2 and total NOx = NO + NO2 trends. Altogether, more than 1950 air quality monitoring stations in the EU are covered by the model, including more than 400 traffic stations and 70% of the critical stations. Together with its well-established bottom-up emission and dispersion calculation scheme, GAINS is thus able to bridge the scales from European-wide policies to impacts in street canyons. As an application of the model, we assess the evolution of attainment of NO2 limit values under current legislation until 2030. Strong improvements are expected with the introduction of the Euro 6 emission standard for light duty vehicles; however, for some major European cities, further measures may be required, in particular if aiming to achieve compliance at an earlier time.

The process of purifying superoxide dismutases was simplified using charge-controlled hydrophobic chromatography on 10-carboxydecyl Sepharose. In only one chromatographic step following ammonium sulphate precipitation, Fe-containing superoxide dismutase from Pseudomonas putida and Cu,Zn-containing superoxide dismutase from bovine erythrocytes were purified with an overall yield of about 70% to electrophoretic homogeneity. The specific activities of the crystalline enzyme preparations were expressed in McCord and Fridovich units and were 3000 and 3200 U/mg, respectively.

Based on plate matings using P. putida strain BL10 as the recipient and either P. putida strain PG405 or PG125 as the donor, the transconjugant strains TK1 and TK3 were obtained. These were shown to harbour a single plasmid of a molecular size comparable to that of PGH1 (in the donor strain PG405) and pPGH11 (in the donor strain PG125), respectively. Clear-cut evidence was presented that at least the transconjugant strain TK3 has the genetic potential of degrading phenol via both the ortho-pathway (encoded by chromosomal genes) and the meta-pathway (encoded by plasmid-localized genes) due to two complete alternative enzyme sequences. However, in both transconjugant strains TK1 and TK3 only the meta-pathway enzymes were found to operate during cell growth on phenol as the sole carbon source. Several lines of investigation indicated the observed predominance of the meta-pathway in TK1 and TK3 cells growing on phenol to be a specific phenomenon resulting from coordinate induction of the respective plasmid-encoded enzymes by the primary substrate.

Es wird eine Methode beschrieben, die eine quantitative Bestimmung von l-Carnitin durch Einsatz von Carnitindehydrogenase aus Pseudomonas putida in einem einfachen optischen Test bei 340 nm ermoglicht. Bei Durchfuhrung der Reaktion im pH-Bereich zwischen 9,95 und 10,05 kann man nach einer Inkubation bei 30° C fur 30 min einen Umsatz von mehr als 99% erreichen, wenn mindestens 2 U Enzym eingesetzt werden. Eine Linearitat zwischen l-Carnitinkonzentration und Extinktionsdifferenz ist allerdings nur bis zu einer Konzentration von 25−30 μmol/l gegeben. Bei Kopplung der Reaktion mit Phenazinmethosulfat und Iodnitrotetrazoliumchlorid kann ein quantitativer Umsatz bereits im pH-Bereich von 8–9 erzielt werden. Die Konzentrationszunahme des sich bildenden Formazans kann bei 500 nm verfolgt werden. Es konnen so noch etwa 2 nmol l-Carnitin sicher nachgewiesen werden.

The binding of dehydrogenases, especially alcohol dehydrogenase, and other proteins to several ion exchangers and hydrophobic polymers was investigated. Quantitative parameters for the stability of the polymer—protein complexes (obtained from double reciprocal plots) indicate a high but different affinity of many proteins for polyaminomethylstyrene. The chromatography of a mixture of five dehydrogenases and human serum albumin on polyaminomethylstyrene is described.

