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This paper investigates two forms of property as a social phenomenon and finds the Property Right Paradigm of economics to be wrongly conceived. Introducing new formulations for property reveals that private and communal property are frequently found together. When they are, as the scope of one increases the scope of the other shrinks. We examine how property rights are embedded in social exchange experiments. Calling on game theory, we find that communal property relations and private property relations contain exactly the same social dilemma. Furthermore, absent enforced rights, no property exists. Property comes to exist through socially producing its rights and we show that production must be coercive. We link our new theory of property to Robѐ's analysis of property and power in contemporary society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Merton proposed middle range theories, not as ends in themselves, but as bases for a consolidation to explain broader phenomenon. More than a half century has passed since Merton's consolidation proposal and in that time a number of experimentally tested middle range theories have been developed. Certainly, the next step should be a consolidation. Yet, to our knowledge, no one has previously offered a consolidation of experimentally tested theories and applied it for explanation. This paper offers a consolidation of middle range theories formulated to explain the rise of the pristine state. Two theories of this consolidation, Status Characteristics Theory and Elementary Theory, form the core of what Analytic Sociologists have called a toolbox of theories. Our toolbox forms an integrated consolidation in two ways. First, the social structures modeled by the theories form a path-dependent process of increasing benefits gained by the elites of the structures. Second, the end conditions of each step of the process are the initial conditions of the next. Whereas the theories in our toolbox have previously been seen as applying exclusively to microstructures, we have encountered no difficulties in scaling them up to apply to macrostructures. While we hope the consolidation has validity in explaining the occurrence of pristine states, this paper's significance lies in its demonstration that today social theories can be consolidated and applied for explanation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The term 'destructive fishing' appears in multiple international policy instruments intended to improve outcomes for marine biodiversity, coastal communities and sustainable fisheries. However, the meaning of 'destructive fishing' is often vague, limiting effectiveness in policy. Therefore, in this study, we systematically reviewed the use of 'destructive fishing' in three record types: academic literature, media articles and policy documents between 1976 and 2020. A more detailed analysis was performed on subsets of these records, considering the extent to which the term is characterised, geographic distribution of use, and specific impacts and practices associated with the term. We found that use of 'destructive fishing' relative to the generic term 'fisheries' has increased since the 1990s. Records focussed predominantly on fishing practices in South‐eastern Asia, followed by Southern Asia and Europe. The term was characterised in detail in only 15% of records. Habitat damage and blast/poison fishing were the most associated ecological impacts and gear/practices, respectively. Bottom trawling and unspecified net fishing were regularly linked to destructive fishing. Importantly, the three record types use the term differently. Academic literature tends to specifically articulate the negative impacts, while media articles focus generally on associated gears/practices. Significant regional variation also exists in how the term is used and what phenomena it is applied to. This study provides evidence and recommendations to inform stakeholders in any future pursuit of a unified definition of 'destructive fishing' to support more meaningful implementation of global sustainability goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aquaculture has grown rapidly to play a crucial economic and social role and meet the increasing global demand for seafood. As aquaculture intensifies, there is increasing pressure to find more sustainable practices that save resources and reduce waste. Major wastes and by-products from aquaculture were quantified across a full range of farming types. Key opportunities for wastewater treatment and by-product recovery include nutrient recycling through a combination of biofilters, bioaccumulation and multitrophic systems. To support a sustainable intensification of aquaculture, improvements in by-product harvesting, accumulation and processing methods require further investigation. Likewise, energy generated from by-products can potentially support intensified production through land-based recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS). Future challenges faced by the reuse of side streams include control of food safety and gaining consumer acceptance. Combined with increases in resource use efficiency across the aquaculture sector, from feeding methodologies to product storage, nutrient recycling can enable aquaculture to contribute sustainably toward the nutritional requirements of billions of people over the next century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many refinements of statistical design have been offered to solve the replication problem identified by the Open Science Collaboration and Camerer and colleagues. There are, however, two distinct kinds of experimentation: Fisher design and theory designed. Therefore, there are two kinds of replication. Only for the Fisher design does replication reproduce conditions of prior experiments in order to compare new with prior results, and only there has a replication problem been demonstrated. In contrast, replications for theory-designed experiments test experimental results against theoretical predictions, and only for theory-designed experiments can replication be extended broadly across the scope of a theory. The authors analyze the logic of the two types of experiments as well as hybrids that mix qualities of both. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global bivalve shellfish industry makes up 25% of aquaculture, is worth USD $17.2 billion year−1, and relies upon a supply of juvenile bivalves produced by adult broodstock in hatcheries. Today large quantities of live algae are grown to feed broodstock at $220 kg−1, driving highly unsustainable energy and resource use. New advances in algal and microencapsulation technology provide solutions. We developed microencapsulated Schizochytrium algae diets, which can be produced sustainably at < $2 kg−1 from organic side-streams, and are shelf-stable to minimise waste. Physiological, histological, and cutting-edge metabolomic analyses demonstrate that in commercial settings sustainable microencapsulated diets facilitate improved sexual development and 12 × greater omega-3 levels in oysters relative to conventional live algal diets. Every tonne bivalve protein produced instead of fish spares 9 ha, 67 tonnes CO2, and 40,000 L freshwater. Further research into microencapsulated diets could support bivalve industry expansion, and contribute towards a step-change in sustainable global food production through improved