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In two separate experiments, the authors investigated how a complex animated basketball scene should be designed in order to avoid the high cognitive load due to the transient nature of information...

In this study, we used Cognitive Load Theory to examine the role of a sequential versus simultaneous presentation technique for learning tactical skills from computerized diagrams of soccer scenes with two levels of complexity. Young soccer players learned the evolution of soccer game systems from computer-based diagrams with three types of instructional arrows: simultaneous, sequential-without-tracing, and sequential-with-tracing. We randomly assigned participants to one of six experimental conditions (three arrow presentation methods by two levels of soccer scene complexity) and asked them to rate their invested mental efforts, complete a recall-reconstruction test, and indicate their attitudes, immediately after the learning phase. When diagram content complexity was low, the three types of arrow presentations had similar learning effects. However, when diagram content complexity was high, the two sequential means of presenting instructional arrows produced better learning outcomes (with a clear relative advantage for the sequential-with-tracing presentation). We also found that the sequential presentation of arrows elicited more positive player attitudes whatever the level of content complexity. Considering the better learning outcomes and improved player attitudes from sequential diagram presentations, soccer coaches should present computer-based instructional diagram arrows sequentially, rather than simultaneously. A sequential-with-tracing arrow presentation was particularly beneficial for learning complex team sport scenes.

Which type of music is better for improving short-term maximal performance (STMP) and subjective experiences, and under what conditions? The present study was designed to address this issue by investigating the effects of listening to synchronous versus motivational music during warm-up, as a function of time of day, on exercise performance. In a random order, 16 highly trained physical education students (male) performed the 30-s Continuous Jump (CJ30) during six sessions separated at minimum by 48 h of recovery: after two warm-ups with synchronous music (WUSM), after two warm-ups with motivational music (WUMM), and after two warm-ups without music (WUWM), at 07:00 and 17:00 h. The maximal jump height (Hmax), mean jump height of all jumps (Hmean), and fatigue index (F %) were measured during the test. Body temperature was collected before and after the warm-up, and at the end of the CJ30 test. The rated perceived exertion (RPE) and the feelings states (FS) were obtained immediately after the warm-up and the test. The results revealed that Hmean, Hmax, and temperature were higher at 17:00 than 07:00 h in all experimental conditions. Moreover, Hmean and Hmax were higher with WUSM and WUMM than WUWM at both times of day, with greater improvement in the morning. After performing the CJ30 test, RPE scores were higher with WUMM than WUWM at both times of day. Moreover, FS scores were more positive with WUMM than WUWM in the morning. Furthermore, WUMM resulted in better Hmax and Hmean at both times of day than WUSM. However, FS and RPE were independent of types of music. Findings suggested the use of music during warm-up to increase STMP, RPE, and FS at both times of day, and reduce the morning-afternoon difference in the CJ30 test. More importantly, a warm-up with motivational music is more beneficial than a warm-up with synchronous music for improving STMP, either in the morning or in the afternoon.

Recent studies within the physical education domain have shown the superiority of dynamic visualizations over their static counterparts in learning different motor skills. However, the gender difference in learning from these two visual presentations has not yet been elucidated. Thus, this study aimed to explore the gender difference in learning basketball tactical actions from video modeling and static pictures. Eighty secondary school students (Mage = 15.28, SD = 0.49) were quasi-randomly (i.e., matched for gender) assigned to a dynamic condition (20 males, 20 females) and a static condition (20 males, 20 females). Immediately after watching either a static or dynamic presentation of the playing system (learning phase), participants were asked to rate their mental effort invested in learning, perform a game performance test, and complete the card rotations test (test phase). The results indicated that spatial ability (evaluated via the card rotations test) was higher in males than in female students (p &lt, 0.0005). Additionally, an interaction of gender and type of visualization were identified, supporting the ability-as-compensator hypothesis: female students benefited particularly from video modeling (p &lt, 0.0005, ES = 3.12), while male students did not (p &gt, 0.05, ES = 0.36). These findings suggested that a consideration of a learner’s gender is crucial to further boost learning of basketball tactical actions from dynamic and static visualizations.

