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There are languages in which the irrealis domain is split up into situations that may potentially occur and counterfactual situations. In these languages, one marker is only used for expressing potential situations (weak irrealis) and another marker is only used for expressing counterfactual situations (strong irrealis). Moreover, there are languages that only have either weak or strong irrealis markers. For languages containing both weak and strong irrealis markers, it has been demonstrated that the use of weak irrealis markers in counterfactual conditionals is blocked by strong irrealis markers. Based on a sample of 51 languages, the present study lends support to this theoretical claim. However, it is also shown that there are other blocking effects. First, there are languages in which the use of strong irrealis markers in counterfactual conditionals is blocked by specialized clause-linking devices (e.g., devices only used for expressing counterfactual conditional relations). Second, for languages that only contain weak irrealis markers, it is shown that the use of weak irrealis markers in counterfactual conditionals is blocked by a specialized clause-linking device. The paper further investigates whether the results obtained for counterfactual conditionals can be generalized to other counterfactual constructions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is devoted to the study of the syncretic constructions with a pronominal adverb «как» in the Russian language. These constructions are analyzed in the lexico-grammatical aspect in comparison with introductory sentences and subordinate clauses. The material for the study consists of the texts of printed and electronic media included in the National Corpus of the Russian Language (NCRL). During the study, based on a diachronic approach, the classifications of constructions with a pronominal adverb «как» presented in the authoritative publications of the Russian language grammar are analyzed. As a result, within the framework of structural-semantic classification, a conclusion is made about the possibility of classifying constructions with an adverb «как» a subordinate clause, which makes it possible to minimize transitional cases while differentiating certain syntactic categories.

Consideration of the aphorism of the famous thinker in terms of syntactic construction of the expressed thought and creation of various stylistic techniques in this plane to enhance it is relevant. The purpose of the proposed research is to establish the stylistic and syntactic features of H. Skovoroda's winged expressions that reflect the individual features of his philosophical and poetic linguistic thinking. The conciseness and, at the same time, the depth of Hryhorii Skovoroda's thinking are demonstrated by aphorisms represented by simple sentences, often complicated by various syntactic elements that concretize the thought, concentrating it around one grammatical center. The imperative mood of the main members of a one-part sentence with the semantics of thinking enhances the impact of the aphorism on the recipient. Aphorisms with the desirable modality are an expressive communicative type. Among the complex constructions, complex subordinate clauses, mostly of minimal structure, prevail. Certain instructions and conclusions expressed in aphorisms of this structure are often accompanied by an indication of a condition or time. Pronominal-relative sentences with the objective meaning of correlates have a powerful potential in expressing philosophical maxims. Comparison, as one of the most significant cognitive tools in the aphorisms of H. Skovoroda, is represented by various structural types of syntactic units: from word combinations to complex sentences with corresponding syntactic components (comparative subordinate clauses, comparative constructions, etc.). Aphorisms, which are equivalents of supraphrase units, are often formed by two sentences, the connection between which is provided by repetitions and other lexical-grammatical means. So, the outstanding philosopher uses a variety of syntactic constructions and stylistic figures, including antithesis, rhetorical questions and objections, various types of repetition, syntactic parallelism, for expressive expression of thought.

