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Milk is one of the most consumed products by society worldwide, and this consumption has been growing gradually in Brazil. Before this, milk production is an alternative that can be very profitable for producers and for the production chain. Knowing the need of rural producers to obtain efficient production practices, the objective was to learn about the process of raising dairy cattle on a rural property located in the municipality of Vila Rica and another in Canabrava do Norte (MT). The following characteristics were analyzed: management, lactation period, interval between births, reproductive status and body score of animals in these properties. For the production of the data we use bibliographic studies on websites and articles in addition to field research. The procedures used were questionnaires, observations and manuscripts. When analyzing the results obtained, it was found that the technical monitoring of these properties is of paramount importance for the producer, aiming to guarantee the good productivity of the animals. It’s also noticed that the property that had the greatest persistence in the program run by Embrapa Nosso Leite, was the one that was most successful in its productivity. O leite é um dos produtos mais consumidos pela sociedade em todo o mundo, e esse consumo vem crescendo gradativamente no Brasil. Diante disto, a produção de leite é uma alternativa que pode ser muito rentável para os produtores e para a cadeia produtiva. Sabendo da necessidade dos produtores rurais em obter práticas eficientes para a produção, objetivou-se conhecer o processo de criação de gado leiteiro em uma propriedade rural localizada no município de Vila Rica e outra em Canabrava do Norte (MT). Foram analisadas as seguintes características: manejo, período de lactação, quadro reprodutivo e escore corporal de animais nessas propriedades. Para a produção dos dados utilizamos estudos bibliográficos em sites e artigos, além de pesquisa de campo. Os procedimentos utilizados foram questionários, observações e manuscritos. Ao analisar os resultados obtidos verificou-se que o acompanhamento técnico dessas propriedades é de suma importância para o produtor, visando garantir a boa produtividade dos animais. Percebe-se, ainda, que a propriedade que teve maior persistência no programa Nosso Leite da Embrapa (Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária), obteve maior êxito em sua produtividade comparando-se com a outra propriedade.

The correct management of a pasture is the determining factor for a good production and response by the animal. Thus, the present work aimed to compare the development of rotational and extensive grazing systems in rural milk producing properties in the municipality of Confresa-MT. The methodology of the project sought the application of a questionnaire, collection of forage samples, and monitoring of milk production of the twelve chosen properties, the samples of each evaluated property were collected and sent to the bromatology laboratory of the Federal Institute of Mato Grosso - Campus Confresa , a total of 36 samples of different forages evaluated. Three treatments were analyzed, rotated grazing system with two days of occupation, rotated with more than two days of occupation and continuous grazing system. According to statistical data on the Tukey test at 5%, the system rotated with 2 days of occupation showed superior results in contents of green mass, dry mass and milk productivity in relation to the other systems. It was found that the rest period was a major factor for this result. O manejo correto de uma pastagem é o fator determinante para uma boa produção e resposta por parte do animal. Assim o presente trabalho visou comparar o desenvolvimento dos sistemas rotacionado e extensivo de pastejo em propriedades rurais produtoras de leite do município de Confresa-MT. A metodologia do projeto buscou a aplicação de questionário, coleta de amostras de forragem, e acompanhamento da produção leiteira das doze propriedades escolhidas, as amostras de cada propriedade avaliada foram coletadas e encaminhadas para o laboratório de bromatologia do Instituto Federal de Mato Grosso – Campus Confresa, um total de 36 amostras de diferentes forrageiras avaliadas. Foram analisados três tratamentos, sistema rotacionado de pastejo com dois dias de ocupação, rotacionado com mais de dois dias de ocupação e sistema contínuo de pastejo. Segundo dados estatísticos ao teste de Tukey a 5% o sistema rotacionado com 2 dias de ocupação apresentou resultados superiores em teores de massa verde, massa seca e produtividade leiteira em relação aos demais sistemas. Verificou se que o período de descanso foi fator primordial para tal resultado.

Ağaçlandırmalar dünya ormanlık alanının %7’sini oluşturmasına karşın, toplam odun hammaddesi üretiminin %50’sini karşılamaktadır. Bu kapsamda, ABD’nin güney eyaletlerinde 1950’lerden bu yana çok başarılı ağaçlandırma çalışmaları yürütülmektedir. Bu çalışmalar için özel kuruluşlar, devlet orman işletmeleri ve üniversitenin bir araya geldiği bir kooperatif sistemi oluşturulmuştur. 1950’lerden bu yana ağaçlandırma alanları yaklaşık 15 kat, yıllık ortalama artım ise beş kat artırılmıştır. Ayrıca yıllık ortalama artımda sağlanan bu başarının bir sonucu olarak da idare süreleri 50 yıldan 18 yıla inmiştir. Türkiye’de de yarım yüzyılı aşkın bir süredir ağaçlandırma çalışmaları yürütülmektedir. Ayrıca ağaç ıslahında da Türkiye’de en büyük yayılış alanına sahip kızılçam için iyi bir alt yapı olduğu görülmektedir. Türkiye’deki ağaçlandırma çalışmalarının, devlet ve özel sektör tarafından geniş ölçüde benimsenmiş, ormancılık yönetiminin ayrılmaz bir parçası haline getirilmiş, sürdürülebilir bir yapı gösteremediği düşünülmektedir. Bu kapsamda ABD’nin güney eyaletlerinde yapılan ağaçlandırma çalışmaları incelenmiş ve Türkiye için bir değerlendirme yapılarak, öneriler getirilmiştir.

Açelyalar sahip oldukları etkileyici çiçekleri sayesinde geçmişten günümüze kadar insanların dikkatini çeken önemli süs bitkilerinden olmuştur. Dolayısıyla, bu türün üretilmesi, devamlılığının sağlanması ve nihayetinde özellikle halka açık alanlardaki bitkilendirme alanlarında kullanılması önem arz etmektedir. Vejetatif üretim tekniklerinden biri olan yarı odunsu çelikle üretim tekniği ile sera koşullarında gerçekleştirilen bu çalışmada, köklenmeyi teşvik eden oksin grubu hormonlarından İndol-3-Bütrik Asit (IBA), İndol-3-Asetik Asit (IAA) ve a-Naftalin Asetik Asit (NAA) 1000, 3000 ve 5000 ppm dozlarında, Polystimulin-A6 (POLY) ise 50, 100 ve 150 mg L-1 konsantrasyonlarında hazırlanarak kullanılmıştır. Yarı odunsu çeliklerde elde edilen en yüksek köklenme %67,7 ile POLY 50 mgL-1 işleminde elde edilmiştir. Kontrol uygulamasında %26,7 oranında bir köklenme yüzdesi elde edilmiştir. Açelya çeliklerinin köklenme yüzdelerinin belirlendiği bu araştırmada, oksin grubu hormonları (POLY, NAA ve IAA) kullanılarak yüksek köklenme yüzdesi değerlerinin elde edilmiş olması, bu fitohormonların açelyaların köklenmesinde etkili olduğunu göstermiştir.

Bu çalışmada; Tilia dasystyla Steven subsp. caucasica (V.Engl.) Pigott tohumlarında çimlenme engelinin giderilmesi için en uygun yöntemin belirlenmesi ve bu doğrultuda fidan üretimi için uygulayıcılara yol gösterilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Tohumlar 2015 yılında yaklaşık 15 günlük periyotlarla üç farklı zamanda Trabzon İli, Of ilçesi, Solaklı havzasındaki doğal ıhlamur bireylerinden toplanmıştır. Ekimler Doğu Karadeniz Ormancılık Araştırma Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü kampüsü araştırma alanında, tesadüf parselleri deneme deseni yöntemine göre gerçekleştirilmiştir. Tohumlara; suda bekletme, sülfürik asitle muamele, giberellik asitle (GA3) muamele ve sıcak ve soğuk katlama ön işlemleri uygulanmıştır. Kontrol grubu tohumlar ise hiçbir işleme tabi tutulmadan toplanır toplanmaz sonbaharda ekilmiştir. En yüksek çıkma yüzdesi, (%39) ile 3. toplama zamanında toplanan ve hiç bir işlem yapılmadan toplanır toplanmaz ekilen tohumlarda elde edilmiştir. 3. toplama zamanında katlamaya alınan tohumlarda, katlama süresi içerisinde çimlenmeler meydana gelmiştir. Katlama ortamında meydana gelen en yüksek çimlenme yüzdesi, (%60) sülfirik aside daldırılıp, 2000 ppm GA3 ile muamele edildikten sonra 8 hafta sıcak ve 12 hafta soğuk katlamaya alınan tohumlarda elde edilmiştir .