aquaculture practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• RZV efficacy against HZ or PHN was similar in women and men. • In ≥50-year-olds, efficacy against HZ was 95.7–97.2% across geographic regions. • In ≥70-year-olds, efficacy against HZ and PHN was 86.8–100% across geographic regions. • No major efficacy differences observed against HZ and PHN by geographic ancestry/ethnicity. • RZV efficacy against HZ and PHN in these subsets was consistent with the overall ZOE-50/70 population. Herpes zoster (HZ) risk appears to vary by sex and geographic ancestry/ethnicity. In 2 randomized clinical trials, participants received 2 doses of adjuvanted recombinant zoster vaccine (RZV) or placebo intramuscularly, 2 months apart. In this post-hoc analysis, we investigate efficacy of RZV against HZ and postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) by sex, geographic region, and geographic ancestry/ethnicity in ≥50-year-olds (ZOE-50: NCT01165177) and ≥70-year-olds (pooled data from ZOE-50 and ZOE-70: NCT01165229). Vaccine efficacy against HZ or PHN was similar in women and men. Across geographic regions, efficacy against HZ ranged between 95.7 and 97.2% in ≥50-year-olds, and between 87.3% and 95.1% in ≥70-year-olds; efficacy against PHN ranged between 86.8 and 100% in ≥70-year-olds. Across ancestral/ethnic groups, efficacy ranged between 88.1 and 100% against HZ and between 65.9 and 100% against PHN in ≥70-year-olds. While the ZOE-50/70 studies were not powered or pre-designed for these post-hoc analyses, RZV appears efficacious against HZ and PHN irrespective of sex, region, or geographic ancestry/ethnicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Sustainable expansion of aquaculture is critical to global food security, and bivalve shellfish aquaculture represents a sustainable method to provide people with affordable nutritious food. Oysters represent 54% of the global bivalve market by value, with propagation of juveniles within hatcheries critical to allow the industry to grow. Growth and survival of juvenile oysters in hatchery systems is constrained by suboptimal feed. The live algal feed currently used is expensive, of variable quality, contamination prone, and the high level of skill and equipment required limits where hatcheries can be located. We demonstrate how a novel microencapsulated diet can increase the growth and survivorship of Ostrea edulis (European flat oyster) juveniles in both the laboratory and hatchery setting. The microcapsules are easily produced in large quantities, stable for long term storage, and can be customised to have exceptionally high levels of nutrients key for oyster growth. O. edulis larvae fed a combined diet of microcapsules and algae for 8 days had a 46% greater increase in maximum size, 171% greater increase in minimum size, and 5% higher survival than larvae fed algae alone. O. edulis spat of 4 mm fed the combined diet for 7 weeks also had significantly greater survivorship (16% greater in hatchery, 58% greater in laboratory) and growth comparable (hatchery) or better (laboratory experiments) than algae alone. Further tailoring of the nutritional composition of microcapsules to specific bivalve species or growth stages could allow microcapsules to replace a greater proportion of or even completely replace algal diets. There is potential for these diets to revolutionise bivalve shellfish farming globally. Highlights • O. edulis juveniles fed diets containing microcapsules had greater growth and survivorship than juveniles fed algae alone • The microcapsules are easily produced at large scale, stable for storage, and rich in desirable nutrients for bivalve growth • Microencapsulated diets for bivalves could help increase bivalve production and contribute to sustainable food security [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contemporary social movement researchers claim that legitimizing elements of social movements can counteract collective action problems and increase the likelihood that self-interested individuals take collective rather than individual action. Their work is insightful and informative, but it rarely uses general theory to describe the processes through which movement elements acquire legitimacy. Nor does it apply general theory to describe the mechanisms or processes through which legitimized elements influence collective action. The laboratory experiments reported in this article test hypotheses derived from a general theory—the multiple-sources, multiple-objects theory of legitimacy. The experiments examine the effects that legitimacy (measured as peer endorsement) and network size have on coalition formation, a form of collective action, and the countervailing of power. The research finds support for the legitimacy arguments. Low-power actors form coalitions more often in networks that highly endorse coalition formation and in smaller networks. Coalitions countervail power, and coalitions in the smallest networks reverse power. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The exchanges that individualist, prosocial, and competitive actors will make and the kind of negotiations they will carry out in dyads and power structures are predicted here for the first time. The predictions are generated by bridging two previously independent streams of thought, network exchange theory and social value orientations. In so doing, this article shows that formal, mathematical theory and metric predictions are not threatened by using multiple actors with contrasting utilities. Results offered here are hypothetical and provide a baseline against which empirical studies can be compared. A later paper will compare these predictions with experiments now ongoing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human endogenous retrovirus type K (HERV-K) transcripts are upregulated in the plasma of HIV-infected individuals and have been considered as targets for an HIV vaccine. We evaluated cynomolgus macaque endogenous retrovirus (CyERV) mRNA expression by RT-qPCR in PBMCs isolated from a cohort of animals previously utilized in a live attenuated SIV vaccine trial. CyERV env transcript levels decreased following vaccination (control and vaccine groups) and CyERV env and gag mRNA expression was decreased following acute SIV-infection, whereas during chronic SIV infection, CyERV transcript levels were indistinguishable from baseline. Reduced susceptibility to initial SIV infection, as measured by the number of SIV challenges required for infection, was associated with increased CyERV transcript levels in PBMCs. In vitro analysis revealed that SIV infection of purified CD4+ T-cells did not alter CyERV gene expression. This study represents the first evaluation of ERV expression in cynomolgus macaques following SIV infection, in an effort to assess the utility of cynomolgus macaques as an animal model to evaluate ERVs as a target for an HIV/SIV vaccine. This non-human primate model system does not recapitulate what has been observed to date in the plasma of HIV-infected humans suggesting that further investigation at the cellular level is required to elucidate the impact of HIV/SIV infection on endogenous retrovirus expression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An abstract of the article "Multi-Low-Dose Mucosal Simian Immunodeficiency Virus SIVmac239 Challenge of Cynomolgus Macaques Immunized with "Hyperattenuated" SIV Constructs," by David O. Willer and colleagues is presented.