This paper addresses the spelling of the Czech terms sémantickosyntaktický 'semantic-syntactic' and formálněsyntaktický 'formal-syntactic' against the background of the development of syntactic description in Czech and consists of two parts. (1) The term syntaktickosémantický in syntactic semantics of a simple sentence, which emerged as a scientific discipline only after lexical semantics, is dealt with. This branch of linguistics employs the term formálněsyntaktický for constituent dependence in simple sentences and for denoting (formal-syntactic) relationships called hypotaxis and parataxis in complex sentences. (2) In the description of complex sentences proposed by Štěpán (2013b), the term formálněsyntaktický (from formální syntax) is used to describe the behaviour of subordinators and coordinators, and the term sémantickosyntaktický (from sémantická syntax) for relationships of determination, coordination, parenthesis, apposition, and comparison. In these compound adjectives, their components are written together in Czech without a hyphen in accordance with spelling rules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Статья посвящена исследованию сложносочиненных предложений в долганском и эскимосском языках. Следует отметить, что данный раздел грамматики в указанных языках недостаточно изучен. Цель данной статьи – выявление особенностей сложносочиненных предложений в разносистемных языках. Как правило, в литературных языках синтаксическое учение опирается на обширный иллюстративный материал – богатую, развитую художественную литературу, что, к сожалению, в языках миноритарных народов Севера весьма немногочисленно.В тюркологии, как и в эскимологии, вопрос о признаках, достаточных для определения понятия «сложное предложение» остается до сих пор открытым. Средства связи, выражающие синтаксические отношения между частями предложения и характерные для индоевропейских языков (многочисленные сочинительные и подчинительные союзы, местоименно-соотносительные слова и др.) не являются главными в тюркских языках так же как в языке азиатских эскимосов.В них ведущую роль играют другие специфические формы. Исследователи по-разному трактуют синтаксические функции и языковую природу особых форм тюркских языков и эскимосского языка, таких как причастия, деепричастия, отглагольные имена, способных образовать свою предикативную единицу с подлежащим. Одни исследователи считают их самостоятельными (предикативными) частями сложного предложения, называя их предикативными конструкциями. Для других – это простое, но осложненное причастными, деепричастными и др. оборотами, предложение.Долганский синтаксис, как и синтаксис языка азиатских эскимосов в этом отношении только на начале пути. Понятно, что глубокое исследование синтаксического строя любого языка связано, прежде всего, с долговременным развитием письменности и широким распространением художественной литературы на родном языке. На данном этапе развития долганского и эскимосского языков мы вынуждены констатировать и недостаточность периода устойчивого функционирования письменности, и малое количество художественных произведений, призванных развивать синтаксическую культуру речи, это одно из базовых условий сохранения и развития языка.

This paper describes the variation in information structure of Estonian -des, -mata and -maks constructions, and analyzes the factors influencing this variation. The paper describes information structure via the categories of information status and information role. Information status, which refers to the general pragmatic status of a linguistic unit, has two possible values: an information unit or an element of an information unit. Information role refers to the pragmatic status of an element in the information structure of a larger information unit. Information role has five possible values: focus, background of the comment, topic, frame or prominent element. Through qualitative and quantitative analysis, this article gives an account of the variation in the information status and information role of Estonian converb constructions. In addition, this paper discusses the way in which the relevant explanatory variables relate to the information status and role of converb constructions. This analysis gives an overview of how the information status of converb constructions relates to the presence of punctuation, the position of the converb construction relative to the main clause, the number of words in the converb construction, the semantic function of the converb construction, the position of the converb within the construction, the morphological form of the converb, and the number of modifiers of the converb. This analysis also discusses how the information role of converb constructions relates to the position and semantic function of the construction and the presence of a lexicogrammatical prominence marker. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the constructional categorization of multi-predicate sentences in Saisiyat. This type of complex sentences simultaneously involves features of serial verb construction and complementation in Saisiyat, which give rise to indeterminacy in constructional categorization. In order to solve this problem, the current study probes into the categorization between serial verb construction and complementation regarding Aarts' (2007) constructional gradience and semantic relations (Van Valin & LaPolla 1997). The investigation demonstrates a discrete boundary between the two constructions with convergence on each other, while subtypes of multi-predicate sentences are aligned on the convergence based on intra- and inter-categorical relations. Two structural dependencies are proposed to carry out a taxonomy of Saisiyat complex sentences. A theoretical implication derives from this study that Saisiyat multi-predicate sentences are manifestations of formalized morphosyntactic configurations with a pairing of particularized semantic relations instead of coinage based on analogic conventionalization (Fillmore 1997; Goldberg 2019). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large-scale typological work on negation has so far ignored negation in adverbial clause-linkage. The present work makes inroads into this territory by analyzing the world-wide cross-linguistic variation in the expression of negation in precedence clauses (e.g. 'before he arrived, we had already gone home') in a variety sample of 155 languages. The research demonstrates that even when languages employ a clause-linking marker for conveying temporal precedence, negative markers may play an important role in that they may be obligatory, optional, or forbidden in the precedence clause. It is proposed that whether the clause-linking marker is semantically monofunctional or polyfunctional is the key to this puzzle. As for precedence clauses containing polyfunctional clause-linking markers and negative markers, it is shown that negation must not be considered expletive. With respect to precedence clauses occurring with monofunctional markers, it is proposed that the precedence clause tends not to license a negative marker. Moreover, it is shown that optional negative markers in precedence clauses may have an evaluative sense, which reflects the epistemic stance of the speaker. The paper also explores whether the analysis of precedence clauses put forward in the present research can be generalized to other adverbial clause-linkage constructions: negative concomitance clauses (e.g. 'I cooked the soup without stirring it even once'). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sentence studies that are rarely discussed in the realm of linguistics are complex sentences. This article aims to describe the construction and types of complex sentences based on their clause formation in the novel Mā Lā Nabūh Bih based on Kenneth L. Pike's Tagmemic theory. This research was a qualitative and descriptive study, with the primary data source were the novel Mā Lā Nabūh Bih by Sandra Serag. Each type of complex sentence was selected and described according to Tagmemic theory. The results of this study found that four ‘harf’ functions were used as subordinating conjunctions based on the formation of the clauses, which consists of the arrangement of musnad (subject), musnad ilaih (predicate), and maf'ul bih (object). The distinguishes among four ‘harf’ functions are in the form and position of the subordinating conjunctions that separate the main sentence and its subordinate clauses, namely time relations (mundzu/since), causal relationship (lianna/because), complementary relationships (anna/really), comparative relationship (kaanna/as if). Complex sentences in the Tagmemic perspective are more complex than other types of sentence structures since they may consist of two slots, two classes, two roles, or two cohesions. In contrast, other sentence structure types have only one slot, class, role, and cohesion.

