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We employed a stepwise selection model for investigating the dynamics of antibiotic-resistant variants in Escherichia coli K-12 treated with increasing concentrations of ciprofloxacin (CIP). Firstly, we used Sanger sequencing to screen the variations in the fluoquinolone target genes, then, employed Illumina NGS sequencing for amplicons targeted regions with variations. The results demonstrated that variations G81C in gyrA and K276N and K277L in parC are standing resistance variations (SRVs), while S83A and S83L in gyrA and G78C in parC were emerging resistance variations (ERVs). The variants containing SRVs and/or ERVs were selected successively based on their sensitivities to CIP. Variant strain 1, containing substitution G81C in gyrA, was immediately selected following ciprofloxacin exposure, with obvious increases in the parC SRV, and parC and gyrA ERV allele frequencies. Variant strain 2, containing the SRVs, then dominated the population following a 20× increase in ciprofloxacin concentration, with other associated allele frequencies also elevated. Variant strains 3 and 4, containing ERVs in gyrA and parC, respectively, were then selected at 40× and 160× antibiotic concentrations. Two variants, strains 5 and 6, generated in the selection procedure, were lost because of higher fitness costs or a lower level of resistance compared with variants 3 and 4. For the second induction, all variations/indels were already present as SRVs and selected out step by step at different passages. Whatever the first induction or second induction, our results confirmed the soft selective sweep hypothesis and provided critical information for guiding clinical treatment of pathogens containing SRVs.

Multi-copy single-stranded DNA (msDNA) is composed of covalently bound single-stranded DNA and RNA, and synthesized by retron-encoded reverse transcriptase. msDNA-synthesizing systems are thought to be a recent acquisition by Escherichia coli because, to date, only seven types of msDNA, which differ markedly in their primary nucleotide sequences, have been found in a small subset of E. coli strains. The wide use of E. coli in molecular research means that it is important to understand more about these stable, covalently bound, single-stranded DNA or RNA compounds. The present review provides insights into the molecular biosynthesis, distribution and function of E. coli msDNA to raise awareness about these special molecules.

Protocatechuic acid (PCA) has been isolated from the leaves of ilex chinenses and has numerous pharmacologic effects, including anti-inflammatory and antitumoral activities. This study aims to evaluate the antiasthma activity of PCA and investigate its possible molecular mechanisms. BALB/c mice were sensitized and challenged to ovalbumin (OVA).Then mice were intraperitoneally (i.p.) injected with PCA 1h before OVA challenge. We found that PCA treatment at 15 or 30 mg/kg significantly decreased OVA-induced airway hyper-responsiveness (AHR) to inhaled methacholine. Type 2 helper T cell (Th2) cytokines in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid, such as interleukin-4 (IL-4), interleukin 5 (IL-5) and interleukin-13 (IL-13), and serum OVA-specific immunoglobulin E (IgE) levels, were also reduced by PCA. Moreover treatment with PCA markedly decreased the number of inflammatory cells in BALF and attenuated OVA-induced mRNA expression of CCl11, CCR3, Muc5ac, acidic mammalian chitinase (AMCase), chitinase 3-like protein 4 (Ym2) and E-selectin in lung tissues, lung histopathological studies showed that PCA inhibited inflammatory cell infiltration and mucus hypersecretion compared with the OVA-induced mice group. We then investigated the possible molecular mechanisms which might be implicated in PCA activity. Our results suggested that the protective effect of PCA might be mediated by the inhibition of the extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK), p38 Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation and the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation.

The present study aimed to investigate the protective role of limonene in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury (ALI). ALI was induced in mice by intratracheal instillation of LPS (0.5 mg/kg), and limonene (25, 50, and 75 mg/kg) was injected intraperitoneally 1 h prior to LPS administration. After 12 h, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and lung tissue were collected. Limonene pretreatment at doses of 25, 50, and 75 mg/kg decreased LPS-induced evident lung histopathological changes, lung wet-to-dry weight ratio, and lung myeloperoxidase activity. In addition, pretreatment with limonene inhibited inflammatory cells and proinflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-6 in BALF. Furthermore, we demonstrated that limonene blocked the phosphorylation of IκBα, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) p65, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase in LPS-induced ALI. The results presented here suggest that the protective mechanism of limonene may be attributed partly to decreased production of proinflammatory cytokines through the inhibition of NF-κB and MAPK activation.