Using the most comprehensive data set now available, this investigation tests the precision of all exchange theories that now contend. Beyond precision, the investigation focuses on broad issues of effectiveness including consistency, parsimony, and whether the theories can be applied to structures larger than normally studied in the lab. Seeking greater parsimony, this investigation introduces a new model by combining parts of two contending theories. We find that all ten theories have scientific merit for all can predict with some effectiveness for the exchange structures experimentally investigated. Nevertheless, the ten vary in precision. Elementary Theory is the most precise. The new Expected-value Resistance model ranks second in precision and is the simplest. Both apply to large networks as well as the best of the other theories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Applications of game theory frequently presume but do not show that social structures contain games. This study shows that multiple games are embedded in strong power structures and that power is exercised because 1) the game of those low in power contains a dilemma whereas 2) the game of those high in power does not. As in previous analyses, we find those low in power play the Prisoner's Dilemma game. New to this analysis is the discovery that those high in power play the Privileged game, a game with no dilemma. Also new is the extension of the analysis to the design of coalitions. That extension shows that, when coalition formation succeeds, it eliminates the dilemma of those low in power by transforming their game from Prisoner's Dilemma to Privileged. By contrast, exactly the same coalition structure does not alter the game played by those high in power. Applying well-known game theoretic solution concepts, we predict that low power coalitions will countervail power, but that coalitions of those high in power will not affect power exercise. Experiments testing this theory investigate 1) coalitions of those high in power, 2) low power coalitions organized against multiple high power positions, and 3) opposed coalitions struggling for power against each other. Results strongly support the theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of group processes has benefited from longstanding programs of theory-driven research on status and power. The present work constructs a bridge between two formal theories of status and power: Status Characteristics Theory and Network Exchange Theory. Two theoretical models, one for "status value" and one for "status influence," illuminate the underlying mechanisms whereby status differences between individuals lead to power differences in negotiated exchange. The two models generate precise hypotheses that are tested against new and previously published data. The results generally support both models, indicating that status characteristics create power in negotiated exchange relations in contrasting ways. We conclude with a discussion of the broader theoretical and empirical implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing body of literature on coalitions in exchange networks has addressed issues such as the kind of social dilemmas posed and how structurally disadvantaged actors overcome free-rider problems. We add to this stream of research by focusing explicitly on what low-power actors can gain from collective action. We offer theory that predicts whether actors can gain a collective good by forming coalitions and, if so, the size of that good, for all types of network connection. The results from new experiments yield strong support for the predictions. Results show that (1) collective goods are latent in some, but not all, types of exchange structures; (2) when present, collective good size is determined by connection type; and (3) these goods are made manifest through collective action. Among other phenomena, the theory explains why networks that generate identical exchange ratios when participants act independently can produce different size collective goods when they act collectively. This article concludes with a discussion of implications, limitations, and directions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some sociologists argue that sociological theory does not grow and the reason why it does not grow is that the discipline lacks a core of highly developed, almost universally accepted, paradigms; even worse, because it is reflexive, its criteria of problem and theory choice are so noncognitive that there are no paradigms, hence no progress, in its future. We do not question that sociology lacks a core of almost universally accepted paradigms, nor that highly developed paradigms may be a sufficient condition of theory growth, but we question both that universal acceptance of them is necessary and that sociology has nothing like them. We argue that theoretical research programs—sets of strategies, sets of interrelated theories embodying these strategies, and empirical models interpreting these theories—are sufficient for theoretical growth. An examination of three theoretical research programs in this article shows that they perform some of the same functions for theory growth as, in Kuhn, are performed by paradigms. Sociology may lack a universally accepted core, but there are theoretical research programs in sociology, and therefore already there is theory growth if it is looked for in the right place. Nor is there any warrant for the view that because its criteria of problem and theory choice are inescapably noncognitive, there are no paradigms, hence no progress, in sociology's future. If that were true, not only would sociology lack paradigms, but also theoretical research programs. We conclude from our study that sociology need not wait on the emergence of a universally accepted core. It is sufficient for the growth of theory that it develops further its existing theoretical research programs and that it encourages the creation of new programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Determines the role of gammaherpesvirus 68 (HV68) LANA in the lifecycle of gamma HV68, both in vitro and in vivo. Use of a null mutant containing premature translation stop codon in ORF 73. Evidence that gammaHV68 73.STOP is compromised for viral replication in vivo; Suggestion that gammaHV68 is required for efficient establishment and reactivation from latency.

Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (γHV68; also known as MHV-68) can establish a latent infection in both inbred and outbred strains of mice and, as such, provides a tractable small-animal model to address mechanisms and cell types involved in the establishment and maintenance of chronic gammaherpesvirus infection. Latency can be established at multiple anatomic sites, including the spleen and peritoneum; however, the contribution of distinct cell types to the maintenance of latency within these reservoirs remains poorly characterized. B cells are the major hematopoietic cell type harboring latent γHV68. We have analyzed various splenic B-cell subsets at early, intermediate, and late times postinfection and determined the frequency of cells either (i) capable of spontaneously reactivating latent γHV68 or (ii) harboring latent viral genome. These analyses demonstrated that latency is established in a variety of cell populations but that long-term latency (6 months postinfection) in the spleen after intranasal inoculation predominantly occurs in B cells. Furthermore, at late times postinfection latent γHV68 is largely confined to the surface immunoglobulin D-negative subset of B cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How power is extended vertically through hierarchies and horizontally through industrial networks and markets is a classic issue in sociology that was once extensively studied by Weber. Yet it is little studied today. Definitions of power exclude power exercise beyond the single relation, as does research in exchange networks. In contrast, research in organizations recognizes the extension of power, but offers no theory to explain how it is produced or to identify the conditions which might further or impede it. Here the extension of power beyond the single relationship is called power-at-a-distance. New theory offering metric predictions is applied to power-at-a-distance in exchange networks. That theory identifies the conditions that extend power beyond the dyad and the conditions that tend to block that extension. Five experiments on contrasting structures broadly support those predictions. Relations between power-at-a-distance and power centralization are theorized. Practical problems of extending power are addressed and further research is proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous policy and international frameworks consider that "destructive fishing" hampers efforts to reach sustainability goals. Though ubiquitous, "destructive fishing" is undefined and therefore currently immeasurable. Here we propose a definition developed through expert consultation: "Destructive fishing is any fishing practice that causes irrecoverable habitat degradation, or which causes significant adverse environmental impacts, results in long‐term declines in target or nontarget species beyond biologically safe limits and has negative livelihood impacts." We show strong stakeholder support for a definition, consensus on many biological and ecological dimensions, and no clustering of respondents from different sectors. Our consensus definition is a significant step toward defining sustainable fisheries goals and will help interpret and implement global political commitments which utilize the term "destructive fishing." Our definition and results will help reinforce the Food and Agricultural Organization's Code of Conduct and meaningfully support member countries to prohibit destructive fishing practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Frequently social theorists conflate power and influence, often subsuming influence under a broad conception of power. Two contemporary theories separate them. Elementary theory has investigated power, status characteristics and expectations states theory has investigated interpersonal influence, and neither theory has considered the phenomenon of the other. We use the two theories to explain how power produces influence and how Influence produces power. We develop a theory that shows how the emotional reactions of group members mediate the influence produced by power. We examine some new data and hypothesize that influence produces power. We trace the consequences when power and influence are opposed within a single relationship. Implications outside the limitations of the laboratory are discussed along with new hypotheses to be tested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elementary theory predicts that the distribution of power will vary as the type of connection varies. Previous research supporting that prediction has shown that power in unilateral monopolies is centralized when the central position is connected exclusively and decentralized when the central position is connected inclusively. Here we extend the theory to networks with compound inclusion-exclusion connections. The theory predicts that exclusion will overwhelm inclusion and that power will be centralized as it is in purely exclusionary structures. Preliminary experimental support is offered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article adds to the body of findings on how network position and the conditions of exchange influence an actor's power to obtain favorable outcomes. Four network structures of four persons each are examined in each of two experimental settings: a face-to-face setting, in which negotiations are carried out directly, and the ExNet setting, in which negotiations are carried out through a microcomputer-based electronic network. The structures are selected to provide further tests of the Markovsky et al. `s (1988) procedure for locating power positions. The different settings allow an assessment of the scope of their analysis. The results generally support their predictions. Also examined are two types of predictions. contingency and value, derived from the operant basis of Emerson's (1969) power-dependence theory. The contingency predictions receive more support than do the value predictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Much research on power development in exchange networks has demonstrated the effect of an actor's structural location on the exchange outcomes s/he experiences, without explicit attention to the process by which exchanges are completed. Our concern is with this process and, in particular, with the evaluation of some theoretical models of such negotiations. Observations of negotiations in two contrasting network exchange structures form the empirical basis for the examination of ideas from "resistance" theory, proposed by Heckathorn (1980) and Willer (1981), and simulation models built on simple actor decision strategies. We find that resistance ideas ate consistent with gross differences in negotiation patterns in the two structures and that at least some aspects of differences in negotiation can be accounted for by simple random activity channeled by network-based constraints on actors' opportunity sets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper demonstrates that paths of social determination cannot be drawn on the basis of Abells method and uses an example case to show how they are drawn using theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The distribution and structural determinants of power are central concerns of network exchange theory. In this paper, using formulations from elementary theory, we present an exhaustive typology of network connections: exclusion, inclusion and null. This typology is compared to the typology of positive and negative connection of power-dependence theory. Inclusion which has not been previously recognized is investigated. Experimental results supportive of our formulations for inclusion are offered. Some implications of the formulations for inclusion outside the laboratory are discussed. Also discussed is the possibility of using exclusion and inclusion as opposed principles in the analysis of empirical structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article refers to the theoretical aspects in mathematical sociology. Mathematical and sociology consider theory as a list of hypothetical statements. A variety of geometries have been used to make abstract objects and events in a physical theory. Both classical social and classical physical theory stand opposite one another. The contrast between the two is more if the focus in more on the end product of theory work. A social theory has to include general hypothesis about people and their actions and relationships if theory would have been a list of hypothesis.