This article is devoted to the analysis of the structure of comparative sentences in Turkish mass media texts of the 20th and 21st centuries. The interest in this topic has been triggered by the question of whether the language of Turkish mass media can be recognized as a form of literary Turkish, as well as by the potential for establishing the structural patterns of Turkish polypredicative and complex sentences. The latter can be used for a comparative historical analysis of the syntax of Turkic languages, which still has not yet been attempted. Here, the research aims to trace the development of syntax in the language of Turkish mass media through the example of the functional-semantic field of comparison. In order to fulfill this aim, the following tasks were solved: to study the functional-semantic field of comparison as a language universal and to analyze its structure; to investigate the morphological, lexical, and lexical-syntactic means of expressing comparison in Turkish that are used in the structure of polypredicative and complex sentences; to examine in detail how these means are used in the texts of Turkish mass media; and to review the statistical data on the changes taking place in the structure of comparative sentences in the language of Turkish mass media. The obtained results show that the language of modern Turkish mass media is characterized by a gradual transition from morphological to lexical-syntactic means of expressing comparison, as well as by the optional use of lexical means and the loss of their syntactic independence. Furthermore, the dominance of means belonging to the microfield of qualitative comparison was revealed. The most preferred and frequently used constructions anchored in the language turned out to be the construction of assimilation -DIğI gibi in the microfield of qualitative comparison and the construction of degree with the additional meaning of potentiality -(y)AcAk kadar in the microfield of quantitative comparison.

This investigation offers an analysis of crosslinguistic variation in the expression of clausal negative concomitance (e.g. 'he slept without using a pillow') in a sample of 65 languages, showing that most languages in the sample tend to use conjunctions and converbs for indicating clausal negative concomitance. The discussion of clause-linkage patterns reveals that most languages have monofunctional devices for signaling clausal negative concomitance. Intriguingly, even when languages employ a clause-linking device for conveying clausal negative concomitance, negative markers may play an important role in that they may be obligatory, optional, or disallowed in the 'without V-ing' clause. It is proposed that whether the clause-linking device is semantically monofunctional or polyfunctional is the key to this puzzle. The paper also shows that most languages in the sample tend to signal clausal negative concomitance and nominal negative concomitance (e.g. 'you took a basket without holes') in the same way. This indicates a diachronic connection between these constructions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to improve the translation quality of complex English sentences, this paper investigated unknown words. First, two baseline models, the recurrent neural machine translation (RNMT) model and the transformer model, were briefly introduced. Then, the unknown words were identified and replaced based on WordNet and the semantic environment and input to the neural machine translation (NMT) model for translation. Finally, experiments were conducted on several National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) datasets. It was found that the transformer model significantly outperformed the RNMT model, its average bilingual evaluation understudy (BLEU) value was 42.14, which was 6.96 higher than the RNMT model, and its translation error rate (TER) was also smaller. After combining the intelligent algorithm, the BLEU values of both models improved, and the TER became smaller; the average BLEU value of the transformer model combined with the intelligent algorithm was 43.7, and the average TER was 57.68. The experiment verifies that the transformer model combined with the intelligent algorithm is reliable in translating complex sentences and can obtain higher-quality translation results.