Çalışmada yapraklı bir ormanın ibreli ormana (1. nesil) ve bu ibreli ormanın yeniden aynı türle gençleştirilmesinin (2. nesil), yapraklı ormanın tıraşlanarak baltalık şeklinde gençleştirilmesinin ölü örtü ve toprak özellikleri üzerine etkisinin ortaya konulması amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaçla hızlı gelişen türlerle ağaçlandırmaların gerçekleştirildiği Kocaeli İli Kerpe Yöresindeki araştırma ormanında çalışılmıştır. Çalışmada doğal yapraklı baltalık ormandan, bu baltalık ormanın tıraşlanarak sahil çamı dikildiği 40 yaşındaki sahil çamı (Pinus pinaster Aiton) ağaçlandırmalarından, bu ağaçlandırmaların tıraşlanmasından sonra 2. nesil olarak yeniden sahil çamı dikilen 10 yaşındaki ağaçlandırmalardan onar örnek alan ve yaşlı baltalıkların tıraşlanmasından sonra sürgünden gelen 10 yaşındaki genç baltalıktan ise 4 adet olmak üzere toplam 34 adet örnek alanda çalışılmıştır. Örnek alanlardan alınan ölü örtü ve toprak örneklerinde karbon ve çeşitli besin elementlerinin analizleri yapılmıştır. Çalışma sonucunda 2. nesil sahil çamı ağaçlandırmalarında ölü örtüdeki karbon ve besin maddesi stoklarının önemli derecede azaldığı ve 10 yıllık dönemde yaşlı meşcerelerle oluşan farkların kapanmadığı belirlenmiştir. Topraklardaki organik karbon stokları ikinci nesil sahil çamı ağaçlandırmalarında birinci nesle göre %31, genç yapraklı meşcerelerde ise yaşlı yapraklı meşcerelere göre %28 oranında daha yüksek olmasına rağmen bu farklar istatistiksel açıdan önemli bulunmamıştır. Benzer durum azot stokları için de söz konusudur. Fosfor stoklarının ise 2. nesil sahil çamı ve genç yapraklı meşcerelerde yaşlı meşcerelere göre sırasıyla %73 ve %71 kadar az olduğu ve istatistiksel açıdan önemli olduğu belirlenmiştir. K ve Mg stoklarında da istatiksel açıdan önemli olmasa da azalmalar olduğu dikkat çekmektedir.

Orman yangın riskinin CBS temelli ve çok kriterli analizi; orman yangını riskini etkileyen en önemli kriterlerin tanımlanması, değer aralıklarının ve risk sınıflarının belirlenmesi, kriterlerin karşılaştırılması ve sonuç olarak risk endeksi ve risk haritasının üretilmesi aşamalarından oluşmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, Muğla Orman Bölge Müdürlüğü’nde (OBM) orman yangını riskinin hesaplanabilmesi için son 10 yılda (2010-2019) meydana gelen orman yangınları CBS ile analiz edilmiş, bu analizler arazi çalışmaları ile desteklenmiş ve özgün bir risk kriterleri tablosu düzenlenmiştir. Sonuç olarak Muğla OBM için risk endeksi hesaplanarak bir orman yangını risk haritası oluşturulmuştur. Çalışmanın esas hedefi, Muğla OBM baz alınarak, Türkiye’de orman yangını riskinin analizinde daha doğru sonuçlar alınmasını sağlamak amacıyla ve arazi ölçümlerinin de yardımıyla mümkün olduğu kadar objektif kriter değerlendirmeleri yapılması konusunda bir model oluşturmaktır.

Rationalization and optimization of work is becoming increasingly important in the European forestry sector. In this study a tool for modeling three different precommercial thinning approaches in young beech mountain stands was developed based on several field studies. The simulation examines three primary types of precommercial thinning: selective thinning and two types of situational thinning. We studied the impact of the number of candidates/crop trees and the impact of harvesting intensity on the structure and consumption of productive time. We found that in terms of costs situational precommercial thinning is more rational than selective precommercial thinning, that harvesting intensity has a significant impact on time consumption and that the number of candidates or crop trees has a significant impact on time consumption as well as on the relationships between main and auxiliary productive time. The modeling has shown that situational thinning is an alternative to selective thinning and that, in addition to requiring smaller and more efficient harvesting machines, it offers a cost-effective and ergonomic option (more walking, less chainsaw operation) for the pre-commercial thinning of young forest.

Regional climate change projections for Europe agree in predicting a statistically significant warming in all seasons. The most significant climate change effect is its impact on water cycle through altering precipitation patterns and evapotranspiration processes at multiple scales. The anticipated changes in the distribution and precipitation amounts together with continuously increasing temperatures may induce a higher rate of water consumption in plants, which can generate changes in soil moisture, groundwater, and the water cycle. Thus, climate change can cause changes in the water balance equations structure. A Thornthwaite-type monthly step water balance model was established to compare the water balance in three different surface land cover types: (i) a natural forested area; (ii) a parcel with mixed surface cover; (iii) an agricultural area. The key parameter of the model is the water storage capacity of the soil. Maximal rooting depth of the given area is also determinable during the calibration process using actual evapotranspiration (AET) and soil physical data. The locally calibrated model was employed for assessing future AET and soil moisture of selected land cover types using data from four bias-corrected regional climate models. The projections demonstrate increasing actual evapotranspiration values in each surface cover type at the end of the 21st century. Regarding the 10th percentile minimum soil moisture values, the forested area displayed an increasing trend, while the agricultural field and mixed parcel showed a strong decrease. The 30-year monthly means of evapotranspiration shows the maximum values in June and July, while the minimum soil moisture in September. Water stress analysis indicates water stress is expected to occur only in the agricultural field during the 21st century. The comparison of the three surface covers reveals that forest has the greatest soil water storage capacity due to the highest rooting depth. Thus, according to the projections for 21st century, less water stress is predicted to occur at the forested area compared to the other two surface covers which shows shallow rooting depth.

Through a common garden (provenance) experiment, we investigated the metabolic responses to climatic stress with regard to the acclimation potential of different European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) populations. Selected enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants were analyzed in leaves. Peroxidase (POD) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) enzyme activity, total protein content as well as ABTS [2.2’-azino-bis-(3-etylbenzothiazoline)-6-sulphonic acid] antioxidant capacity were measured in the leaves of selected populations. Major leaf polyphenols were identified and their relative amounts were compared. Significant correlations were found between phenotypic (diameter growth) response to simulated climatic stress and the activity (and amount) of selected chemical components. The concentrations of certain polyphenols, POD enzyme activity, and total protein content may be chemical indicators of the acclimation potential of populations and may contribute to the forecasting of climate change effects, which can aid in the selection of suitable propagation material for adaptive silviculture.

Stone pine (Pinus pinea L.) has been cultivated since centuries in Mediterranean areas for its products and economic benefits, including edible pine nuts, timber, mushrooms, firewood, and grazing. However, current management objectives of stone pine stands also include recreational use, biodiversity conservation, protection from soil erosion, and CO2 fixation. Stone pine stands are considered to be among the ecosystems most vulnerable to climate change, and the current increase in drought frequency in the Mediterranean Basin has been shown to negatively impact their long-term establishment. Understanding the effects of climate change on the distribution, tree-ring growth and water use of stone pine forests can help assessing the adaptive capacity of the species, and developing management programs aimed at its conservation. This paper reviews the impacts of climate change on stone pine in the Mediterranean region. The high sensitivity of stone pine to climate change has been widely demonstrated in that: (i) climatic models predict the loss of suitable habitats and the shift of its geographical distribution in the next future; (ii) tree-ring analysis showed that winter and spring rainfalls have positive effects on growth, whereas high spring temperature has a negative effect; (iii) the strategy of stone pine to cope with water deficit affects the processes regulating its growth, including wood formation, leading to peculiar tree-ring anatomical features such as intra-annual density fluctuations. The silvicultural interventions and the most effective management strategies for stone pine forests are reviewed and discussed in the context of current climate change in the Mediterranean Basin.

Tropical forests have a great potential for the exploitation of natural resources. Among the economic activities that depend on forest resources, timber production is the most important one. Nevertheless, these activities may negatively affect wildlife, the availability of natural resources, and ecosystem process. Here we analysed the effects of low-impact logging on understory bird species richness, number of individuals captured, species composition, and assemblage structure in central Brazilian Amazon. We compared logged and unlogged areas over a period of three years (from August 2014 to May 2017). We captured a total of 180 birds and 42 species (20 families) in the logged area and 226 birds and 49 species (20 families) in the unlogged area. Bird assemblage structure in the logged area changed more intensely over the three years of study and became more similar to the assemblage found in the unlogged area. The degree of similarity (Jaccard’s index) in species composition between logged and unlogged areas increased from 18% in the third year to 39% in the fifth year after logging. The results suggest that the minor effects of low-impact logging were reduced a few years after the disturbance, probably due to ecological succession. The proximity of logged and unlogged areas and the reduced impact in the study site may facilitate the recovery of the bird assemblage after the disturbance.