Frequently applications of game theory assume, but do not show, that games are contained in social structures. The new analysis offered here uncovers games embedded in structures by attributing strategies to some positions and deriving the pay-off matrices for others. As structures vary so do the games embedded in them. All strong power structures contain prisoners' dilemma games for at least some range of pay-offs while some contain a chain of prisoners' dilemma games linked by defections. As a result, the development of interpersonal power in strong power structures is produced by free-riding of those low in power. Examples of other types of structures are given and other games are found that do not contain defection chains. Issues of dynamics including rates of change of power and coalition formation as a condition of countervailing power are addressed. New experiments offer support for central formulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In sociology, work in formal theory is more extensive and intensive today than at any time in the past, but remains invisible to some, including S. Zhao [(1996) "The Beginning of the End or the End of the Beginning: The Theory Construction Movement Revisited," Sociological Forum, Vol 11, No. 2, pp. 305-318]. I trace the growth of formal theory in sociology focusing on theoretical research programs and show that, whereas formal theory came after the books on theory construction, it was not based on them. Elementary Theory's research program provides an example of that discontinuity. Some misunderstandings concerning formal theory can be traced to the Maryland Theory Conference of 1990 and a critique of selected ideas of that Conference is offered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the authors' opinion on the article Power in Networks of Substitutable and Complementary Exchange Relations: A Rational-Choice Model and an Analysis of Power Centralization. Yamaguchi offers a new theory of power in social exchange networks, claiming empirical support superior to that of alternative theories. Internal contradictions are self-defeating to a theory and Yamaguchi's theory (Y's theory) has at least two. Yamaguchi fails to provide a model to specify the value of the coefficient of elasticity of substitution and this failure greatly broadens the range of potentially supportive results. In the computerized Iowa protocol, for instance, the partner offering the best deal is selected automatically which prevents any special commitments or costs of switching partners. However, several factors bias his presentation of the data and each factor reduces the apparent discrepancy between the prediction of Y's theory and the experimental data. Yamaguchi's model simply does not work when the data transformations are done correctly. In sum, contrary to Yamaguchi's claim predictions from his model are inconsistent with results from experimental studies of power in exchange networks.

We evaluate four theories that predict the distribution of power in exchange networks. All four theories--core theory, equidependence theory, exchange-resistance theory, and expected value theory--assume actors rationally pursue self-interests. Three of the theories add social psychological assumptions that place the pursuit of self interest in an interactive context. Predictions of exchange earnings by the four theories are evaluated against data from eight experimental networks, including types of networks not previously studied These networks vary conditions that affect the chances that a position can be excluded from exchange. We find that when the theories base predictions on a network position's structural potential for exclusion, exchange-resistance theory provides the best fit, but when predictions are based on actual experiences of exclusion, expected value theory fits best. Our discussion focuses on the distinction between the a priori potential for exclusion versus experienced exclusion as factors in the genesis of power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a study on the issues concerning the scientific theories and approaches to exchange networks. As such, the two approaches are subject to three conventional modes of critique. These consist of identifying a logical contradiction or conceptual ambiguity. Also, the study determined a falsified predictions in preceding exchange network theories. As well, the research aims to provide an alternative theory with a greater analytic power, scope and descriptive accuracy. In relation to the objectives and based on previous experiments done by social theorists, central positions in exchange networks are not always powerful. Yet, high-power positions were predicted to influence and accumulate more resources. So, the researcher of this study predicts that relative power levels of positions exist in exchange networks. The proponents also sought to make the findings explicit, accurate and consistent with prior empirical findings. So, it includes four axioms used to generate theorems and hypotheses for any network within the theoretical framework applied in the study. In addition, it also predicts network breaks, power shifts and some major consequences of minor changes in previous related researches. As a whole, applying all three modes of critique, the research showed that preceding network exchange theory generated contradictions and its predictions are proven to be falsified.

Many theories address the problem of how a social structure affects the experiences and behaviors of its members This paper offers a network-exchange theory to solve this problem. Previous research has shown that the nature and outcomes of negotiations among individual or corporate actors can be inferred from their network positions. The impact of this research has been limited because its theory does not enable the researcher to locate power positions in the networks. We offer a theory that is both consistent with all previously reported experimental research and is generalized to conditions not considered by other formulations. In addition to supporting derived hypotheses pertaining to network-based power, our experiments demonstrate, among other things, that certain unstable networks break down to form stable substructures and that some networks contain overlapping but autonomous domains of power and exchange. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses sociologist Max Weber's missing authority type. "There are," according to sociologist Max Weber, "but three clearcut grounds on which to base the belief in legitimate authority." He presented these as three ideal types of authority: legal-rational, traditional and charismatic. His four types of action, however, three of which parallel his three authority types, seem to suggest the possibility of a missing fourth authority type. If Weber had carried his political studies to the same point of completion as his studies of religion, the fourth type would undoubtedly have been developed in an elaboration similar to the one to be presented here. Indeed, though particularly fragmentary, his political writings seem almost to contain the seed of the ideological type. Ideological authority, like legal-rational authority, implies a bureaucratic administrative structure. It too, has the characteristics of authority of the expert, separation of the administrator from the means of his administration, impersonality of relationships, and the like.