Taking as its field of observation the transition period from classical to modern French, this study attempts to show how the evolution of cataphoric relations is related to the changes that led to the "complex sentence" of modern and contemporary French. Adopting a broad definition of cataphora, we consider not only constructions that have anaphoric forms, but also constructions that contain underlying anaphora, with, in particular, the case of secondary predications. Changes in the degrees of shared knowledge are examined, showing how the cataphoric relation is increasingly exercised on referents with a low degree of salience, which must be reactivated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interclausal relations are traditionally studied within the framework of the complex sentence of endocentric subordinative form. However, there is no essential correlation between interclausal linkage and complex sentence. Interclausal relations are not meanings of subordinate clauses but conceptual relations that bridge saturated processes of equal rank. According to this premise, complex sentence is only one option for the expression of interclausal relations, along with text. Moreover, if we compare the competing structures, it turns out that the unmarked form of expression is not complex sentence but text. While a complex sentence imposes a hierarchic syntactic structure on a symmetric conceptual structure, the structure of the text and the conceptual structure of interclausal relations are isomorphic. As a marked option, the choice of complex sentence requires a specific functional motivation, which does not involve the ideation of the link itself but the communicative perspective: its function is to impose a layered communicative perspective on the connexion, which is distributed between foreground and background information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cross-linguistically, clitic climbing occurs when clitics that belong syntactically and semantically to the subordinate clause (most commonly non-finite, rarely finite) appear in the main clause, i.e., they climb out of the subordinate clause into the main clause. In Hittite, prototypical clitic climbing is attested in two constructions: with non-finite predicates and finite restructuring verbs (Lyutikova & Sideltsev 2021b); and in serial constructions with the finite motion verbs pai - 'go' and uwa - 'come' co-occurring with another finite verb in the same clause (Koller 2013). In both of these cases, clitics climb out of complements of finite verbs. This paper explores yet another potentially relevant context for clitic climbing, a particular type of complex sentence that may be called 'mismatch sentences' (Sideltsev 2023). These involve three structurally distinct types of complex sentences which share one common property: they all have the same surface structure (1a) one word of the main clause (2) subordinate clause (1b) rest of the main clause. The enclitics of the subordinate clause are in (1a), so that they appear to climb out of the subordinate into the main clause. The enclitics of the main clause are consistently in the rest of the main clause (1b), never attached to the first word of the main clause (1a). Structurally, all these subordinate clauses adjoin to the main clause. This distribution of clitics is attested only if there is a one-word constituent in the main clause to the left of the subordinate clause. As movement out of adjoined clauses is held to be illicit in current linguistic theory, it is argued that, differently from prototypical clitic climbing, this is a purely post-syntactic reordering and does not involve any kind of syntactic movement of clitics out of the subordinate into the main clause: the structure one - word constituent of main clause — subordinate clause — main clause is always prosodically realized at the post-syntactic stage as subordinate clause — main clause. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hittite attests a set of complex sentences in which (mostly) relative clauses (other subordinate clauses are also attested) appear in linear syntax to be within another subordinate (usually conditional, rarely temporal) clause or main clause. The relative clause can be preceded by a very limited array of constituents from the matrix clause, e.g., mān 'if' or the quotative particle ⸗ wa (r). There are also examples which attest the conditional subordinator and the irrealis particle in two positions simultaneously, at the left edge of the whole sentence and in the conditional clause (= main clause for the relative clause). I provide a fine-grained descriptive and structural analysis of the structure and show that the type cannot be explained as bare indefinites, embedded relative clauses or parenthetic clauses. It is shown that, structurally, the sentences containing subordinate (mostly relative) clauses within other clauses are heterogenous and of three types. The difference lies in the elements that precede the relative clause and in the structure of the sentences, whereby a standard Hittite relative clause adjoins at different heights. All three types display the same mismatch between prosodic domains and syntax/semantics—the constituent that is part of the main clause from the semantic and syntactic perspective is prosodically part of the relative clause. Since there is a clause boundary delimiting the end of the subordinate clause within the main clause, it makes sense to treat the surface structure as a distinct taxonomic unit, which is correspondingly labelled a mismatch sentence. The new evidence allows us to obtain a fuller understanding of the Hittite left periphery than was previously possible. It thus offers an important window into hitherto unrecognized aspects of the underlying structure of the complex sentence in Hittite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By poly-predicative conditional constructions we mean complex sentences that contain at least three simple sentences, each representing either a condition or a consequence. Poly-predicative sentences can in addition contain other simple sentences that represent neither condition, nor consequence. Poly-predicative constructions that, apart from one condition and one consequence, also include other simple sentences, are not classified here as poly-predicative conditional constructions. While poly-predicative constructions in general have already been in the focus of researches attention, this article seems to address them on Catalan material for the first time. The purpose of this article is an analysis of syntactic relations in poly-predicative conditional constructions. Its objectives include their comparison in Catalan, Spanish, and French, identification of the main types of these constructions, and an analysis of their characteristics. Since the use of tenses and moods in the constructions addressed coincides with that in prototypical bi-predicative conditional constructions, we do not examine it here. The methods, used in this study, included: sampling during corpus collection, classification, description, comparison, transformational analysis and synthesis. The study is based on Catalan texts and their translations into Spanish and French. The findings of the study include: 1) Poly-predicative conditional constructions with several condition and/or consequence clauses are possible. Condition and consequence clauses can occupy different positions in poly-predicative conditional constructions; 2) In contrast to Catalan and Spanish, French admits the replacement of the conditional conjunction si by que; 3) Prototypical conditional and poly-predicative constructions are invariably characterized by subordination relations, with coordination parataxis possible as well. In addition, more complex syntactic structures are possible like, e. g., parallel co-coordination; 4) A prototypical conditional construction being a complex sentence, this limits possible syntactic types of poly-predicative conditional constructions. They cannot be structured as a string of simple sentences connected by coordination or subordination. Consecutive subordination of three or more subordinate sentences is not characteristic of conditional constructions; 5) The study identified a similarity between poly-predicative conditional constructions in Catalan, Spanish, and French. The present research is a contribution into the syntax of Romance languages.