Background n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) have previously been demonstrated in association with a reduced risk of chronic diseases, including insulin resistance, cancer and cardiovascular disease. In the present study, we analyzed the effects of n-3 PUFA-rich perilla oil (PO) and fish oil (FO) high fat diet intervention against the synthesis of hepatic high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c) in obesity-insulin resistance model rats. Methods In the modeling period, the male SD rats were randomly divided into 2 groups. The rats in the high fat (HF) group were given a high fat pure diet containing 20.62 % lard. In the intervention period, the model rats were intervened with purified high-fat diets rich in PO or FO, containing same energy content with high fat pure diet in HF. After the intervention, the protein and mRNA expressions status of the key genes involved in synthesis of hepatic HDL-c were measured for further analytic comparison. Results The obesity-insulin resistance model rats were characterized by surprisingly high levels of serum triglyceride (TG) and increased body weight (P

The object of our study is to investigate the protective effects of Borneol on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury (ALI) in mice. To determine the effects of Borneol on the histopathological changes in mice with ALI, inflammatory cell count in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and lung wet/dry weight ratio were measured in LPS-challenged mice, and lung histopathologic changes observed via paraffin section were assessed. Next, cytokine production induced by LPS in BALF and RAW 264.7 cells was measured by enzyme-linked imunosorbent assay (ELISA). To further study the mechanism of Borneol-protective effects on ALI, nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) pathways were investigated. In the present study, Borneol obviously alleviated pulmonary inflammation by reducing inflammatory infiltration, histopathological changes, descended cytokine production, and pulmonary edema initiated by LPS. Furthermore, Borneol significantly suppressed phosphorylation of NF-κB/P65, IκBa, p38, JNK, and ERK. Taken together, our results suggest that Borneol suppressed inflammatory responses in LPS-induced acute lung injury through inhibition of the NF-κB and MAPKs signaling pathways. Borneol may be a promising potential preventive agent for acute lung injury treatment.

Licochalcone A (Lico A) is a major and biogenetically characteristic chalcone isolated from the root of Xinjiang liquorice, Glycyrrhiza inflata.We focused on investigating whether Lico A possesses distinct anti-inflammatory activity on a non-infectious mouse model of asthma, and we aimed to elucidate its involvement with the mitogen-activated protein kinases pathway.BALB/c mice that were sensitized and challenged to ovalbumin (OVA) were treated with Lico A (50 mg/kg) 1 h before they were challenged with OVA.Our study demonstrated that Lico A may effectively inhibit the increase in T-helper type 2 cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5 and IL-13 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and reduced serum levels of OVA-specific IgE and IgG. Furthermore, Lico A substantially inhibited OVA-induced eosinophilia in lung tissue and mucus hyper-secretion by goblet cells in the airway. Meanwhile, pretreatment with Lico A resulted in a significant reduction in mRNA expression of acidic mammalian chitinase, chitinase 3-like protein 4 (Ym2), E-selectin, Muc5ac, CCL11 and CCR3 in lung tissues and airway hyper-responsiveness to methacholine.These findings suggest that Lico A may effectively delay the progression of airway inflammation and could be used as a therapy for patients with allergic airway inflammation.

Zingerone, one of the active components of ginger, is a phenolic alkanone with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In the present study, we analyzed the role of zingerone against RAW 264.7 cells and acute lung injury induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in mice. RAW cells or BALB/c mice were pretreated with zingerone one hour before stimulated with LPS. We found that zingerone significantly inhibited the production of LPS-induced proinflammatory cytokines in vitro and in vivo. When pretreated with zingerone, pulmonary histopathologic changes, as well as alveolar hemorrhage and neutrophil infiltration were substantially suppressed in lung tissues, with evidence of reduced myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity in murine acute lung injury model. The lung wet-to-dry weight (W/D) ratios, as the index of pulmonary edema, were markedly decreased by zingerone pretreatment. Furthermore, we demonstrated that zingerone attenuates the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) and nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) signaling pathways through blocking the phosphorylation of ERK, p38/MAPK and IκBα, NF-κB/P65. These results suggest that zingerone may provide protective effects against LPS-induced ALI.