Background The risk of herpes zoster (HZ) has been reported to vary by sex and ethnicity. In 2 large-scale clinical trials, ZOE-50 (NCT01165177) and ZOE-70 (NCT01165229), the adjuvanted recombinant zoster vaccine (RZV) demonstrated high vaccine efficacy (VE) against HZ and post-herpetic neuralgia (PHN). We present a post-hoc analysis of RZV efficacy against HZ and PHN in the ZOE-50/70 population stratified by sex, geographic region and geographic ancestry/ethnicity. Methods The ZOE-50 and ZOE-70 studies were phase III, observer-blind, placebo-controlled trials conducted across 5 geographic regions. Adults ≥ 50 years of age (YOA; ZOE-50) and ≥ 70 YOA (ZOE-70), randomized 1:1, received 2 doses of RZV or placebo 2 months apart. Here, VE against HZ by sub-population was estimated from the ZOE-50 population (≥ 50 YOA) and the pooled ZOE-50/70 population (pooled ≥ 70 YOA), and VE against PHN by sub-population was evaluated in the pooled ≥ 70 YOA. Results VE was evaluated in 7,340 RZV and 7,413 placebo recipients ≥ 50 YOA (mean age: 62.3 [RZV], 62.2 [placebo] YOA) and 8,250 RZV and 8,346 placebo recipients in pooled ≥ 70 YOA (mean age: 75.5 [RZV, placebo] YOA). VE against HZ and PHN was similar for women and men in the ≥ 50 YOA and pooled ≥ 70 YOA (Tables 1 and 2). Point estimates for VE against HZ by geographic region ranged from 95.7% to 97.2% in ≥ 50 YOA and from 87.3% to 95.1% in pooled ≥ 70 YOA (Table 1). Point estimates for VE against PHN by geographic region ranged from 86.8% to 100% in pooled ≥ 70 YOA. VE was similar across geographic ancestry groups in pooled ≥ 70 YOA: VE point estimates against HZ ranged from 89.6% to 100% and VE against PHN ranged from 87.5% to 100% (Tables 1 and 2). VE against HZ was 88.1% and against PHN was 65.9% in Hispanic participants in pooled ≥ 70 YOA (Tables 1 and 2). Conclusion Acknowledging the limitations including the post-hoc character of these analyses and the small number of participants and cases available, our data suggest that RZV is efficacious against HZ and PHN irrespective of sex, geographic region, geographic ancestry, and ethnicity. Funding: GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals SA. Disclosures All authors: No reported disclosures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article responds to Barry Markovsky's critique of the paper "Games and Structures" written by the present authors and appeared in a previous issue of "Rationality and Society." The author relates that their paper introduces a new method, strategic analysis which attributes parametric rationality to some positions in order to derive games for others. Most strikingly, when high power positions are parametrically rational, low power positions play a virtual prisoners dilemma (P/D) game. The game is virtual because low power positions are not directly connected to each other. Nevertheless, the structure plus the parametric rationality of the high power position links activity such that low power players' cooperation and defection are related in a P/D pay-off matrix. The paper includes a general proof that all strong power structures contain P/D games for at least some range of settlements. Examples of other kinds of structures are given and it is shown that they do not contain P/D games. As shown in the paper, because defection is Pareto suboptimal, when peripheral players defect, they gain less with the benefit going to the high power positions with which they are exchanging. That benefit is the power exercise.

Boreal lakes are major components of the global carbon cycle, partly because of sediment‐bound heterotrophic microorganisms that decompose within‐lake and terrestrially derived organic matter (t‐OM). The ability for sediment bacteria to break down and alter t‐OM may depend on environmental characteristics and community composition. However, the connection between these two potential drivers of decomposition is poorly understood. We tested how bacterial activity changed along experimental gradients in the quality and quantity of t‐OM inputs into littoral sediments of two small boreal lakes, a dark and a clear lake, and measured the abundance of operational taxonomic units and functional genes to identify mechanisms underlying bacterial responses. We found that bacterial production (BP) decreased across lakes with aromatic dissolved organic matter (DOM) in sediment pore water, but the process underlying this pattern differed between lakes. Bacteria in the dark lake invested in the energetically costly production of extracellular enzymes as aromatic DOM increased in availability in the sediments. By contrast, bacteria in the clear lake may have lacked the nutrients and/or genetic potential to degrade aromatic DOM and instead mineralized photo‐degraded OM into CO2. The two lakes differed in community composition, with concentrations of dissolved organic carbon and pH differentiating microbial assemblages. Furthermore, functional genes relating to t‐OM degradation were relatively higher in the dark lake. Our results suggest that future changes in t‐OM inputs to lake sediments will have different effects on carbon cycling depending on the potential for photo‐degradation of OM and composition of resident bacterial communities. Bacteria degraded identical terrestrial organic matter additions differently between two lakes with contrasting water clarity because of differences in their composition and functional genes. These results highlight that ongoing brownification of inland waters can have contrasting outcomes for regional carbon cycling and food web production depending on the chemistry of receiving waters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is the most common opportunistic infection in immunosuppressed individuals, such as transplant recipients or people living with HIV/AIDS, and congenital CMV is the leading viral cause of developmental disabilities in infants. Due to the highly species-specific nature of CMV, animal models that closely recapitulate human CMV (HCMV) are of growing importance for vaccine development. Here we present the genomic sequence of a novel nonhuman primate CMV from cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis; CyCMV). CyCMV (Ottawa strain) was isolated from the urine of a healthy, captive-bred, 4-year-old cynomolgus macaque of Philippine origin, and the viral genome was sequenced using next-generation Illumina sequencing to an average of 516-fold coverage. The CyCMV genome is 218,041 bp in length, with 49.5% G+C content and 84% protein-coding density. We have identified 262 putative open reading frames (ORFs) with an average coding length of 789 bp. The