Kinetic studies of yeast alcohol dehydrogenase with NAD+ and ethanol, hexanol or decanol as substrates invariably result in non-linear Lineweaver-Burk plots if the alcohol is the variable substrate. The kinetic coefficients determined from secondary plots are consistent with an ‘equilibrium random-order‘ mechanism for extremely low alcohol concentrations and for all alcohols, the transformation of the ternary complexes being the rate-limiting step of the reaction. This mechanism also applies to long-chain substrates at high concentrations, whereas the rate of the ethanol-NAD+ reaction at high ethanol concentrations is determined by the dissociation of the enzyme-NADH complex. The dissociation constants for the enzyme-NAD+ complex and for the enzyme-alcohol complexes obtained from the kinetic quotients satisfactorily correspond to the dissociation constants obtained by use of other techniques. It is suggested that the non-linear curves may be attributed to a structural change in the enzyme itself, caused by the alcohol.

Bei A. calcoaceticus 69-V wird nach Ultraschallaufschlus im zellfreien Rohextrakt ein Pyridin-nucleotid-unabhangiges Enzym zur Oxydation von langerkettigen primaren aliphatischen Alkoholen nachgewiesen. Als Testsubstrate wurden Hexanol und Octanol verwendet. Als Elektronen-akzeptor kann Dichlorphenolindophenol dienen. Der entstehende Aldehyd wird als Phenyl-hydrazon identifiziert und quantitativ gemessen. DCIP-Abnahme und Hydrazonzunahme ent-sprechen sich. Das pH-Optimum der Reaktion liegt bei 7,5. Phenazinmethosulfat hat keinen Einflus auf die Reaktionsgeschwindigkeit. Die spezifische Aktivitat des Enzyms liegt nach Wachstum auf n-Alkanen etwa bei 4 nMol/min/mg Protein; nach Wachstum auf Athanol ist das Enzym nicht nachweisbar.

A new enzymatic method for microdetermination of longer chain alcohols has been established withNAD(P)-independent alcohol dehydrogenase from an alkane-oxidizing strain ofPseudomonas putida. The alcohols were estimated spectrophotometrically by measuring the formazan formation from the corresponding tetrazolium salt. Amounts of longer chain alcohols up to 3 nmol could be assayed by reading the endpoint of the reaction, even in presence of a 1000-fold exess of ethanol.

Auf der Basis einer NAD(P)+-unabhangigen Alkoholdehydrogenase aus Pseudomonas putida wurde eine Alkoholelektrode hergestellt, mit der primare aliphatische Alkohole (vorzugsweise C6–C10) quantitativ nachgewiesen werden konnen. Der nach Zugabe von Phenazinmethosulfat nachzuweisende Sauerstoffverbrauch ist der Alkoholkonzentration im Bereich zwischen 20–400 μmol/l proportional. Der Zeitbedarf fur eine Messung liegt bei 1–2 min (initiale Reaktionsgeschwindigkeit) bzw. bei 10–15 min (Sauerstoffverbrauch im steady state-Zustand). Die Meswertanzeige der Elektrode bleibt uber einen Zeitraum von 60 Tagen (ca. 100 Bestimmungen) annahernd konstant.

A rapid procedure is described for detecting and differentiating pseudomonads by their ability to degrade substrates with diverse physico-chemical properties, including volatile and non-volatile water-insoluble compounds, strong organic acids and bases, surfactants, disinfectants, and other toxic substances. The bacteria are embedded in an agar medium containing mineral salts and exposed to about 5 mg amounts of six to eight different substrates placed on the surface of an agar plate. After incubation at 25 degrees C for 24 hrs, growth zones around utilizable substrates may be used to differentiate various Pseudomonas strains and species.

Alcohol dehydrogenase from yeast converts long-chain primary alcohols not only in the dissolved state, but also at the surface of undissolved particles. Tetradecanol beads with a defined surface can be produced and employed as model substrate. The reaction rate was determined by the proton release accomplished in the reaction. The initial reaction rate depends on the enzyme concentration. The relation is nonlinear (vi = k-[e]0,4); the numerical value of the exponent (n = 0.4) argues in favour of a reaction occurring at the interface. The Lineweaver-Burk plots become linear if the substrate concentrations are based on the molar surface concentrations of the particles. The pH optimum for the reaction at the surface is displaced by 0.25 pH units towards the alkaline region (compared with ethanol as substrate). The activation energy of the reaction with tetradecanol beads as substrate is 30% lower than that for the ethanol oxydation.

