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The article reports that with regard to attributes associated with individuals that is personality traits, the criterion problem is very often submerged in the multitude of possible measures that are advanced. It would seem that the ultimate criterion should be the ability to classify individuals in a consistent manner that is in accord with the expert definition of the variable. This means that if the judges find it satisfactory, a paper-and-pencil test could be provided which would measure the characteristic of "authoritarian." This would leave open the question, however, of whether authoritarianism is a behavior among individuals or a disposition to answer a paper-and-pencil questionnaire in a given way. If the assertion is that authoritarianism is a tendency to behave in a given way in interpersonal relations rather than in a given way to a paper-and-pencil questionnaire, then the criterion problem is not satisfied even when the judges agree that certain paper-and-pencil responses should be classified as authoritarian.

This paper tested experimentally the relationship between group cohesiveness, defined as the willingness of individuals to stay in their group, and power, and acceptance. Power was defined as the ability to satisfy needs and acceptance as to the willingness to do so. A division of groups into three categories was suggested. In an instrumental group people seek to receive power and acceptance; in a mutual acceptance group people join having in mind to give and to take power and acceptance; in a vectorial group the aim of the people is to give power and acceptance either to some individuals or to an ideal. It was found that cohesiveness is better correlated to power than to acceptance in the instrumental and vectorial groups, and better correlated to acceptance in the mutual acceptance group. When all three groups were exposed to stress, cohesiveness has suffered most in the instrumental group and least in the vectorial group. All these findings are tentative and more experiments are forthcoming in order to corroborate the data obtained in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper offers the generalizations that habituated attitudes are influential factors in determining the seriousness of the handicaps to successful adjustment, that the obstacles to such adjustment increase in difficulty as the nature of the attitude distributions move from the leptokurtic curve, through the normal, and platykurtic, to the balanced U-curve forms, and that the J-curve form imposes mild or extreme handicaps as one moves through a range of conflict situations from the average of the homogeneous group to opposing groups. The permeability of the barriers to successful adjustment is, also, related to the steepness of the slopes, which may vary within limits, for each of the four characteristic non-normal curves. The supporting argument is largely based upon the generalization that adjustment is relatively easy where the attitudes held conform to the average of the group in which conflicts arise, and that social skills adequate to meet conflict situations with success are most regularly found where these skills cover average situations. These generalizations on curve forms and slopes are applied to an analysis of the seriousness of adjustmental handicaps in the Lehigh sample and in the field of international relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses evaluation and cross-cultural application of a Japanese form of the survey of interpersonal values. There is a growing literature reporting studies in which American paper and- pencil personality tests have been translated and then used in cross-cultural research. The present paper reports such an evaluation of a Japanese translation of the Survey of Interpersonal Values (SIV) prior to cross-cultural application. The scales in the SIV originally had been identified by means of an item factor analysis. A similar analysis was proposed for the translated items in order to determine whether the same constructs would emerge as factors in the Japanese culture. The results of the factor analysis indicated that the constructs incorporated in the SIV do emerge as factors in the Japanese culture, and that the large majority of the items in translation have their principle loadings on the same factors as did the corresponding original items. Data were gathered at five Japanese universities for samples of 258 males and 505 females selected so as to be comparable in educational and socioeconomic level to the individuals comprising the American normative group. In addition, 249 male and 227 female students were similarly selected and tested at three different Japanese urban high schools. The latter two groups were to be compared with an American sample made up of students from five Southern California high schools, of similar age and grade level.