With increasing concern for forest water use and anthropogenic alteration of forest structures, understanding the effects of structural changes in forests on transpiration is important. Our aim is to develop a stand transpiration model relating canopy conductance with stand sapwood area (SA) and environmental conditions for assessing the interannual variation in stand transpiration. The stand transpiration model is developed based on multiplicative empirical Gc estimations at eight Korean pine stands with different SAs. The model integrated the response of stomatal conductance to various environmental variables as vapor pressure deficit (D), photosynthetic active radiation (Q), air temperature (Ta), and soil water content (θ). The reference Gc (Gc at D=1kPa) and stomatal sensitivity to D was found to have a significant relationship with the SA, whereas other parameters like stomatal sensitivity to Q or Ta did not show significant relationships with it. The Gc model successfully reproduced changes in stand transpiration with changes in SA and climatic conditions. As this model uses SA, a simple and easily measurable structural variable, it can be easily applied to other Korean pine forests and can help estimate the spatial and temporal variations in stand transpiration.

The paper presents the results of assessing pyrogenic emissions of carbon compounds in Russian forests for 2020 using remote monitoring methods. The area of forests damaged by fires was 6.5 mln ha, whereas the amount of carbon emissions was 36.5 MtC. Although the total area of damage is higher than the average annual values, the amount of pyrogenic carbon emissions is lower than the average annual ones. In absolute terms, the year corresponds to 2016. We registered an increase in annual carbon emissions from fires since the abnormal 2012. A preliminary analysis of the entire observation period for fires suggests that 2021 may be the next abnormal year after the years of 2003 and 2012 in terms of forest fires and direct pyrogenic carbon emissions into the atmosphere.

The article is devoted to the description of the web-GIS for mapping fire regimes in the Pechora-Ilych reserve and its environs. The main purpose of the resource is to provide the results of mapping fire regimes in the designated area to a wide range of researchers in an accessible form. Web-GIS allows organizing and storing the received thematic spatial data. The resource performs research and educational functions. The structure of the web-GIS includes the following sections: the study area, fire frequency indicators, fire regimes, fire regime condition class, and fire cycles. The web GIS was created using the ArcGIS StoryMaps tool on the ArcGIS Online platform. All sections use data from the ArcGIS Living Atlas of the World. Web-GIS allows receiving reference information about the indicators of fire frequency, fire cycles and regimes, as well as their deviations within the boundaries of the Pechora-Ilych nature reserve, district forestries, and spatial units. In particular, the results of a retrospective statistical analysis of forest fire indicators within spatial units (fire frequency, mean fire interval, etc.) are available for users.

The formation of databases of digitized vegetation relevés and the publication of content about them promote cooperation between researchers in solving problems of biodiversity analysis, the exchange of the used data, and, thus, the increase in research representativeness. The article is devoted to the review of the origin and use of the database of relevés of forest vegetation and considers the tasks in which it is used. The current stage of work is characterized as follows: improvement of the database structure, features of the stored information, replenishment of the database, issues of administration, and cooperation organization. Based on the analysis of current trends in the vegetation science and taking into account the features of information stored in the database, the relevant scientific problems, for the solution of which the use of the database is promising, and technical tasks that need to be solved to ensure its continued use were formulated.

The regular planting and periodic harvesting of a single tree species are features of plantations, which are associated with a reduction of biodiversity. Such plantations are strongly encouraged to be converted into mixed forests. However, the spatial structure dynamics of plantations during the conversion process are poorly understood. In subtropical regions, thinned forest of Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata [Lamb.] Hook.) and mixed forest of Chinese fir and Michelia macclurei Dandy are considered two ideal modes of plantation management. In this study, we analyzed the spatial structure dynamics of two forest stands and their six main tree populations over a rotation of 27 years, using spatial point analyses. We found that Chinese fir and M. macclurei had a regular distribution pattern (scale, r = 0-1 m) in the early stages of planting (1993), and Chinese fir maintained this pattern after experiencing self-thinning and selective cutting. In addition, non-planted tree species (i.e., natural regeneration of late-seral species, NRLSS) displayed significantly intraspecific clumping, which resulted in the distribution patterns of the forest stands changing from regular to aggregated (r = 0-5.5, 1-20 m), and the species distribution of mixed forest changed from random to clumped (r = 0-20 m). Moreover, during the management period (1993-2018), individuals were significantly differentiated in terms of size, and some small trees in the thinned forest were aggregated together. For the NRLSS, the diameter at breast height was randomly distributed (r = 0-20 m). Furthermore, Chinese fir and M. macclurei were separated at r = 0-1 m in the planting stage, but any pair of the six main populations in the thinned forest and mixed forest were randomly correlated over a rotation. Finally, the nearest neighbor distance of the stands became shorter after conversion, while the values for Chinese fir increased. After 25 years, the mixed plantation and the thinned plantation had a complex spatial structure. They develop towards natural forests and could be used as a template for future plantation management.

Eucalyptus grandis and Eucalyptus dunnii are the most planted tree species in Uruguay. Anticipating information about the quantity and quality of wood is important for managing intensive forest plantation. The estimate of merchantable and total wood volume is an essential tool in forest planning and management. The aim of this study was to evaluate four systems of taper and merchantable volume that consisted in a taper, a merchantable volume and a total tree volume function. A modified second-order continuous autoregressive error structure corrected the inherent serial autocorrelation of different observations in one tree. Taper and volume equations were fitted simultaneously after autocorrelation correction by full information maximum likelihood method. The segmented system proposed by Fang et al. (2000) produced the best fit as it explained more than 98% of the taper, merchantable volume and total volume variability for both species. In addition, precision of the segmented system was compared with and without incorporating stand density as a variable. Results of this analysis showed that for E. grandis, the predictive accuracy of the model was improved by including the stand density variable, whereas for E. dunnii this variable was not statistically significant. This modelling framework provides an improvement in taper and tree volume predictions for E. dunnii and E. grandis in Uruguay. The possibilities offered by this methodology could be of interest for its application in countries where fast growing plantations are managed.

The paper proposes the use of microwave irradiation to lower the initial moisture content of wood chips. The study involved willow and fir chips fractionated by means of a sieve separator and unfractionated ash chips. The wood chips were exposed to a constant microwave power of 800 W for 30 s, 60 s, 120 s and 180 s. The chips were weighed before and after irradiation to measure loss of moisture. It was found that the decline in moisture content increased with wood chip size for a given irradiation time and microwave power. The initial moisture content of wood chips was not found to significantly affect loss of moisture as the drying rates of wood chips with higher and lower moisture content exposed to microwaves were not statistically different. The results showed that irradiation intensity increased with the time of exposure to microwaves and unit radiant energy per unit of evaporated moisture decreased with increasing wood chip size in the 3.15–31.50 mm range.

The territory of the N.V. Tsitsin Main Botanical Garden of the Russian Academy of Sciences is subjected to significant anthropogenic stress, which has a negative effect on the state of valuable collections of tree and shrub species. Soil compaction is one of the most dangerous consequences of anthropogenic impact, expressed in increased recreational impact. In this context, the botanical garden was very concerned about the deterioration of the collection of elaeagnus species. Therefore, the soils on which these plants grow were chosen as the object of research. On this territory, three sampling plots with different degrees of anthropogenic impact were laid. Sampling plot No. 1 had the maximum anthropogenic impact. The area of medium anthropogenic impact was represented by the sampling plot No. 2. The sampling plot No. 3 where the anthropogenic impact was minimal was a reference plot. All the studied soils were classified as soddy-slightly podzolic medium loamy soils (Umbric Albeluvisols Abruptic). Fundamental differences in the morphological properties of the studied soils were that the soils located in the area of maximum anthropogenic impact, starting from a depth of 40 cm, showed gley spots, which were not found in other soils. Increased bulk density of soil in undisturbed state corresponded to increased anthropogenic impact. This led to a decrease in total pore space of soil. Soil compaction contributed to a noticeable decrease in gravimetric soil water content in upper horizons. At the same time, worsening of subsurface runoff contributed to gley-forming processes in the illuvial part of the profile. Cluster analysis revealed good grouping of the dependence of the studied indicators on the severity of anthropogenic impact. The studied indicators were separated depending on their type and position in the profile. The conducted study made it possible to assess the essential physical and hydrophysical properties of soils on the part of the territory of the Main Botanical garden of RAS that is occupied by the valuable collection of elaeagnus. Based on the results of the study, a set of measures is proposed that can significantly reduce the identified negative effects and improve the state of both the studied soils and stands growing on them in general.