Copyright of Djoussour El-maarefa is the property of Association of Arab Universities and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Relative pronouns i-/je- and restrictive particle -le became conflated in concessive conditionals (e.g. No matter how much financial support we get, we will go ahead with our project). This syntactic environment explains why Old Polish ile functioned in the oldest Polish texts as an indefinite pronoun ‘no matter how much’ (a so- -called free choice determiner). The present paper aims to show in which way the historical syntax may enrich our knowledge on etymology and language changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The question is considered of how, within a separate fragment of intellectual and communicative activity (using the example of modern German-language scientific and technical discourse), the mechanism for implementing the category of syntactic complexity of an utterance based on the principle of iconicity in the processes of linear-structural organization of the text is revealed. It is shown that iconicity is the property of a linguistic sign to correspond to the object it denotes or the real situation it denotes. Insufficient study of iconicity is noted both in terms of theoretical and epistemological, and in the aspect of the variety of conditions, goals and methods of implementing communicative practices. The research material is considered on the basis of a verified model of semiotic analysis in the field of syntax (O. A. Kostrova) in the aspect of discrete and combinatorial implementation of the structural-syntactic, semantic-syntactic and pragmatic-syntactic iconicity of complex sentences in scientific discourse. It has been established that this or that type of iconicity is determined by the stylistic context and the parameter of marking / unmarking. It is proved that in scientific discourse, one elementary complex sentence, characterized by unmarking, can simultaneously include signs of all three types of iconicity. At the same time, it is indicated that, reflecting the real situation, the signs of one or another type of iconicity, realized in a complex sentence, may be lost.

This article aims to analyze the monofinite complex clause in the Kumyk language in terms of structure. The originality of the research lies in the fact that the article proposes a different approach than in Russian studies on the analysis of the syntactic structure of a sentence. The relevance of the research is determined by the role of the sentence structure and methods of its study in linguistics in general. The main method used in the study is the method of syntactic modeling, which is used in terms of functions (members of a sentence), in terms of morphological forms of words and the semantic structure of a sentence. Turkic languages are not characterized by properly complex sentences with two formally independent finite parts connected by an analytical form. Case affixes and postpositions form not finite verb forms, but infinite verb forms. Such constructions in agglutinative languages are central and most frequent. The monofinite complex clause, or a sentence complicated by an infinite phrase (participial and adverbial phrase), or “polypredicative construction” according to the Novosibirsk syntactic school is investigated in this article. The author argues that when characterizing a complex clause, it is necessary to take into account such parameters as the finiteness / infiniteness of the dependent predicate, the nature of the means of communication and the referential identity / non-identity of the subjects of the main and dependent parts. The constructive center of a monofinite complex clause is the indicator of connection –analytical, that is, an auxiliary word, or synthetic, that is, a morpheme in the composition of a dependent predicate. Formally, this is a part of the infinite form of such a predicate, but functionally it serves to express the relationship between the predicative parts. Since the dependent predicate in the Kumyk language occupies the final position in the dependent predicative unit, the synthetic link indicator is located on the border between the main predicative unit and the dependent predicative unit.