Within the present paper, we have attempted to clarify the role of social structural variables in shaping friendships. Our interest in the friendship relationship has stemmed from the conviction that it constitutes a role relationship in which healthier behavior may be observed. In addition we feel that the study of such a relationship might lead to better understanding of the manner in which personality and social structural variables interact. Social structure has been broadly conceived as the framework which defines and delineates the range of friendships available to an individual. The variable of social status and role are viewed as being particularly important in structuring communication and interaction patterns of participants within a social setting, and in predisposing certain relationships more than others to move beyond the formally prescribed level of interaction. The fact that role prescriptions within a given social structure may force certain participants to become involved in interlocking interactions is viewed as having a two-fold significance. On one hand, it allows each participant to explore the desirability of becoming involved in a less formally prescribed interaction with his co-participant. On the other hand, if one or both participants do not wish to become involved in a less formal personality-centered type of interaction, the fact that the relationship has been formed and continues to be based upon social structure allows for the maintenance of a less affectively personally involved relationship without its disintegration. We have suggested that as the nature of the friendship relationship is explored more fully, it becomes clear that it must be viewed as a special type of role relationship--an integrative one in the sense that the multiple roles of each participant are brought together, shared and organized. In this connection, we hypothesize that the more central are the roles that each partner can share with the other in their friendship relationship, the greater the amount of closeness possible and the more satisfaction they experience in their mutual friendship interaction. `Within the present paper, we have spoken as if there were no individual differences in response to social structure. The fact that this isn't the case presents numerous opportunities for further exploration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reports problems of human relations in industry in Pakistan. The pace of industrialization in Pakistan is faster than was generally believed to be possible at the time of partition. Within a decade cotton, paper, and jute mills are going into production in the country. As a result, therefore, new problems of social and cultural adjustment have arisen. The old agricultural economy is crumbling and rapidly becoming industrial. Problems of human relations feature wherever human beings come into contact with each other. These problems have always to be discovered and analyzed. Maladaptations, frustrations, and anxieties are rarely expressed aggressively through riots and industrial strife. In industrial populations these are generally evidenced through accidents, neuroses, absenteeism, complaints to management, and many other such devices. The study of human relations in industry mostly bears upon the motivations of the workers and the related problems of morale arising there from. These in general pertain to the attitude of the workers to the job and the employers; attitude of the employers to the workers' needs; the basic satisfactions provided by the industrial situation in general and above all the co-ordination of effort on the part of all employed in the organization.