The problem of assessing the impact of biodiversity on the climate-regulating functions of forests is fundamental. It is of great applied importance for sustainable forest management in the context of global climate change. On the one hand, climate change affects biodiversity; on the other hand, biodiversity underlies the mechanisms of adaptation of forests and society to these changes, because it is a provider of all ecosystem functions. This article aims to discuss scientific issues currently faced by scientists, such as the relationships between biodiversity and climate-regulating functions of forests, and to outline the perspective of the studies. There are numerous studies that describe the influence of certain plant and animal species – ecosystem engineers – on the ecosystem, including climate-regulating functions of forests. However, we lack estimates of the combined effect of the diversity of biota of different trophic levels and groups on the completeness of the implementation of climate-regulating functions of forests of different types/at different succession stages. We emphasise the importance of accounting for such estimates as taxonomic, including genetic, and the functional and structural diversity of forests. We considered various concepts of forest management, taking into account the conservation and restoration of biodiversity. The most important aspect of this problem is estimates and forecasts of interrelationships (trade-offs and synergies) between climate-regulating and other ecosystem functions of forests characterised by different levels of biodiversity, with their natural development and with the combined impact of various natural and anthropogenic factors on forests, including climate change, fires, and forest management regimes. Integration of mathematical models is a promising approach to assess and predict the dynamics of relationships between various ecosystem functions of forests.

In the zone of broad-leaved forests of the European Russia, steppe meadows have been preserved showing rich floristic composition and making a significant contribution to the biological diversity of the territories. Bryansk oblast is one of the forest regions in Russia where such meadows are found. Here, steppe meadows with high floristic diversity and a large number of rare plant species have survived. Trees from surrounding forest areas are constantly encroaching on these meadows. Most of the young trees die from regular grass fires and economic activity. However, some individuals survive and reach a generative state, becoming relatively resistant to ground fires. The influence of single trees on the floristic diversity of steppe meadows was studied at two levels of living system organization – coenotic and population levels. Polydominant steppe meadows and polydominant steppe meadows with single generative trees were studied at the coenotic level; and coenopopulations of Iris aphylla, Anemone sylvestris, and Anthericum ramosum were studied at the population level. Collecting the material, we used different methods: geobotanical, demographic, and measurements of environmental factors (illumination, slope steepness, and the frequency of grass fires). Polydominant steppe meadows were found to be were preserved in the middle part of steep slopes unsuitable for haymaking and grazing and subjected to infrequent grass fires. These communities have high floristic diversity and stable coenopopulations of model species. Ontogenetic spectra of Anemone sylvestris, Anthericum ramosum, and Iris aphylla are of the complete left-hand type with the maximum number of individuals. Single trees (Quercus robur, Tilia cordata) have controversial influence on the vegetation of polydominant steppe meadows. On the one hand, with the introduction of trees, species diversity of communities increases. This is due to the fact that trees offer resting places and shelter for birds that spread plant diaspores. On the other hand, mature trees shade the herb cover. This leads to cover reduction and occurrence of steppe and dry meadow species, as well as affects their population structure. The ontogenetic spectrum of Anemone sylvestris is still complete, whereas that of Iris aphylla becomes incomplete, and the spectrum of Anthericum ramosum becomes unfinished.

Forest planning, forest management, and forest policy require updated, reliable, and harmonized spatial datasets. In Italy a national geographic Forest Information System (FIS) designed to store and facilitate the access and analysis of spatial datasets is still missing. Among the different information layers which are useful to start populating a FIS, two are essential for their multiple use in the assessment of forest resources: (i) forest mapping, and (ii) data from Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS). Both layers are not available wall-to-wall for Italy, though different local sources of information potentially useful for their implementation already exist. The objectives of this work were to: (i) review forest maps and ALS data availability in Italy; (ii) develop for the first time a high resolution forest mask of Italy which was validated against the official statistics of the Italian National Forest Inventory; (iii) develop the first mosaic of all the main ALS data available in Italy producing a consistent Canopy Height Model (CHM). An on-line geographic FIS with free access to both layers from (ii) and (iii) was developed for demonstration purposes. The total area of forest and other wooded lands computed from the forest mask was 102.608.82 km2 (34% of the Italian territory), i.e., 1.9% less than the NFI benchmark estimate. This map is currently the best wall-to-wall forest mask available for Italy. We showed that only the 63% of the Italian territory (the 60% of the forest area) is covered by ALS data. These results highlight the urgent need for a national strategy to complete the availability of forest data in Italy.

The use of wood ash as a soil amendment in afforestation and reforestation efforts is increasing. While most studies suggest benefits or neutral results on tree growth and survival, a few studies indicate adverse effects. Hybrid larch, jack pine and white spruce were studied at three northwestern Quebec plantation sites after they received wood ash at two application rates. Soil chemical properties, foliar nutrients and seedling growth and mortality were monitored over a period of eight years. The response of soil to ash application was mostly observed in the forest floor and was more pronounced in year 3 than year 8, likely due to the acidifying nature of the boreal soils studied. Jack pine growth increased linearly with wood ash application rates, white spruce growth showed an inconsistent and delayed positive response under the higher application rate, and hybrid larch growth and survival were either increased or decreased under the lower application rate depending of site but decreased at all sites under the higher application rate. The divergence in growth response between tree species underlines a trade-off between species with rapid acquisition of resources (e.g., pine, larch) to species that use more conservative strategies and store nutrients in their tissues for longer periods (e.g., spruce). In the case of hybrid larch, it accumulated larger amounts of Mn in its needles under the higher application rate and thus, the high bioavailability of Mn appears to have been detrimental to its survival and growth. Its higher sensitivity to Mn addition from ash is likely due to its highly acquisitive (nutrients) nature compared to other coniferous species as well as the initial levels of available Mn levels in the soil. The contrasted growth responses reported here under similar growing conditions highlight the importance of identifying suitable species, sites and application rates to maximize the benefits of wood ash amendments for future tree plantations in the boreal forest.

About 3 thousand hectares of forest stands were created on the surface of the Crimean mountain plateaus in the middle of the 20th century as a result of afforestation. Studies on the influence of these stands on the properties of mountain meadow soils (Phaeozems) showed that under the forest vegetation, the consolidation of structural aggregates, a decrease in the humus content, and an increase in acidity compared to the soils under the meadow vegetation, which could also affect other soil properties, including the mobility of some metals, were observed. The work objective of this research is to conduct a comparative analysis of the content of Pb, Mn, Cu, and Zn compounds available for biota (1 M ammonium acetate) in the soil under mountain meadows, natural beech forest, and artificial forest stands. Following the obtained results, the available Pb, Mn, and Cu compounds accumulated in the afforested mountain meadow soils relative to the adjacent mountain meadows areas. Thus, the average Pb content in the soil layer of 0–10 cm under the mountain pine stands in comparison with the soil under meadow vegetation was 1.6 times higher, Mn – 1.2 times, Cu – 1.2 times. The Pb content was 2.5 times higher, Mn – 1.5 times higher, and Cu – 1.2 times higher under the silver birch stands. The Pb content was 2.2 times higher, Mn – 2.4 times higher, and Cu – 1.5 times higher under Siberian larch stands. The Pb content was 1.9 times higher, Mn – 1.1 times higher, Cu – 1.3 times higher under the sycamore maple stands, compared to the meadow. Differences between afforested and meadow soils in the content of these elements in most cases were significant, except for the Zn content, signs of accumulation of which under artificial stands were not revealed. The Pb, Mn, and Cu content in the brown forest lessive soil (Luvisols) under the oriental beech corresponded to their concentration under the larch, and the Zn content was significantly higher compared to the soil under all species. The main reason for the increase in the mobility of some elements under tree stands is their transition from immobile forms under the influence of increased acidity of afforested soils. Wood litter due to the low content of trace elements in its composition cannot be a source of their accumulation in the topsoil.

Soil carbon pool in the block of the European-Ural part of Russia was assessed on a topological basis of lands categories adopted in State Forest Inventory (21 biotopes in total). The published data on 675 soil profiles were linked to biotopes and forest regions through coordinates and descriptions of profiles (13). The total carbon stock in the soils in forest regions of the European-Ural part were 19.3*109 t C for a depth of 0–30 cm, 26.6*109 t C for a depth of 0–50 cm, and 34.2*109 t C for a depth of 0–100 cm. Forest area in the European part of Russia for these forest regions is estimated at 181.13*106 ha. Aggregated data are presented both for biotopes of the entire region and for forest regions. We compared the results obtained on top basis of dominant tree species and non-forest lands with the estimates of other authors obtained for various soil types.

The article provides an overview of Russian and foreign studies on assessment of the composition of atmospheric fallout and soil waters in forest ecosystems. The conclusion was made that little attention is given to the transformation of precipitation chemical composition by forest ecosystems, taking into account the influence of the species composition of the stand and the mosaic structure of the biogeocenosis (areas below the crowns, between the crowns, and open sites). European studies usually look at long-term development of the composition of atmospheric fallout and lysimetric waters, detecting long-term trends in composition changes of atmospheric and soil waters and identifying the factors driving these changes. In Russia, no such long-term (lasting for more than 10 years) continuous observations on the effect of man-made pollution on the composition and properties of atmospheric and soil waters were carried out. This task is very relevant for Russia and, especially, for its industrial regions.