Under what conditions, the use of design techniques improves learning from animations? The present experiment examined the effect of content complexity on learning from animated soccer scenes prese...

The present experiment examined the effects of listening to different types of music during warm-up on the diurnal variation of short-term maximal performance (STMP) in soccer players, using a 3 × 2 mixed design with factors "Condition" (warm-up with self-selected motivational-music (WUMM) vs. warm-up with neutral-music (WUNM) vs. warm-up without-music (WUWM) and "Time of Day" (07 h00 vs. 17 h00). In a random order, twelve male soccer players performed a 5-m shuttle run test after a 10 min of WUMM, a 10 min of WUNM and a 10 min WUWM at 07 h00 and 17 h00. The higher distance (HD) and total distance (TD) were measured during the test, and the rated perceived exertion (RPE) and the feelings states (FS) were obtained immediately after the warm-up and the test. The results revealed that HD and TD were higher at 17 h00 than 07 h00 in all conditions (p .01). At 07 h00 and 17 h00, TD and HD were higher after WUMM and WUNM than WUWM and after WUMM than WUNM (p .01). This improvement was greater at 07 h00 than 17 h00 (e.g., 6.97% vs. 5.26% for TD). Moreover, FS were more positive after WUNM than WUWM only at 07 h00, after WUMM than WUWM at the two time-of-day (p .01), and after WUMM than WUNM at 17 h00 (p .01). After the 5-m shuttle run test, FS were more negative and the RPE scores were higher with WUMM than WUWM at 07 h00 (p .01). The findings suggested that STMP and feelings depend on types of music listened during a warm-up. A warm-up with self-selected motivational-music improves STMP and feelings at 07 h00 and 17 h00 with greater enhancement in the morning. However, a warm-up with neutral-music improves STMP and feelings only at 07 h00.

This study tried to identify how varied level of content complexity (low vs. medium vs. high) could affect learning outcomes, cognitive load investment, and attitudes when learning basketball tactical actions from different formats of visualization (dynamic vs. static) within physical education context. One hundred and fifty secondary school students (Mage = 15.31 years, SD = .64) took part in the experiment. They were quasi-randomly (i.e., matched for gender) assigned to the six experimental conditions and asked to rate their perceived cognitive load (i.e., mental effort invested and estimated difficulty), indicate their attitudes (i.e., attention, enjoyment, engagement and challenge) and perform the learning tests (i.e., game comprehension test and game performance test) immediately after the learning phase. Results showed that for low-complexity content, both formats of visualization have similar effects on cognitive load investment, and learning outcomes. However, for medium and high complexity contents, the dynamic format had a clear advantage over the static format in terms of cognitive load investment and learning outcomes. Moreover, it was found that whatever the level of content complexity, students exposed to the dynamic visualization reported more positive attitudes compared to those exposed to the static visualization. Considering the learning outcomes and the subjective experiences (i.e., cognitive load and attitudes), the results recommend the use of dynamic visualizations for learning basketball tactical actions whatever the level of content complexity.

This study examined the effects of listening to different music tempos during warm-up on short-term maximal performance and psychological responses, as a function of times of day (TOD).Fifteen well trained subjects (93.75% were semi-professional soccer players) randomly performed the 30-s continuous jump test (CJinf30/inf) for three morning sessions (07h00) and three evening sessions (17h00), separated by 48h of recovery, each after a warm-up under three different conditions: without music (NO-M), with music at 60 bpm (LOW-M), and with music at 120-140 bpm (HIGH-M). The maximal jump height (Hinfmax/inf), mean jump height of all jumps (Hinfmean/inf), and fatigue index (FI %) were measured during CJinf30/inf. Feeling states (FS) were determined after warm-up, and body temperature was controlled before/after warm-up, as well as after CJinf30/inf.Data analysis showed that Hinfmax/inf, Hinfmean/inf, and body temperature were higher at 17h00 than 07h00 in all experimental conditions. Moreover, Hinfmax/inf, Hinfmean/infand FS were better after warm-ups with LOW-M and HIGH-M compared to NO-M condition at both TOD, with a higher gain at 07h00. More importantly, Hinfmax/inf, Hinfmean/infand FS were better after warm-up with HIGH-M than with LOW-M at both TOD, with a higher gain at 07h00.Although both music tempos were beneficial, warming-up with high music tempo (120-140 bpm) is better than warming-up with low music tempo (60 bpm) for improving short-term maximal performance and psychological responses whatever the TOD, especially in the morning hours.