The article deals with the problem of forming grammatical (syntactic) norms of the Russian national language based on the material of Siberian monuments of business writing of the 17th century. Relevance of the work is determined by the fact that Russian syntax and the history of the Russian language in Siberia are insufficiently studied, as well as by the need to expand the source base of such research. Scientific novelty of the work consists in the study of historical syntax of the complex sentences in the texts of Siberian petitions, most of which are not published and has not previously been brought to the historical-grammatical research. The high source value and linguistic informativeness of the Siberian petitions of the 17th century are proved. These texts analyze complex sentences with paratactic and hypotactic connections. The article traces the peculiarities of their use in monuments of local business writing in the aspect of developing syntactic norms of the Russian national language. The arsenal of compositional and subordinate conjunctions used in such sentences is defined. The changes in the structure of complex sentences are found out. They reflect live folk speech, language consciousness of the Russian people in Siberia and at the same time they are typical for the syntactic system of the Russian national language in the initial period of its formation.

The article is devoted to the problem of functioning of complex sentences in the text. The author investigates complex sentences in the connection with their communicative role in the organization of the text considering that the sentence in isolation cannot show the communicative intention of the author. Nowadays, the idea that a sentence is the smallest communicative unit has become more and more widespread. Although a sentence has all the necessary properties to serve as a unit of verbal communication and express human thoughts, human speech is not limited to individual sentences. A person expresses his thoughts, transforms them to other people in the form of an utterance consisting, in most cases, of a chain of interconnected sentences that form a superphrase unit or a text. A superphrase unit is a unit of speech combined and distinguished rhythmically, melodically, phonetically, syntactically, phraseologically, etc., the integrity of expression and / or content, uniting various linguistic units and ensuring their combined semiological functioning; a composite (complex) unit of speech. In this work, the author analyzes only those superphrase units that contain complex sentences with the causal subordinate clauses. When analyzing complex sentences with the subordinate causal clauses the author proceeds from the assumption that the structure of a superphrase unit is isomorphic to the structure of a complex sentence, thus the position of the causal clauses in the text influences the communicative role of this clause in the text. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Clause chains are sequences of clauses with under-specified verbal predicates, plus a single clause with a fully-specified verbal predicate. Clause chains represent the morpho-syntactic demarcation of a speech unit greater than a single clause, but the precise length of this unit is rarely assessed. Clause chain length, distribution, bridging linkage, and non-canonical forms are evaluated in a sample of 64 texts, containing over 1742 clause chains, in the Papuan language Nungon. In the 49 narrative texts, unlike in other genres, total clause chains per text increases as text duration increases. The average clause chain in the sample is 3–4 clauses long; the longest has 22 clauses. Average clause chain length decreases as text length increases. The longest narrative texts have similar average clause chain length, proportion of bridging clauses, and proportion of non-canonical clause chains, and feature a leisurely rhythm: half of their clause chains are minimal, two-clause chains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Synergie Tunisie is the property of GERFLINT (Groupe d'Etudes et de Recherches pour le Francais Langue Internationale) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article deals with the preparation of foreign students for RFL level B2 in order to form their communicative abilities in all spheres of communication. Attention to this issue is justified by the need to increase the productivity of studying Russian as a foreign language for bachelor’s degree, master’s degree, and even for admission to graduate school in the Humanities, engineering and natural sciences.

The main aim of the research was to determine the development of grammar and the use of grammatically complex sentences in stuttering and non-stuttering children, and to determine whether there are differences in the above abilities between these two groups of respondents. The sample of respondents consisted of a total of 64 children aged 56-83 months. Respondents are divided into two groups. The experimental group consisted of 32 stuttering children, of whom 19 were male and 13 female. The control group consisted of 32 children who did not stutter, and who compared with age and gender, were equal with the respondents of the experimental group. The research was conducted in preschools and elementary schools in the area of the Tuzla and Una-Sana Cantons in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The results of the study showed that stuttering children show statistically lower abilities during repetition of sentences, as well as recognition, understanding and use of common morphological forms. However, it is important to point out that children who stutter, regardless of significantly lower results than their fluent speaking peers, have shown above-average grammatical abilities. Also, the results showed that both children who stutter and children who do not stutter in their spontaneous speech use complex sentences.