The theory underlying juvenile delinquency is that emotional or social maladjustments are manifested in overt activities termed "anti-social" by society. The latter include: (a), harm to person, self, or others directly or indirectly involved in the social situation; (b) damage or misappropriation of property; (c) refusal to obey either parental, academic, or legal authority; or (d) acts leading to possible danger to self or others. Activities may be premeditated or spontaneous and are often performed without full knowledge of the social consequences. However, most latent inner tensions are directly traceable to distorted parent-child, teacher-pupil, or peer group relationships. In this paper, a consideration of the behavior of Chinese juveniles is paramount and a controlling hypothesis may be stated; viz, that the overt anti-social activities result from (a) cultural conflicts between parents of foreign-born or mixed nativity and native-born children, (b) broken homes and (c) longings for `self expression. Thus, acculturation on the part of children seeking identification and status in, the society wherein they are born may cause tensions which may be absent where two sets of cultural norms do not simultaneously operate. The length of time a given culture has persisted is not as important as the pressure exerted by parents, or their generation, upon the youth who desire submergence with the immediate and prevailing culture. Parents of foreign-born or mixed parentage often unmeaningly alienate their children from the cultural traits which they imported into the American society. Over-anxiety results in constant and insistent ordering and forbidding. In time, both parents and children express and experience emotional confusion. Foreign-born parents feel "ashamed" of their inadequacy and consider any public knowledge of this as evidence of their unsuccessful rearing and control of offsprings. When new-world traits challenge village mores and customs, parents become genuinely bewildered. Moreover, the nearest kin, as an additional authoritarian figure, may. likewise have failed to reinforce them. Thus, a shattering of ideals and values motivates them to exercise greater constraints which but serves to widen the chasm between them and the children. A major problem confronting native-born juveniles is where to seek guidance, counsel, or sympathetic understanding when they believe their parents fail them. The desire to shield their elders deepens the conflict. Often the absence of the proper explanatory terms in another language. hampers effective interaction and the troublesome situation remains when experiences cannot be mutually and sympathetically shared; An added fact is that the children's social world is vastly different from that of the parents and each may participate in totally dissimilar orbits, with neither meeting. Fortunately, maturity is a steadying influence and the "marginal man" may attain stability through the services of preventive and correctional agencies established by the society. Should the Chinese juvenile delinquency rates increase for the future, it is caused by the greater proportion of native-borns who must perforce undergo the Americanization process, disturbing as this may be for some. The ascendancy of dependent and neglected children will be forthcoming as native-born parents reach another phase of Americanization. They have learned that the larger society will provide care for dependent children when (a) they prove inadequate as parents, (5) they are unable to provide for the financial support of offsprings, or (c) the home situation is untenable. Either or both parents may be at fault but so long as the child's welfare is at stake and our society provides substitute parents or renders financial assistance, more will turn to social agencies for aid. The future generations of Chinese juveniles may experience more overt rejection and exhibit emotional disturbances such as are found in other groups in the population. Divorce is increasing among native-born parents, a phenomenon which has produced more emotional problems for children. Moreover, rising incidents of remarriage brings similar social effects. Whether the parents are foreign-born, of mixed parentage, or native-born, a conclusion embraces all of the group under study. Whatever the nature of the anti-social manifestations by juvenile delinquents may be, they are striving toward more acceptable forms of acculturation through devious routes. Parents may hinder rather than help in the process. Where children are abandoned by parents (mainly native-born), the latter have attained acculturation and have accepted prevailing cultural norms. In both instances, children are the victims. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social psychology has reached the stage where it can exploit some of the concepts of the other disciplines in the social sciences. Some such concepts are social stratification, ideologies, and ways of life. Techniques have been developed to the point where it is no longer necessary to speculate and introspect concerning the social psychology of stratified segments of the society. This paper suggests that a point of departure for developing a social psychology of stratification in our society may well be occupation. We have suggested some techniques, questions, and procedures which may be utilized to develop a social psychology of occupations. The results obtained from the case study of Greenbelt, Maryland, may in no way be interpreted as conclusive or as representative of the U. S. A. However, some differences have suggested themselves which may be corroborated or disproved with further research. Our data suggest some tentative conclusions. 1. The prestige hierarchy of occupations may not be conceived as unilateral in any sense. The evidence points to the fact that manual and white- collar groups view the hierarchy with different perspectives. Manual workers may regard their occupations as honorific as white-collar occupations. Both groups tend to believe that their occupations are in the middle of the occupational scale. 2. In occupational aspirations for themselves and for their children, both groups rank the professions highest. They conceive of upward mobility to be largely in the direction of the professions. Although aspirations for "independent occupations" are strong, more prestige is still given to the professions. Business groups might well disagree here. 3. Education is considered by both groups as necessary for occupational mobility. This appears to be more abstract knowledge on the part of the MW., but more concrete on the part of the WCW. The latter have not resigned themselves to status immobility neither for themselves or for their children. They intend that they and their children shall get more education flow. 4. This white-collar faith in education reflects itself in the aspired use of leisure time. WCW prefer to use time for self-improvement by study, education, travel, reading, etc. MW would more likely use their time for rest, recreation, sporting, and associated activities. 5. MW believe more in unionization and group action for economic self betterment than do the WCW. This fact does not reduce their self- esteem, as it does for some WCW. 6. MW believe that WCW should be willing to join them in economic bargaining. Although WCW tend to disagree slightly,, they hesitate to disagree on the basis of their status superiority. Individualistic rationalizations come to the fore. 7. These perspectives reveal themselves somewhat in attitudes toward productive property and profits. In deciding how profits of a corporation should be distributed, MW want employees (themselves) to share more in the profits accruing to. the stockholders. They are confused and inconsistent about the method of distributing profits to other groups. On the other hand, WCW are more diffused and ambivalent in their attitudes, trying to "be fair all the way around." They try not to forget the consumer. 8. Clear-cut principles of political self-identification are almost absent. This may follow from the undeveloped state of American politics. Should clear-cut political divisions develop further in this country, we may see occupational differences in political orientations. Our data suggests that MW are cautious to identify themselves politically; they are even ignorant of political outlooks at times. WCW, although they may he somewhat more conservative, are more aware and conversant concerning political positions and principles. 9. A large number of research studies must be made on a regional basis before we can predict occupational attitudes and behavior in specific situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on the problems faced by scientists who contemplate research in prison. According to the author they are beset by a number of special problems, both the homely, practical ones of technique and more formal ones of methodology. The study that this paper presents is based upon experience of researcher both as a working prison psychologist and as a researcher in a prison. The author remarks that the prisoner is beset by overwhelming desires, frustrations, and antagonisms. Compared with him the nonprisoner generally presents a far more neutral psychological field, involving much weaker forces. This is one of the basic reasons which necessitates the development of unique research techniques for the prisoner. The prisoner may simply refuse to comply with the experimenter's request. If forced to do so by autocratic authority his behavior will not be that desired. Many valuable experimental techniques are thus rendered either totally inapplicable or at best more difficult to apply.