Monomeric C6-C2-type lignin model compounds with a p-hydroxyphenyl (H), guaiacyl (G), syringyl (S), or p-ethylphenyl (E) nucleus (1-phenylethanol derivatives) were individually oxidized by MnO2 at a pH of 1.5 and room temperature. The results were compared with those of the corresponding C6-C1-type benzyl alcohol derivatives obtained in our recent report to examine the effect of the presence of the β-methyl group on the oxidation. The presence decelerated the oxidation regardless of the type of aromatic nucleus, although it did not change the order of the oxidation rates: G > S >> H > E. This deceleration results from the steric factor of the β-methyl group in the C6-C2-type compounds. The MnO2 oxidations of the corresponding C6-C2-type compounds deuterated at their α-(benzyl)positions showed that the magnitudes of the kinetic isotope effects are smaller than those observed in the oxidations of the corresponding C6-C1-type compounds, regardless of the type of aromatic nucleus. These smaller magnitudes suggest that the presence of the β-methyl group shifts the initial oxidation mode of MnO2 from direct oxidation of the benzyl position to one-electron oxidation of the aromatic nucleus. Only the S-type compounds afforded products via degradation of the aromatic nuclei.

Valonia oak Quercus ithaburensis subsp. macrolepis (Kotschy) Hedge & Yalt. spreads naturally in the Mediterranean coasts starting from Italy to Israel. In Turkey, this species constitutes forests in the Aegean and the Mediterranean regions. The only exception to the spread of valonia oak in the world is Turkey’s Kırıkkale Karagüney Mountains where the species constitutes forests in three different areas, and an expansive spread in a large agricultural area. This area, 300 km away from the species’ main distribution area, a most interior terrain in the world, and a most northeast spread, with a distinct climatic region, make the spread of the species controversial. This study aims to determine the distribution areas of the valonia oak across the Karagüney Mountains, to the analysis analyze the natural factors that affect its spread in the area, to determine the threats on the species, and to present solutions. For this purpose, field research was conducted between March 2018 and September 2020, the distribution maps of the valonia oak were created, analysis was carried out with the help of GIS, and threats were identified against the species. The research reveals that the valonia oak is distributed over approximately 7500 hectares across Karagüney Mountains. Within this area, a valonia oak forest, covering approximately 1910 hectares in Sulakyurt district,, apart from its two small stands in Ulaş and Meşeyayla Villages that have already been scientifically studied, may be considered quite large even for its natural spread areas. The area where the forest is located consists of brown and red forest soils dominated by the volcanic basalt bedrock. In agricultural areas, it is predominantly in alluvial areas. APM, where generally spreads between 700-1231 meters, is located at the beginning of the semi-humid region between 1000-1200 meters as a forest. Today, positive discrimination by the villagers has disappeared with the decrease in the value of especially the seeds of APM in economic terms.Therefore, young individuals of the species no longer exist in agricultural areas. As for the old oak trees, they are faced with legal or illegal cutting. Nevertheless, grazing, afforestation with alien species, seed collection, and garbage dumps can be listed as other threats. For the conservation of the species, making inventories in agricultural and forestry areas, determining special protection statuses, and conducting species-specific management plans are essential, leading to management both in the forest and agricultural areas.

In this study, cone production, altitude and growth characteristics (height, diameter at breast height and crown diameter) were related, and also some genetics parameters were estimated. The data were collected from 150 individual trees of three natural populations sampled altitudinal (P1 260 m, P2 740 m, P3 1100 m) of Brutian pine (Pinus brutia Ten.) in Mugla-Fethiye district in 2020. Fertility variation based on cone production was found to be 1.91 for one old cones and 1.77 for two old cones in all populations. Genetic relatedness was estimated at 0.006 for one year cones and 0.005 for two year old cones in all populations. The number of effective parents was found to be 78 and 84 for one year and two year cones, respectively. As a result of the correlation analysis applied, statistically significant (p

In this study, changing effect of water based varnishes on yellow hue in wood material which was colored with water soluble color pigments in brown hue has been researched. For this purpose, wood samples which were prepared from the Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis L.), Sessile oak (Quercus petraea L.), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in accordance with TS 53 and TS 2470, colored with aniline, ready-mix, chemical stains according to ASTM E1347-97, were coated with one-component and two-component varnishes according to ASTM D3023. Color change was determined in accordance with ASTM D2244. According to research results, the highest change in yellow hue was found on beech wood colored with ready-mix stain and with two-component varnish; and the lowest change was found on Scots pine wood colored with aniline stain and with one-component varnish., Bu çalışmada, suda çözünen renk pigmentleri ile kahverengi tonda renklendirilmiş ahşap malzemede su bazlı verniklerin sarı tonu değiştirici etkisi araştırılmıştır. Bu maksatla, Doğu kayını (Fagus orientalis L.), sapsız meşe (Quercus petraea L.), sarıçam (Pinus sylvestris L.)’ dan TS 53 ve TS 2470’ e göre hazırlanan numuneler, ASTM E1347-97’ ye göre anilin, hazır karışım, kimyasal boya ile renklendirilerek ASTM D3023’ e göre tek ve iki bileşen verniklerle kaplanmıştır. Renk değişimi ASTM D2244’ e göre belirlenmiştir. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre, en fazla sarı tonda değişim iki bileşen vernikli hazır karışım boyalı kayında, en az tek bileşen vernikli anilin boyalı sarıçamda bulunmuştur.

Wood anatomical traits of xylem are the characteristics of tree rings at cellular and subcellular scales providing important insights on structural features and their linkage to the environment. Therefore, studying the relationship between anatomical traits and environmental changes not only provide physiological explanations, but also provide a new vision of studying the adaptation process and response strategies of tree growth to climate. In this paper, I review and synthesize literature on the influence of climatic parameters on wood anatomy from the different geographical regions using recent (2015–2020) published articles on the topic. This paper discusses the relationship between the anatomical features of angiosperm and gymnosperm xylem with climatic factors. Based on the literature, I then purpose to explore the temporal and spatial variations in the anatomical characteristics of xylem tree rings with environmental changes. Also, more studies can be conducted to assess the synergetic and antagonistic effects among different tree-ring proxies and to determine the specific roles and contributions of major climatic factors during different periods of tree-ring formation.

Subalpine conifers are highly sensitive to climatic changes. In these trees, the intra-annual dynamics of cambial activity and phenological process in xylem development are closely associated with climatic conditions. However, these scientific findings have not been verified for subalpine conifers in the Republic of Korea. Therefore, we initiated such a study with four subalpine conifers, viz. Abies koreana, Pinus koraiensis, Taxus cuspidata, and Picea jezoensis, growing between 1573 and 1594 m a.s.l. at Deogyusan National Park. Microcores (Ø 2 mm) of these trees were obtained using a mini borer, called as Trephor, every week between April 7 and September 25 in 2017 to monitor their growing seasons, the intra-annual dynamics of the cambial activity, and the number of cells during phenological phases of cell enlargement and cell-wall thickening. For the study, five trees were selected for each conifer species. Results showed that the cambial activity of A. koreana, P. koraiensis, and P. jezoensis required at least 73.8 heat-sum values, whereas the T. cuspidata needed 109.6 heat-sum. The durations of cambial activity of A. koreana, P. koraiensis, T. cuspidata, and P. jezoensis were 134 (127–144), 113 (92–128), 113 (106–120), and 100 (76–128) days, respectively. The intra-annual variations of the number of cells in the cambium, during the cell enlargement phase and cell-wall thickening phase showed predominantly a bell-shaped curve, with a delay of approximately 2–4 weeks between each other. On the other hand, the number of cumulated mature cells showed an S-shaped curve. Through this study, the first fundamental data on phenological process in xylem development of subalpine conifers in the Republic of Korea have been successfully presented.

This study investigates the physiological responses and subjective perceptions of touching wood. In particular, it focuses on their respective relationships with the amount of heat transfer across the hand–material interface during contact. The study participants included 55 university students (20 females and 35 males) who gave written informed consent. The participants’ blood pressure, pulse rate, and cerebral blood hemoglobin concentrations were measured continuously for 90 s while they gently held vertical bar-shaped specimens of Japanese cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa), Japanese oak (Quercus crispula), polyethylene, and aluminum. The specimens also included wood with a surface coating. We measured subjective warmth and comfort as well as the heat flux between the palm and the surface of the material. The wooden materials were rated as significantly warmer compared to aluminum and polyethylene, regardless of the wood species (cypress or oak) or its coating; this result corresponds with smaller heat transfers in the wooden materials. Additionally, the wooden materials were more comfortable to hold as compared to the aluminum bar. Based on the changes in blood pressure, touching Japanese cypress and uncoated Japanese oak were interpreted to induce less physiological stress. Therefore, we can conclude that wood, with lower thermal conductivity, feels warm, and it causes relatively smaller physiological changes compared to other materials with higher thermal conductivity. Thus, they may present less physiological burdens when touched.