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Copyright of Revista EntreLínguas is the property of Revista EntreLinguas and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This study examines complex sentences [in Russian] formed using the connector word "аÐ?Ñ,Ð?рыÐ?" - which conveys different semantic relationships, especially multiple prepositions in the sentence are involved. It also analyses the difficulty of translating these types of sentences from Russian into Turkish, and provides examples of such. Such a construction mainly exists in written Russian only, and requires its normative usage. As it is prevalent in Russian business writing and journalism, we've also briefly touched how it is used in both contexts. The subordinate part of such a construction - with the help of the connector - contains information about the main sentence. Thus, it contributes to the integrity of the expression. In Russian linguistics, these traditionally referred to as linking sentences. However, many studies on Russian syntax refer to them under a different guise. There are a number of reasons why these sentences are difficult to translate into Turkish: One, the main elements of the main sentence performs a different function in the subordinate clause. Two, the continuation of the sentence becomes more difficult. Three, you have to take the connector and the meanings of various prepositions into account. This will analyse these difficulties of translating such sentences. Our objective is to compare/contrast how such sentences take shape in both languages and present possible ways to approach translating them. We have also attempted to identify problems that students of Russian as a foreign language ought to pay attention to when they encounter similar sentence structures and guide them through how to translate them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article considers the most frequent sentence structures of Bulgarian proverbial parallels to Russian proverbs included into G. L. Permyakov's paremiological minimum. The aim of the study is to classify the syntactic structures of the Bulgarian proverbs in comparison with the structures of the English proverbial parallels. The research has been based on the findings of a paremiological sociolinguistic experiment conducted by Professor M. Yu. Kotova of St. Petersburg State University and her paremiological group that resulted into series of publications titled "Tetradi Paremiographa" ("Handbooks of a Paremiographer"). The relevance of studying sentence structures is due to the fact that the coverage of grammatical issues, i.e. the analysis and description of the logical and syntactic structures of proverbs, is not paid sufficient attention in many languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is devoted to the issue of the ethnic and cultural specifics of the Kalmyk and English proverbs and phraseological units containing ‘an animal component’. The main assumption is that each nation and each linguistic community perceives and reflects the world under the influence of its cultural and national customs, traditions and history, and creates its own worldview. The ethno-cultural character of any community’s worldview is clearly fixed in the language. Moreover, the language preserves the culture of the people and transfers it further to the next generations. The aim of the article is to give a structural description of the Kalmyk and English paremiological units. For this purpose, the ethnic peculiarity of each nation is examined and compared with that of the other one. Paremiological units with the structure of complex sentences present compound, complex and conjunctionless sentences. According to the comparative analysis, the most common type for both languages are paremiological units with the structure of complex sentences. The complex sentence structure with subordinate clauses of condition, time, place, as well as attributive and concessive subordinate clauses are mainly found in the Kalmyk proverbs. Whereas, complex, compound and conjunctionless sentences are often found in the structure of English proverbs. However, most Kalmyk proverbs have the structure of conjunctionless sentence and compound sentences are rarely used.

In contemporary Serbian, besides prototypical complex sentences with a conditional clause, there are several types of complex sentences with a conditional clause which has a primarily commentative function: Na otvaranje izložbe došlo je dva desetak ljudi, ako ih je bilo i toliko (At the exhibition opening, there were some twenty people, if that many); Ukoliko dobro pamtim, bagrem je prošle godine cvetao rano (If I remember well, acacias blossomed early last year), etc. The main aim of this paper is to analyse the syntactic structure of complex sentences of this type, to identify their syntactic and semantic subtypes, and to explore and describe their discourse functions. [Project of the Serbian Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development, Grant no. 178004: Standardni srpski jezik: sintaksička, semantička i pragmatička istraživanja]