genomic organization of CyCMV is largely colinear with that of rhesus macaque CMV (RhCMV). Of the 262 CyCMV ORFs, 137 are homologous to HCMV genes, 243 are homologous to RhCMV 68.1, and 200 are homologous to RhCMV 180.92. CyCMV encodes four ORFs that are not present in RhCMV [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compared with the general population, older adults with immune senescence and individuals who are immunocompromised (IC) due to disease or immunosuppressive therapy are at increased risk for herpes zoster (HZ) and its associated complications, which can be debilitating and life-threatening. Vaccination can be an effective strategy against HZ and studies have shown that HZ vaccination in IC individuals can elicit immune responses and provide protection from infection. Recently, the first approvals have been granted in the United States and the European Union for the recombinant HZ vaccine (RZV) in adults ≥ 18 years of age at risk of HZ due to immunodeficiency or immunosuppression. Existing systematic reviews have highlighted the risks for HZ in limited immunocompromising conditions and have only examined clinical data for RZV. This review details the risks and burden of HZ in a broad range of clinically relevant IC populations and summarizes key efficacy and safety data for RZV and live HZ vaccine in these individuals. Research has shown IC individuals can benefit from HZ vaccination; however, these insights have yet to be fully incorporated into vaccination guidelines and clinical care. Clinicians should consider HZ vaccination in eligible at-risk populations to protect against HZ and its associated complications and thereby, reduce the burden that HZ poses on the healthcare system. Electronic health records and linked personal health records could be used to identify and contact patients eligible for HZ vaccination and provide clinical decision support-generated alerts for missing or delayed vaccinations. This review will help clinicians identify eligible IC individuals who may benefit from HZ vaccination. A video abstract linked to this article is available on Figshare https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.21517605. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is a member of the alphaherpesvirus family and the causative agent of chickenpox and shingles. To determine the utility of cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis) as a nonhuman primate model to evaluate VZV-based simian immunodeficiency virus/human immunodeficiency virus (SIV/HIV) vaccines, we experimentally inoculated 10 animals with the parental Oka (Oka-P) strain of VZV derived from MeWo or Telo-RF cells. VZV DNA could be detected in the lungs as late as 4 days postinfection, with replicating virus detected by shell vial culture assay in one case. Infection did not result in any overt clinical symptoms but was characterized by humoral and cell-mediated immunity in a time frame and at a magnitude similar to those observed following VZV vaccination in humans. The cell line source of VZV inoculum influenced both the magnitude and polyfunctionality of cell-mediated immunity. Animals mounted a vigorous anamnestic antibody response following a second inoculation 12 weeks later. Inoculations resulted in transient increases in CD4+ T-cell activation and proliferation, as well as a sustained increase in CD4+ T cells coexpressing CCR5 and ɑ4β7 integrin. In contrast to previous failed attempts to successfully utilize attenuated VZV-Oka as an SIV vaccine vector in rhesus macaques due to suboptimal infectivity and cellular immunogenicity, the ability to infect cynomolgus macaques with Oka-P VZV should provide a valuable tool for evaluating VZV-vectored SIV/HIV vaccines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cytomegaloviruses belong to a large, ancient, genus of DNA viruses comprised of a wide array of species-specific strains that occur in diverse array of hosts. Methods: In this study we sequenced the ~217 Kb genome of a cytomegalovirus isolated from a Mauritius cynomolgus macaque, CyCMV Mauritius, and compared it to previously sequenced cytomegaloviruses from a cynomolgus macaque of Filipino origin (CyCMV Ottawa) and two from Indian rhesus macaques (RhCMV 180.92 and RhCMV 68-1). Results: Though more closely related to CyCMV Ottawa, CyCMV Mauritius is less genetically distant from both RhCMV strains than is CyCMV Ottawa. Several individual genes, including homologues of CMV genes RL11B, UL123, UL83b, UL84 and a homologue of mammalian COX-2, show a closer relationship between homologues of CyCMV Mauritius and the RhCMVs than between homologues of CyCMV Mauritius and CyCMV Ottawa. A broader phylogenetic analysis of 12 CMV strains from eight species recovers evolutionary relationships among viral strains that mirror those amongst the host species, further demonstrating co-evolution of host and virus. Conclusions: Phylogenetic analyses of rhesus and cynomolgus macaque CMV genome sequences demonstrate cospeciation of the virus and host. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article responds to Charles W. Smith's commentary on a review of the book, A Critique of Sociological Reasoning. No author can be expected to be pleased with an unfavorable review of his work. It is clear that Smith is not pleased with my review. Sociology is a field noted for its variety of viewpoints. Thus I see no reason to challenge Smith's assertion that his book has been repeatedly praised for its clarity and lucidity. However, my critical comments were more fundamental than clarity and lucidity. Theory needs to carefully distinguish between matters of concept usage, which are issues of the form and relation of concepts, and matters of fact once these concepts are formed. For example. Smith asserts, There are similarly little graduations of punishment since the objective of punishment is to reassert the authority of cultural norms, not to rehabilitate the offender. I see no way to interpret this statement as anything but an empirical generalization about the way that norms are enforced everywhere, and the universal objective of the punishment. Thus there either are or are not graduations of punishment for norm violations. My sources say there are. I understand this to be a matter of fact though subject to somewhat different facts depending upon the conceptual framework involved. Instead of taking the opportunity to clarify his position on the relations of conceptual formulations to information from the world. Smith spends most of his reply attacking some positions he believes I endorse. I see no value in extending further my reply.