Dynamic visualizations have been developed to exchange information that transforms over time across a broad range of professional and academic contexts. However, these visual tools may impose substantial demands on the learner’s cognitive resources that are very limited in current knowledge. Cognitive load theory has been used to improve learning from dynamic visualizations by providing certain design techniques to manage learner cognitive load without adding any oral/written explanations. This systematic review examined a series of experimental studies assessing the roles of these design techniques in learning tactical scenes of play through dynamic visualizations. Electronic databases PubMed and Google Scholar were used to search relevant articles. Eleven studies were eventually included for the systematic review based on the eligibility criteria. The present review revealed that adapting design techniques to the level of learners’ expertise, type of depicted knowledge, and level of content complexity is a crucial part of effective learning.

Which type of music is better for improving short-term maximal performance (STMP) and subjective experiences, and under what conditions? The present study was designed to address this issue by investigating the effects of listening to synchronous

This study aimed to explore whether the use of coordinated visual and verbal cues in narrated diagrams would support novices in learning soccer scenes. Eighty female university students (Mage = 20 years, SD = 1.2) in physical education (PE) were randomly exposed to four multimedia material versions: (a) simple without cues, (b) simple with cues, (c) complex without cues, and (d) complex with cues. In the non-cued versions, students learned the evolution of soccer scenes via arrow-based diagrams accompanied by oral explanations. In the cued versions, game actions in narrations were spoken with a louder accent (verbal cueing), while at the same time, the corresponding arrows turned red in diagrams (visual cueing). After studying one of the four versions, participants were asked to complete immediate and delayed recall–reconstruction tests, and to indicate their attitudes towards instructional materials. The results demonstrate the instructional benefits of using coordinated dual-modality cues in the complex multimedia material, in terms of immediate (p = 0.03, d = 0.53) and delayed (p = 0.02, d = 0.85) recall performances. The findings encourage soccer teachers to verbalize game actions with a louder accent, while simultaneously coloring the corresponding arrows in the diagram when explaining complex game situations for novices.

Dynamic visualizations such as videos or animations have been developed to exchange information that transforms over time across a broad range of professional/academic contexts. However, such visual tools may impose substantial demands on the learner’s cognitive resources that are very limited in current knowledge. Cognitive load theory has been used to improve learning from dynamic visualizations by providing different instructional designs to manage learner cognitive load. This paper reviews a series of experimental studies assessing the effects of certain instructional designs on learning of tactical scenes of play through dynamic visualizations. An electronic database search was performed on the Web of Science and PubMed/Medline databases from inception to July 2020 using a combination of relevant keywords. Manual searches were also made. The search was limited to English language. A total of 515 records were screened by two researchers using the Population/Intervention/Comparison/Outcome(s) (PICO) criteria. The quality and validity of the included studies were assessed using “QualSyst”. Learning indicators in students and/or players (male and female) at any age category and competitive level were considered. Eleven studies met the inclusion criteria for this review, which focused on the effects of four instructional designs (i.e., using static visualizations, employing sequential presentation, applying segmentation, and decreasing presentation speed) on learning various game systems through dynamic visualizations. These studies indicate that (i) the effectiveness of all instructional designs depend upon the level of learners’ expertise when learning soccer/Australian football scenes through animations/videos, (ii) the effectiveness of using static visualizations instead of animations/videos showing soccer/basketball scenes depend upon the type of the depicted knowledge (i.e., motor knowledge or descriptive knowledge) for novice learners, (iii) the effectiveness of employing static visualizations and decreasing presentation speed when learning soccer/basketball scenes from animations/videos depend upon the level of content complexity, for novice learners. The current review demonstrated important practical implications for both coaches and physical education teachers using either animations and/or videos to communicate game systems. Indeed, findings suggested that adapting instructional designs to the level of learners’ expertise, type of depicted knowledge, and level of content complexity is a crucial part of effective tactical learning from dynamic visualizations.