Вринчану Ф. Дискуссионные проблемы изучения синтаксических связей в румынской грамматике. Статья посвящена комплексному исследованию структуры, семантики и прагматики синтаксических связей на материале румынского языка. Рассмотрены теоретические положения, которые являются исходными в изучении синтаксических связей: проблемы определения синтаксических связей, «содержание» и «форма» в синтаксисе, синтаксические единицы, независимость / зависимость синтаксических единиц. Проанализированы содержание синтаксических связей, средства выражения синтаксических связей, типы синтаксических связей, обнаруженные в румынском языке. Для определения понятия и характеристики типы синтаксических связей применены следующие критерии: значение синтаксических единиц, которые формируют определенную синтаксическую связь; коммуникативный план, к которому относятся единицы, степень взаимодействия единиц, вступившие в связь, влияние характера связи на проявление синтаксических функций. Ключевые слова: синтаксическая связь, синтаксические единицы, синтаксические функции, предложение, сложное предложение, коммуникативный план. Vranceanu F.D. Controversial problems of studying syntactic relations in the Romanian grammar. The article is devoted to the complex study of the structure, semantics and pragmatics of syntactic relations in Romanian language. The theoretical provisions fundamental for this work are reviewed: the problem of identifying syntactic relations, “content” and “form” in the syntax, syntactic units, independent / dependent syntactic units. The author analyzes content of syntactic relation, means and types of syntactic relations in Romanian. To define the concept and characteristics of syntactic relation, the following criteria are applied: meaning of syntactic units that enter into a syntactic connection, communication sphere where the units belong, measure of their interaction, and the impact their connection produces on syntactic functions manifestation. Nonhomogeneity of syntactic relations is explicit both in terms of content and expressiveness. Syntactic relation is not an expansion, or strengthening, of a certain syntactic unit position. This approach is based on the identification of two principles generating syntactic structures: the principle of development (the definition of coordination presupposes the development of a minimum existing utterance by creating syntactic functions), the principle of arrangement (the definition of coordination presupposes the arrangement of maximum existing utterance components). Key words: syntactic relation, syntactic units, syntactic functions, sentence, complex sentence, conjunctions

This study presents a cross-linguistic investigation of attributive temporal clauses encoded by a Generic Head Noun meaning ‘time’. While most studies have concentrated on the diachronic origin of this construction, no typological study has explored the synchronic properties of constructions encoded by a GHN of time (e.g. At the time I went there, I felt sick) that are used to express temporal adverbial semantic relations. The research reports on 45 languages in which attributive temporal clauses are the primary conventionalized way of expressing temporal adverbial relations. This construction is found in almost every macro-area, but especially in Africa, Papunesia, and Eurasia (particularly in Sino-Tibetan languages and Caucasian languages). In exploring the construction, the study takes into account three parameters, viz. the linear position of the Generic Head Noun of time, the encoding of Generic Head Nouns of time in comparison to other relativized temporal nouns (e.g. ʽdayʼ, ʽyearʼ), and whether languages tend to have specialized or unspecialized Generic Head Nouns of time to encode this construction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Kwartalnik Neofilologiczny is the property of Polish Academy of Sciences and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The main aim of the research was to determine the development of grammar and the use of grammatically complex sentences in stuttering and non-stuttering children, and to determine whether there are differences in the above abilities between these two groups of respondents. The sample of respondents consisted of a total of 64 children aged 56-83 months. Respondents are divided into two groups. The experimental group consisted of 32 stuttering children, of whom 19 were male and 13 female. The control group consisted of 32 children who did not stutter, and who compared with age and gender, were equal with the respondents of the experimental group. The research was conducted in preschools and elementary schools in the area of the Tuzla and Una-Sana Cantons in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The results of the study showed that stuttering children show statistically lower abilities during repetition of sentences, as well as recognition, understanding and use of common morphological forms. However, it is important to point out that children who stutter, regardless of significantly lower results than their fluent speaking peers, have shown above-average grammatical abilities. Also, the results showed that both children who stutter and children who do not stutter in their spontaneous speech use complex sentences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional sentiment analysis of micro-blog often ignore the influence of sentiment words without sentimental color on micro-blog sentiment, and lack of analysis for complex sentence. To solve the problem, this paper proposed a method of cross-grained sentiment analysis based on conditional random filed and complex sentence, which fused complex sentence and semantic dependency features on the basis of CRF. It could identify sentiment elements by analyzing microblog sentiment in fine-grained. It used the method of coarse-grained sentiment analysis based on complex sentence analyze sentimental tendency of student microblog. Finally, the experimental results show that the accuracy on sentiment elements can reach 88%, furthermore, the accuracy of microblog sentimental tendency can reach 87%. Compare to traditional method, the proposed method has higher accuracy and better performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the discussion on esteemed e-journal Language in India. Topics include word order encompassing the constituent order of a clause namely the relative order of subject, object, and verb, the order of modifiers; and SVO language with rigid word order likely to contribute to the study of linguistic universals as well as evaluation of existing linguistic theories.