The hot-disk method is a transient method for the measurement of thermal properties. This method can measure both the thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity in a short time for isotropic materials. To establish a method for measuring the thermal properties of wood by the hot-disk method, the relationship between the thermal properties of wood obtained by the hot-disk method and those obtained by the steady-state method was investigated. The thermal properties were measured by the hot-disk method using small pieces of kiri (Paulownia tomentosa), sugi (Cryptomeria japonica), hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa), yachidamo (Fraxinus mandshurica), and buna (Fagus crenata) when the hot-disk sensor was in contact with the cross section, radial section, and tangential section. The thermal conductivities in the longitudinal, radial, and tangential directions were also measured by the comparison method using the same specimen. The thermal properties obtained by the hot-disk method and the steady-state method were compared, based on the assumption that the thermal diffusivity measured by the hot-disk method was the geometric mean of that in the two main directions in the plane of the sensor, and the thermal conductivity measured by the hot-disk method was a power of that in three main directions. As a result, the thermal conductivity obtained by the hot-disk method was 10–20% higher than that obtained by the steady-state method; the thermal diffusivity measured by the hot-disk method was equal to that obtained by the steady-state method on average, while in the former thermal diffusivity varied widely. These results were found to be explainable in terms of the Dufour effect, which is the heat flow induced by the mass flow caused by the heating of the sensor, and the existing findings on the time dependence of the sensitivity coefficient in the hot-disk method. The present study proposed two methods for calculating the thermal properties of wood from the hot-disk method were proposed, and it was found that the errors between the obtained thermal properties and those obtained by the steady-state method differed depending on the calculation method.

This study was conducted to determine the larval instars of Diprion pini L. (Hymenoptera: Diprionidae) that damage Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) at an altitude of 1204 m at Çankırı-Kurşunlu in 2004. In the same study, the determination of the most appropriate period if chemical control is necessary regarding the relationship between D.pini and its egg parasitoid Neochryocharis formosa (Westwood) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) was considered. After detection of D.pini larvae Scots pine shoots containing at least 60 D.pini larvae from randomly selected Scots pine trees were sampled at each sampling date (once a week). The larvae were brought to the laboratory in a cooler, and the head capsule widths and lengths were measured under a stereomicroscope and recorded. After the data were evaluated according to Dyar’s law and larval instars of D.pini were determined, larvae instars and proportions of instars in the population (%) were determined for each sampling date. Regression analyses were used to determine the relationships between the head capsule width, length, and the instars of D.pini larvae. Results show that the increment ratios of head capsule width increase for the 1st to 6th D.pini larvae were 1.353, 1.339, 1.400, 1.287, and 1.1249, respectively. The increment ratios of the head capsule widths are close to the value of 1.4 of Dyar’s law. Therefore, it is understood that the occurrence ratios (%) for D.pini instars can be determined by sampling larvae at different dates according to Dyar’s law. A significant relationship has been determined between the head capsule widths and lengths of D.pini larvae. Larval length can be used in practice for instar determination in field studies. There was no record on the head capsule increments of D.pini instars in the literature. Additionally in this study, the egg parasitoid N.formosa adults, which had developed in the field-collected and D.pini eggs in the laboratory culture began emerging on September 3rd, 2004 when the D.pini larvae were in the 6th instar. Therefore, it is determined that the most appropriate chemical control period without damaging the egg parasitoid may be the period when the 2nd instar D.pini larva proportion in the population reaches 50%. These results are important for the protection of egg parasitoids as well as the effectiveness of chemical control in large-scale applications., Bu çalışma, Çankırı-Kurşunlu’da 1204 m yükseltide Sarıçam (Pinus sylvestris L.)’da zarar yapan Diprion pini L. (Hymenoptera: Diprionidae)’nin larva dönemlerinin tespit edilmesi amacıyla 2004 yılında ele alınmıştır. Aynı çalışma kapsamında, D.pini ile yumurta parazitoiti Neochryocharis formosa (Westwood) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) arasındaki ilişkiler de dikkate alınarak kimyasal mücadele yapılması durumunda, en uygun mücadele zamanının tespit edilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Çalışma alanında D.pini larvalarının görülmesiyle birlikte, her sayım tarihinde (haftada 1 kez) rasgele belirlenmiş ağaçlardan en az 60’ar adet olmak üzere larva örneği alınmıştır. Alınan larvalar, buz kabı içerisinde laboratuvara getirilerek aynı gün içinde larvaların baş kapsül genişlikleri ile larva uzunlukları stereo-mikroskop altında ölçülüp kaydedilmiştir. Elde edilen veriler Dyar (1890) kanununa göre değerlendirilerek D.pini’nin değişik larva dönemleri belirlendikten sonra, her sayım tarihinde ormandan alınan larvaların yaş dönemleri ve bunların popülasyondaki payları (%) ayrı ayrı belirlenmiştir. D.pini larvalarının baş kapsül genişliği, larva uzunluğu ve larva dönemleri arasındaki ilişkilerin belirlenmesinde regresyon analizi uygulanmıştır. Elde edilen bulgulara göre, D.pini’nin değişik larva dönemleri arasındaki baş kapsül genişliği artış oranlarının 1-6. larva dönemlerinde ardışık olarak sırasıyla 1,353; 1,339; 1,400, 1,287 ve 1,249 olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Aynı çalışmada bu değerlerin, Dyar (1890) yasasında belirtilen 1,4 değerine oldukça yakın olduğu anlaşılmıştır. Buna göre, değişik tarihlerde, larva popülasyonundan örnekler alınmak suretiyle, zararlı larvalarının bulunma oranları (%)’nın Dyar kanununa göre belirlenebileceği anlaşılmıştır. Bu çalışmada, D.pini larvalarının baş kapsül genişliği ile larva uzunluğu arasında da önemli bir ilişki belirlenmiştir. Larva uzunluğu arazi çalışmaları sırasında larva dönemlerinin pratik bir şekilde belirlenebilmesi için kullanılabilir. Yapılan literatür taramasında D.pini larvalarının baş kapsül genişliği ile ilgili herhangi bir kayda rastlanılmamıştır. Bu çalışma sırasında, çalışma alanından toplanarak laboratuvarda kültüre alınan D.pini yumurtalarında gelişen yumurta parazitoiti N.formosa erginlerinin 03.09.2004 günü D.pini larvalarının 6.dönemde olduğu sırada çıkmaya başladığı gözlenmiştir. Buna göre, kimyasal mücadele yapılması durumunda, sözü edilen yumurta parazitoitinin kimyasal mücadele uygulamasından zarar görmeyeceği en uygun mücadele zamanının; 2. dönem D.pini larvalarının popülasyondaki payının yaklaşık %50 oranına ulaştığı periyot olduğu belirlenmiştir. Geniş alan mücadelesinde, gerek doğal düşmanların korunması ve gerekse mücadelenin etkinliği bakımından bu çalışmada elde edilen bulgular önemli görülmektedir.

Chestnut bur is an agro-waste material generated in the chestnut production. It is a tannin-rich lignocellulosic material which might be a promising raw material for low-formaldehyde composite particleboard production when using urea–formaldehyde (UF) as bonding adhesive. In this study, the characteristics of chestnut bur were analyzed to assess its application value for composite panel. Five-type particleboards were manufactured from the mixture of chestnut bur/poplar particles with the weight ratios of 0/100, 25/75, 50/50, 75/25 and 100/0, UF resin was used as bonding adhesive. The effects of the addition amount of chestnut bur on the physical, mechanical properties and formaldehyde emission of particleboard were studied. The results showed as follows: (1) chestnut bur showed low cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin contents, but high extractives and ash contents compared with poplar wood. Chestnut bur and poplar wood had the similar fiber morphology. (2) Composite board with relatively good performances could be manufactured with mix particles of chestnut bur and poplar wood. With the increasing of chestnut bur content, the mechanical properties of the composite board decreased, whereas the dimensional stability increased. (3) The total phenol content in the chestnut bur was as high as 13.79%. The phenolic substance in the chestnut burs could react with free formaldehyde. Hence, the free formaldehyde emission of particleboard was effectively reduced. In summary, waste chestnut bur is a suitable material which can not only be utilized as the base material, but also a natural free formaldehyde scavenger for composite particleboard production.