Yeast alcohol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.1) (Y-ADH) was immobilized by adsorption onto polyaminomethylstyrene (PAMS). The adsorption was rapid and yielded a product, the operational and storage stability of which depended on the initial content of enzyme and to a great extent on the composition of the adsorption buffer. The best results were obtained in the presence of 0.05 M phosphate solution, pH 8.8, containing 2 M sodium chloride. The amount of adsorbed ADH correlates with the position of anions in the Hofmeister series. After 1,000 bed volumes of the standard assay mixture have flowed through the column, there is no decrease in activity. It is possible to prepare adsorbates using crude yeast extracts as enzyme source. The stability of the immobilized enzyme is similar to that obtained with crystalline ADH preparations.

On the basis of photochemical generation of O2.- and the tetrazolium/formazan system as indicating reaction an assay for SOD was developed which allows the determination of initial rate velocities of the enzyme. This was achieved by a special apparatus yielding the continuous registration of product formation simultaneously with the photochemical generation of O2.-. The investigation of the indicating reaction revealed that the reduction of nitro blue tetrazolium chloride to formazan is stoichiometrical with respect to riboflavin/methionine generated O2.- above pH 9. On this basis, an activity unit of SOD can be defined as real substrate consumption. One unit of the enzyme causes a decrease in the formation of formazan of 1 mumol/min under defined conditions.

The adsorption of 8 enzymes to polyaminomethylstyrene was studied. While lactate dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase exhibit a relatively low affinity to the carrier, alcohol dehydrogenase, glutamate dehydrogenase and urease were found to form stabile complexes with the polymer that are enzymatically active. Adsorbed urease and beta-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, are still active after several weeks; the other preparations lose their activity soon. It can be shown by the example of yeast alcohol dehydrogenase that the activity loss following adsorption is caused possibly by a process of reorientation of already bound enzyme molecules or by the increasing enzyme coverage of the carrier, with the active centres becoming more and more inaccessible for the substrate. During the substrate conversion catalysed by the alcohol dehydrogenase-polyaminomethylstyrene complex, a small amount of the enzyme is again detached from the carrier. The activity rises to a certain extent in the supernatant but drops to zero again. The stability of the adsorbed urease is distinctly increased compared with the dissolved enzyme. For the pH optimum and the KM value there are no differences between the two preparations. Continuous application of polyaminomethylstyrene-bound beta-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase and urease, respectively, in a column shows that both preparations have unchanged enzymatic activities even after running times of 5 and 24 days, respectively.

The enzymatic oxidation of hexanol, decanol, and tetradecanol by yeast alcohol dehydrogenase was studied. The enzyme was found to catalyze not only conversion in the real aqueous solution of the substrates, but also at the surface of undissolved substrate particles. The kinetic parameters varied on transition from the real solution to dispersion, in dependence on the chain length of the substrate.

This paper describes a pilot research aimed at the development of a simplified version of a European ground-level ozone model using a fuzzy rule generation methodology. The EMEP ozone model is used for predicting tropospheric ozone concentrations at every grid in Europe by taking into account the physical and chemical mechanisms. However, the EMEP model is too complicated for routine analysis of different policy options aimed at finding levels of reductions of emissions in each country that would result in decreasing the ozone concentration below given limits. Therefore there is a need to develop a simplified ozone model that can be verified by the EMEP ozone model and that can be used for rapid analysis of various policy options. The simplified ozone model should express the source-receptor relationships between ozone precursor emissions (NO/sub x/ and VOC) and ozone concentration in the troposphere, taking into account the meteorological conditions. One of the possible methodologies to develop such a simplified model is to use the fuzzy rule generation methodology. For some grids in Europe, fuzzy models are developed by using adaptive fuzzy clustering which gives a balance between linearity and continuity of the data distribution, adaptively.