Phillyrin (Phil) is one of the main chemical constituents of Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.), which has shown to be an important traditional Chinese medicine. We tested the hypothesis that Phil modulates pulmonary inflammation in an ALI model induced by LPS. Male BALB/c mice were pretreated with or without Phil before respiratory administration with LPS, and pretreated with dexamethasone as a control. Cytokine release (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and amounts of inflammatory cell in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were detected by ELISA and cell counting separately. Pathologic changes, including neutrophil infiltration, interstitial edema, hemorrhage, hyaline membrane formation, necrosis, and congestion during acute lung injury in mice were evaluated via pathological section with HE staining. To further investigate the mechanism of Phil anti-inflammatory effects, activation of MAPK and NF-κB pathways was tested by western blot assay. Phil pretreatment significantly attenuated LPS-induced pulmonary histopathologic changes, alveolar hemorrhage, and neutrophil infiltration. The lung wet-to-dry weight ratios, as the index of pulmonary edema, were markedly decreased by Phil pretreatment. In addition, Phil decreased the production of the proinflammatory cytokines including (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and the concentration of myeloperoxidase (MPO) in lung tissues. Phil pretreatment also significantly suppressed LPS-induced activation of MAPK and NF-κB pathways in lung tissues. Taken together, the results suggest that Phil may have a protective effect on LPS-induced ALI, and it potentially contributes to the suppression of the activation of MAPK and NF-κB pathways. Phil may be a new preventive agent of ALI in the clinical setting.

Background Esculentoside A (EsA) is a saponin isolated from the Chinese herb Phytolacca esculenta. In our study, we sought to investigate the protective effects of EsA on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury (ALI) in mice. Materials and methods To determine the effects of EsA on the reduction of histopathologic changes in mice with ALI, inflammatory cell count in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and lung wet-to-dry weight ratio were measured in LPS-challenged mice, and lung histopathologic changes observed via paraffin section were assessed. Next, cytokine production induced by LPS in BALF was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. To further study the mechanism of EsA protective effects on ALI, IκBa, p38, and extracellular signal receptor-activated kinase pathways were investigated in lung tissue of mice with ALI. Results In the present investigation, EsA showed marked effects by reducing inflammatory infiltration, thickening of the alveolar wall, and pulmonary congestion. Levels of tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin 6 elevated by LPS were significantly decreased in BALF in EsA-pretreated ALI model. Furthermore, EsA significantly suppressed phosphorylation of IκBa, p38, and extracellular signal receptor-activated kinase. Conclusions Taken together, our results suggest that EsA suppressed inflammatory responses in LPS-induced ALI through inhibition of the nuclear factor kappa B and mitogen activated protein kinase signaling pathways. EsA may be a promising potential preventive agent for ALI treatment.

Rosmarinic acid (RA), a polyphenolic phytochemical, is a natural prolyl oligopeptidase inhibitor. In the present study, we found that RA exerted potent anti-inflammatory effects in in vivo models of acute lung injury (ALI) induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Mice were pretreated with RA one hour before challenge with a dose of 0.5 mg/kg LPS. Twenty-four hours after LPS was given, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was obtained to measure pro-inflammatory mediator and total cell counts. RA significantly decreased the production of LPS-induced TNF-a, IL-6, and IL-1β compare with the LPS group. When pretreated with RA (5, 10, or 20 mg/kg) the lung wet-to-dry weight (W/D) ratio of the lung tissue and the number of total cells, neutrophils and macrophages in the BALF were decreased significantly. Furthermore, RA may enhance oxidase dimutase (SOD) activity during the inflammatory response to LPS-induced ALI. And we further demonstrated that RA exerts anti-inflammation effect in vivo models of ALI through suppresses ERK/MAPK signaling in a dose dependent manner. These studies have important implications for RA administration as a potential treatment for ALI.

Emodin is a component from traditional Chinese herbal medicines. We focused on investigating whether emodin possesses distinct anti-inflammatory activity on a non-infectious mouse model of asthma, and we aimed to elucidate its involvement with the NF-κB pathway. BALB/c mice that were sensitized and challenged to ovalbumin were treated with emodin (40 mg/kg) 1h before they were challenged with OVA. Our study demonstrated that emodin inhibited OVA-induced increases in eosinophil count; interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, and IL-13 levels were recovered in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and reduced serum levels of OVA-specific IgE, IgG, and IgG1. Histological studies demonstrated that emodin substantially inhibited OVA-induced eosinophilia in lung tissue and mucus hyper-secretion by goblet cells in the airway. Furthermore, pretreatment with emodin resulted in a significant reduction in mRNA expression of acidic mammalian chitinase (AMCase), chitinase 3-like protein 4 (Ym2) and Muc5ac in lung tissues and airway hyperresponsiveness to methacholine. These findings suggest that emodin may effectively delay the progression of airway inflammation and could be used as a therapy for patients with allergic airway inflammation.

The online version of the original article can be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10753-012-9571-1 .