Bamboo is now widely used in construction, papermaking, textile, furniture and other fields because of its renewable, fast-growing, high-strength, high-yield and easy processing. However, compared with wood, bamboo and bamboo products are more vulnerable to damage by fungi and pests. An effective and eco-friendly method is urgently needed to improve their physical and chemical properties, decay resistance and anti-mildew properties, and hydrophobic properties. Here, bamboo was heated with methyl silicone oil. The effect of different temperatures (140 °C–200 °C) and different times (2 h–6 h) on the properties of bamboo was studied systematically, including chemical composition, physical and mechanical properties, surface wettability, decay resistance and anti-mildew property. No starch granules were observed inside the parenchymal cell lumen of bamboo specimen heat treated at 200 °C for 6 h. And with the increase of heat treatment temperature and time, the content of cellulose and hemicellulose decreases gradually while relative content of lignin increases due to its better thermal stability. Accordingly, the surface wettability decreases due to the changes of the surface functional groups and micro-morphologies. Under the condition of oil heat treatment at 160 °C for 2 h, the compressive strength parallel to grain of bamboo samples reach the maximum of 109.52 MPa. With further increase of heating temperature, the corresponding compressive strength decreases. The resulted bending strength and MOE both display similar changing trend. However, the optimal parameter is at 180 °C for 2 h, with the highest bending strength and MOE values of 142.42 MPa and 12,373.00 MPa, respectively. Finally, the decay resistance and anti-mildew property are dramatically enhanced with increased heat treatment temperature and time. All the corresponding changing mechanisms are investigated in depth and in detail. Our results provide comprehensive process parameters and micro-mechanism for the performance of oil heat treatment of bamboo, which can be used to guide the actual production.

The aim of this study is to evaluate the demand for medicinal plants from the perspective of herbalists who trade these plants in Istanbul and to reveal the relations among the variables affecting the demand. For this aim, the results of the face-to-face survey with 200 herbalists in 20 randomly selected districts of Istanbul were analyzed. In this scope, descriptive analysis, correlation analysis and Chi-Square independence test were used. The analyses were carried out with SPSS 22.0 statistical package program. According to the results of the study, the top three medicinal plants which are most in demand are linden, ginger and sage, respectively. The most plant sales occur in winter and the most important criterion for consumers when purchasing plants is price. It was found that herbalists mostly sell the medicinal and aromatic plants which are good for respiratory diseases.

The indispensable product of living spaces, the raw material of high density fiberboard (HDF) based derivative products (laminate flooring derivatives, etc.) are HDF boards. The test values (physical and formaldehyde emission properties ) of HDF boards are targeted both physical properties and formaldehyde emission E1 or E0 standard. In this study, 50% yellow pine (Pinus sylvestres L), 30% fir (Abies nordmanniana L), 20% beech (Fagus orientalis L) were used biomass. HDF boards of 7.7mmx2100mmx2440mm were produced on the production line which using three different moles of urea-formaldehyde resins (R; 1.17, X; 0.98 and Y; 0.88). Production parameters remained constant in the HDF line process and the only variable were urea formaldehyde resins used in three different molar ratios. The productions were manufactured in pressing speed of 950 mm/second and pressing temperature 215ºC and 60 seconds pressing time in the continue hot press. R, X, Y HDF boards produced; physical tests (thickness, density, board moisture, 24 hours Thickness-swelling and 24 hours water absorption) and formaldehyde gas emissions were analysed which was five boards were measured from each test group. Physical properties of HDF boards were measured which was the density of boards (R; 874 kg/m³, X; 881 kg/m³ and Y; 860 kg/m³) Thickness swelling of boards at 24 hours (R; 17.79%, X; 19.65% and Y; 19.08%) water absorption of boards at 24 hours (R; 19.65%, X; 19.09% and Y; 22.42%). Formaldehyde gas emission result of HDF boards were analysed (R; 14.96, mg/100g. X; 8.28 mg/100g and Y; 6.79 mg/100g). As a result of the study, differences were determined according to both physical test results and formaldehyde gas emission results for HDF boards produced., Yaşam alanlarının vazgeçilmez ürünü yüksek yoğunlukta lif levha (HDF) bazlı ve türevi ürünlerin (laminant parke türevleri vb.) hammaddesi HDF levhalarıdır. HDF levhalarının fiziksel test değerleri ilgili standart değerlerde ve formaldehit emisyonun E1 veya E0 olması hedeflenmiştir. Bu çalışmada, yüksek yoğunlukta lif levha üretim hattında %50 sarıçam (Pinus sylvestres L.), %30 göknar (Abies nordmanniana L.), %20 kayın (Fagus orientalis L.). Üretim hattında üç farklı mol üre-formaldehit reçinesi (R; 1.17, X; 0.98 ve Y; 0.88) kullanılarak 7.7mmx2100mmx2440mm HDF levhalar üretildi. Proseste üretim parametreleri sabit kalmıştır. Tek değişken üç farklı mol oranlarında kullanılan üre formaldehit tutkalı olmuştur. Sıcak pres parametrelerinden pres hızını 950 mm/sn ve pres sıcaklığını 215ºC ve 60 saniye presleme süresi parametrelerinde üretim gerçekleşmiştir. Üretilen R, X, Y HDF levhaların; fiziksel testlerine (kalınlığına, yoğunluğu, levha rutubetine, 24 saat suda kalınlığına şişme ve 24 saat su alma) ve formaldehit gaz emisyonuna bakılmıştır. Her bir test grubundan beş levha ölçülmüştür. HDF levhalarının fiziksel özellikleri, özgül ağırlığı R;874 kg/m³, X;881 kg/m³ ve Y;860 kg/m³, kalınlığına suda şişmesi 24 saat R; %17.79, X; %19.65 ve Y; %19.08, 24 saat su alma R; %19.65, X; %19.09 VE Y; %22.42 ölçülmüştür. Formaldehit gaz emisyon değerleri R; 14.96, mg/100g. X; 8.28 mg/100g ve Y; 6.79 mg/100g analiz edilmiştir. Çalışmanın sonucunda (R;1.17, X;0.98 ve Y;0.88) mol üre formaldehit kullanarak üretilen HDF levhalarına hem fiziksel test sonuçları hemde formaldehit gaz emisyonu sonuçlarına göre farklılıklar ortaya konulmuştur.

Humus forms are good indicators of environmental conditions and thus important in forest ecological processes. Altitudinal gradients are considered as natural laboratory for evaluating soil ecological processes and humus form distribution. The objective of this study was to evaluate the macromorphology of humus forms along an altitudinal gradient (0-2000 m a.s.l.) covered with plain forest, mixed and pure forests and forest-grassland ecotone, in Alborz Mountains in northern Iran. In total, 225 humus profiles were evaluated. Forest stand variables including tree density, basal area, crown density, and height, forest floor and soil physico-chemical properties along with biological features were measured. We found that altitudinal gradients influence both humus forms distribution and soil properties but with different mechanisms. While soil properties (i.e., temperature, pH, CaCO3, soil N content, soil C/N and microbial biomass N) were significantly correlated with altitude, the forest floor properties were more influenced by tree species composition. Particularly, the abundance of Mull was decreased in plain mixed forests compared to mountain pure forests, whereas the frequency of Amphi was increased. Moreover, Oligomull and Leptoamphi were abundant in mixed beech forests, while Eumacroamphi, Eumesoamphi and Pachyamphi were only observed in pure beech forests. Such a distribution influenced soil fertility where higher values of nitrogen (N), microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN) and pH were observed at lower altitudes under mixed forests compared to pure forests at higher altitudes.

Estimating carbon stocks in wooded systems is crucial to quantify national greenhouse gas balance estimates. However, inaccurate estimates are likely due to the divergent architecture of many species. The monkey puzzle tree Araucaria araucana, with its umbrella-like architecture is a vivid example. This species, often found in monodominant stands at high elevations, is the greatest carbon reservoir in the landscape, hence estimating its carbon storage is crucial. To provide the necessary basis for these estimations, we documented the variation in basic density and moisture content along the stem profile, identified the most suitable biomass estimation models, and quantified biomass allocation for three age ranges. We measured, felled, weighed, and separated trees into three categories: stem wood, stem bark, and foliage (branches + scaly leaves). The log-linear form of the simple allometric equation Y = aXb, based on diameter at breast height as the explanatory variable, covered a large part of the variation and showed good cross-validation performance (>0.96). Models using more covariates achieved lower absolute errors, but the estimation of the additional model parameters was associated with greater uncertainty. A multi-objective model comparison revealed that the best additional covariate to further improve biomass estimation was total tree height. The mean absolute percentage error was 9.8% for the total aboveground biomass, 8% for stem wood, 12% for stem bark and 24% for foliage. Changes in biomass distribution among tree components were related to age. For older trees, there was a relative increase in stem wood, a decreased proportion of foliage, but no change in stem bark. The proportion of stem bark biomass is similar to that of Araucaria angustifolia, but higher than in other conifers and most trees in general. Our results provide key properties for A. araucana and general guidance for the selection of easily-measurable variables allowing for excellent predictive power for local biomass estimation.