Abstract: Sequence analysis of the murine gamma-herpesvirus 68 (γHV68) genome previously identified several open reading frames (ORFs) located at the left end of the viral genome that do not share homology with other known herpesvirus or cellular genes. Here, we show that one of these ORFs, M4, encodes a secreted glycoprotein that influences the establishment of splenic latency at early times post-infection. We generated a mutant virus containing a premature translation termination codon in the M4 ORF (M4.STOP), and demonstrated that this mutant virus replicates in vitro equivalent to wild type and marker rescue (M4.MR) viruses. M4.STOP was also capable of high-titer lytic replication in vivo, but at 16 days post-infection the establishment of latency in the spleen was significantly impaired. The defect in the establishment of splenic latency was apparent following either intranasal or intraperitoneal inoculation. In contrast, the M4.STOP mutant did not exhibit a defect in the establishment of latency in peritoneal cells. These results suggest that M4 mediates an extracellular host-pathogen interaction that impacts the establishment of latent infection in the spleen, but not the peritoneum. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Shope fibroma virus and myxoma virus encode proteins predicted to be Type II photolyases. These are enzymes that catalyze light-dependent repair of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs). When the Shope fibroma virus S127L gene was expressed in an Escherichia coli strain lacking functional CPD repair pathways, the expressed gene protected the bacteria from 70–75% of the ultraviolet (UV) light-induced cytotoxic DNA damage. This proportion suggests that Leporipoxvirus photolyases can only repair CPDs, which typically comprise ∼70% of the damage caused by short wavelength UV light. To test whether these enzymes can protect virus genomes from UV, we exposed virus suspensions to UV-C light followed by graded exposure to filtered visible light. Viruses encoding a deletion of the putative photolyase gene were unable to photoreactivate UV damage while this treatment again eliminated 70–90% of the lethal photoproducts in wild-type viruses. Western blotting detected photolyase protein in extracts prepared from purified virions and it can be deduced that the poxvirion interior must be fluid enough to permit diffusion of this ∼50-kDa DNA-binding protein to the sites where it catalyzes photoreactivation. Photolyase promoters are difficult to categorize using bioinformatics methods, as they do not obviously resemble any of the known poxvirus promoter motifs. By fusing the SFV promoter to DNA encoding a luciferase open reading frame, the photolyase promoter was found to exhibit very weak late promoter activity. These data show that the genomes of Leporipoxviruses, similar to that of fowlpox virus, encode catalytically active photolyases. Phylogenetic studies also confirmed the monophyletic origin of poxviruses and suggest an ancient origin for these genes and perhaps poxviruses. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This article proposes a theory to explain how actors in social exchange networks reach agreements on division of resources. Social exchange theory grew. from the application of the economic theory of exchange to social relationships. Sociology focuses on a problematic area for economic theory, the exchange of valued objects in, relatively small groups, where actors seek to settle on one optimal outcome out of a range of possibilities. Central to theoretical development today is a class of networks in which subtle power differences occur. This phenomenon is known as weak power. In these weak power networks, some positions may have advantages over others in acquiring resources through exchange. However, unlike the advantages in strong power networks, advantages in weak power networks are not progressive. Over a series of exchanges, a strong power advantage eventually results in one, exchange partner receiving nearly all available resources. Weak power is limited in range and magnitude. This necessitates theoretical refinement because adequate assessment of power differences between positions in weak power structures requires more, precise predictions of exchange rates at equilibrium.

We extend network exchange theory (Markovsky, Wilier, and Patton 1988) to accommodate a new class of power phenomena. Previous theory and research have shown that structural configurations in some networks promote or inhibit exchange opportunities, leading to robust power and resource differentials. The extension identifies a structural basis for subtler forms of differentiation. Using computer simulations and laboratory experiments, we show that the degree to which this "weak power" is manifested in resource accumulations is conditioned by local and global network patterns, and by the experience and strategies of actors in the network. Experimental tests corroborate the predicted weak power effects and the consequences of variations in actors' negotiating experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a highly species-specific virus that has co-evolved with its host over millions of years and thus restricting cross-species infection. To examine the extent to which host restriction may prevent cross-species research between closely related non-human primates, we evaluated experimental infection of cynomolgus macaques with a recombinant rhesus macaque-derived CMV (RhCMV-eGFP). Twelve cynomolgus macaques were randomly allocated to three groups: one experimental group (RhCMV-eGFP) and two control groups (UV-inactivated RhCMV-eGFP or media alone). The animals were given two subcutaneous inoculations at week 0 and week 8, and a subset of animals received an intravenous inoculation at week 23. No overt clinical or haematological changes were observed and PBMCs isolated from RhCMV-eGFP inoculated animals had comparable eGFP- and IE-1-specific cellular responses to the control animals. Following inoculation with RhCMV-eGFP, we were unable to detect evidence of infection in any blood or tissue samples up to 4 years post-inoculation, using sensitive viral co-culture, qPCR, and Western blot assays. Co-culture of urine and saliva samples demonstrated the presence of endogenous cynomolgus CMV (CyCMV) cytopathic effect, however no concomitant eGFP expression was observed. The absence of detectable RhCMV-eGFP suggests that the CyCMV-seropositive cynomolgus macaques were not productively infected with RhCMV-eGFP under these inoculation conditions. In a continued effort to develop CMV as a viral vector for an HIV/SIV vaccine, these studies demonstrate that CMV is highly restricted to its host species and can be highly affected by laboratory cell culture. Consideration of the differences between lab-adapted and primary viruses with respect to species range and cell tropism should be a priority in evaluating CMV as vaccine vector for HIV or other pathogens at the preclinical development stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]