With global nitrogen (N) deposition continuously increasing, few reports exist describing how soil bacteria respond at the molecular level to long-term addition of excess N in variously aged forests. To reveal the responses of soil bacteria to the elevated N, an experiment was conducted with a chronic nutrient addition within differently aged stands (46-, 78-, and 200-years-old) in the northern subtropical China since 2011, including three treatments, CK (no N nor phosphorus (P) additions), N treatment (N, 100 kg N ha-1), and N with P (N+P, 100 kg N ha-1 + 50 kg P ha-1) to examine potential P limitation under N deposition. Metagenomic sequencing was used to examine the snapshot responses of soil bacterial communities. Soil moisture and texture, ammonium, nitrate, SOC (soil organic carbon), TN (soil total nitrogen), TP (total phosphorus), DOC (dissolved organic carbon), DON (dissolved organic nitrogen) were measured to explain the influence mechanism of forest age and fertilization on changes of microbial community. Following N addition, soil bacterial community diversity and most dominant phyla increased, but they showed a decrease with increasing stand age. The effects of fertilization on the same taxa were variable across forest ages. Soil bacterial community responded differently in 7-year fertilization, with distinct shift in 46-year-old forest and adaptability to long-term N addition in the 200-year-old forest. Soil texture and moisture, DOC, DON, pH, SOC/TN and TP were significantly correlated with bacterial community across stand ages, while N fertilization affected the bacterial community mostly via inducing soil moisture, NO3--N, DOC and pH in the 46-year-old forest, whose effects decreased with increasing stand age. Our results suggest that due to the variation of soil physicochemical properties among forest ages, soil bacterial communities are more stable and resilient to N deposition with increasing the age of stands. Soil bacterial communities might not encounter P limitation following the long-term addition of N in the subtropics.

We propose a method to classify priority sites for Atlantic Rainforest restoration aiming to increase basin streamflows. The Rainfall Forest to Water Production (RFWP) method uses multicriteria analysis supported by GIS techniques and hydrological modeling. The method was applied to the Itapemirim River Basin, southeastern Brazil. The application of RFWP provided a map of areas with different priority for forest restoration by overlapping standardized numerical criteria with different weights (climatological, soil type/land use, and relief). The results indicated the influence of the wide distribution of the restoration sites on the streamflows. The RFWP proved to be suitable for the spatial analysis of the effect of different restoring areas on streamflows. Based on simulated scenarios, an increase in the native forest cover by restoration up to 27.6% of the basin area is expected to significantly enhance water production. The priority areas where forest restoration could better contribute to increase streamflows were delineated, especially at high altitude and in pastures, which are mostly in degraded conditions.

Old-growth forests have an important role in maintaining animal and plant diversity, are important carbon (C) reservoirs and are privileged sites to study long-term plant physiological responses, long-term forest dynamics and climate change impact on forest ecosystems. Several studies have highlighted how old-living trees undergo age-related declines with hydraulic limitations and reduction in photosynthesis, though some recent works have suggested that such a decline is not always observed. Our study aims at understanding the role of atmospheric CO2 increase on tree C uptake and stomatal conductance (gs) in old-living trees by analysing the long-term patterns of tree growth and intrinsic water use efficiency (iWUE) in three old-growth forests in the Balkans (Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro), using dendrochronology and isotopic analysis. We hypothesised a long-term increase in iWUE in the studied old-growth forests, mostly related to enhanced photosynthesis rather than reduced stomatal conductance. Tree cores were sampled from dominant silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) trees in each forest. Tree-ring widths were measured and basal area increments (BAI) were assessed for each sampled tree and, from the six longest chronologies, five decades were chosen for cellulose extraction, its isotopic analysis (δ13C, δ18O), iWUE and leaf water 18O evaporative enrichment above the source water (Δ18OL) determination. We observed a continuous and significant increase in iWUE from 1800 to 2010 in the sampled dominant trees at all the three old-growth forests. Our BAI data and our estimates of Δ18OL across the study period support the idea that enhanced photosynthesis rather than reduced stomatal conductance is the major driver of the measured iWUE increase. Thus, our results support some recent findings challenging the hypothesis that iWUE in forests is primarily the result of a CO2-induced reduction in stomatal conductance as well as the so called hydraulic limitation hypothesis.

Inspired by the use of rift-sawn softwood board for covering curved surfaces in Kokerabuki, a traditional Japanese roofing method, we investigated the flexural anisotropy of wood caused by its end-grain orientation. We measured the flexural displacement of softwood species, Chamaecyparis obtusa and Cryptomeria japonica, and hardwood species, Populus suaveolens and Cerasus serrulata. For the softwood species, this was approximately five times longer for the rift-sawn specimens than for the other grain patterns. Using the replica method to measure the softwood tracheid deformation with different flexural displacements, we confirmed the different deformation mechanisms of the tracheid in the flat- and quarter-sawn specimens, and rift-sawn specimens. In the flat- and quarter-sawn woods, on-axis loading was generated, in which the stress was concentrated on the radial and tangential cell walls parallel to the direction of tension or compression. By contrast, in the rift-sawn wood, off-axis loading was generated, in which the stress was evenly distributed throughout the corner cell walls without the wall directly resisting the tensile and compressive forces. We also concluded that the tapered shape of the tracheid walls contributes to the excellent flexibility of rift-sawn softwood.

The transfer factor (TF) of radioactive cesium-137 (137Cs) to shiitake (Lentinula edodes) cultivated on bed logs varies greatly. Therefore, the present study investigated which factors affect the TF using stable cesium-133 (133Cs) and sawdust medium with 5% rice bran as a model, which had similar 133Cs TFs to bed-log cultivation. It was found that the Cs concentration and nutrient concentration (represented by the nitrogen concentration) concerned with the TF in the model sawdust medium. In addition, the TFs calculated using total 137Cs and 133Cs concentrations differed in both bed-log cultivation and the model sawdust medium cultivation, while the TFs calculated using exchangeable 137Cs and 133Cs concentrations were the same in sawdust medium cultivation, indicating that exchangeable Cs in the medium is the source of Cs for the fruiting body and the former difference was due to the presence of other chemical speciation of Cs that could not be absorbed. One purpose of the TF on the mushroom farm is to determine the fruiting body 137Cs concentration at the start of bed-log cultivation, therefore the prediction method of TF are discussed considering the future changes of 137Cs concentrations in trees.

Leaching of leaf litter is the primary source of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in forest soils. However, the interspecific variations of litter-derived DOM characteristics and biodegradation and their controlling factors remain unclear in subtropical plantations. Using fresh leaf litter of two broadleaf trees (Liquidambar formosana and Schima superba) and two coniferous trees (Pinus massoniana and P. elliottii) in subtropical plantations of China, we assessed the effects of tree species on the amounts and properties of litter-derived DOM with a short-term leaching experiment, and examined the interspecific variation of DOM biodegradation using a 56-day laboratory incubation method. Broadleaf tree litter generally leached higher amounts of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), dissolved total nitrogen (DTN), and dissolved total phosphorus (DTP) than coniferous tree litter. Compared with coniferous trees, broadleaf trees had higher DOM aromaticity and molecular weight, but lower DOC:DTP and DTN:DTP ratios in the litter leachates. Despite greater DOM aromaticity and molecular weight, broadleaf trees had higher litter-derived DOM biodegradation than coniferous trees because of the relatively lower DOC:DTP and DTN:DTP ratios. These results indicate the distinct patterns of litter-derived DOM characteristics and biodegradation between broadleaf and coniferous trees, and also highlight the predominant role of C:N:P stoichiometry in driving the interspecific variation of litter-derived DOM biodegradation in subtropical plantations of China.

Low permeability of wood causes problems during drying of timber. This study evaluated the effects of microwave (MW) pretreatment on the conventional drying behavior and mechanical damages of Chinese fir lumber. MW pretreatment of lumber was performed at applied MW energy of 43 kWh/m3, and then, the samples were dried in a laboratory drying kiln. The results showed that the drying rate was effectively increased after MW pretreatment. The moisture content (MC) deviation in thickness and residual stress indexes of MW-pretreated samples were significantly decreased in comparison with the control samples, and the appearance quality of wood samples was not clearly affected by the MW pretreatment. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) micrographs demonstrated that pit membranes were damaged after MW pretreatment, and the micro-cracks in radial section as well as detachments between ray parenchyma cells and tracheids were also observed. Consequently, new pathways for moisture migration during drying process were formed after MW pretreatment, which contributed to the improved permeability of Chinese fir lumber and decreased drying time.

The economic loss caused by herbivore browsing in forest plantations is a concerning problem in many areas around the world. Information on the spatial distribution of browsing damage is important for forest owners when selecting locations for new plantations, because planting trees in areas of high browsing pressure increases economic losses. Although it is difficult to survey browsing damage across large areas, sporadic sampling data on browsing damage are often collected by foresters, governments, and researchers. Thus, in this study, we applied a generalized additive model (GAM) for analysis of sporadic data to reveal large-scale spatial variation in deer (Cervus nippon) browsing damage. A map of browsing pressure produced by a GAM that used years after planting (plantation age) and location as independent factors showed a few areas of high browsing pressure. In addition, browsing damage increased with increasing plantation age, and plantation stands aged 2+ years showed more browsing damage. Areas with high browsing damage estimated based on plantation stands aged 2+ years generally coincided with areas of high deer abundance, with some exceptions. Thus, this model reflects large-scale browsing damage relatively well and will help forest owners to avoid locating new plantations in areas of high browsing pressure.