In this paper, the authors describe a quantitative study of the relation between the extent to which a person is annoyed by the behavior and characteristics of other people and the extent to which he does the same things and has the same characteristics himself. Annoyance are good material for studies of this kind because they possess a very high degree of concreteness and specificity. If a person is annoyed by being slapped on the back, does he slap others on the back; and if he slaps others on the back, is he annoyed by being slapped, on the back? The authors have studied contingencies of this kind for 65 annoyances, and in each case have obtained the regression of the subject's being annoyed by something in other people on doing the same thing himself, and the regression of the subject's doing something himself on his being annoyed by the same thing in other people. One of the chief categories of social psychology is the psychology of interpersonal behavior which involves complex patterns of stimuli and responses, and which includes inner affective processes as well as manual and verbal activities.

This paper summarizes part of a larger-scale investigation on the "Impact of technology on personality and values." Eight of Murray's TAT cards were used with 10 subjects. Five were from an industrial, urban, educated group and five were from a preindustrial, rural, uneducated group. The analysis of themes shows a difference in the perception of authority, in the nature of interpersonal relationships and family roles, and in the dimensions of security- insecurity, conformity-nonconformity, etc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a paper that uses the social role concept as developed by social science to analyze a subject of interest to social work. The social role is a way to look at the behavior which is expected of people in a certain status by other members of a social group. In this instance the article analyzes the expectations of the foster-parent role in relation to others in the foster care situation--child, natural parents or the child's immediate family, and professional representatives of the agency. Analysis will be built on the fact that there are actually two roles for the foster parent which have not been thought out by social work. One role is seen by the lay person, and the other is visualized by the professional social worker or the child placing agency. The professional role can be characterized as one of temporary maintenance or temporary home care. The objective is to maintain the child in a physical and emotional condition so that he is able to return to his own home--maintenance with parents, family past, and identity and integrity of parental relationship.

The article discusses the conceptualization of two personality orientations and sociometric choice. The purpose of the paper presented in this article is to bring more sharply into focus the relationship between two selected personality dimensions--called "dependency" and "personalness"--and a structural variable, sociometric choice. The core of this theory is that groups which meet over time in a relatively unstructured environment have to resolve two major issues, issues which represent invariant interpersonal tensions. The first of these is the area of group members' orientations toward authority, or more generally toward the handling and distribution of power in the group. The second is the area of members' orientations toward one another, in terms of closeness and intimacy. The personal aspect consists of the member's characteristic patterns with respect to interpersonal intimacy. The article authors hypothesize that members' orientation toward authority and intimacy contribute toward subgroup formation within the group.

This article informs that sociologist L.J. Cronbach suggested in a recent paper that social perception could be fruitfully studied in terms of the "perceptual space" within which an individual distributes persons he perceives. The present study explores certain measures of the perceptual space with particular emphasis on their reliability and their relation to two external criteria, viz., sex and adjustment. Preliminary studies have shown that the means and standard deviations of his ratings of others are the most promising variables for the purpose of describing his perceptual space. The Mean may be interpreted as the Subject's (S's) conception of the average of personality characteristics in other people. The Standard Deviation may be regarded as indicating S's tendency to differentiate along a particular dimension. Eighty 5s took part in this investigation; of these, 40 were "maladjusted" and 40 were "adjusted." Each group consisted of 20 males and 20 females. The "maladjusted" group consisted of adults who had voluntarily sought professional help for their emotional problems from several outpatient centers, except for three of the 40 S's who came from an "open" ward of a VA Neuropsychiatric Hospital which contained individuals receiving maximum psychotherapeutic treatment.

The purpose of this paper has been twofold: to offer propositions to test the existence of lawful relationships among variables relevant to small group behavior; and to illustrate the applicability of a general behavior theory to this specific problem area within social psychology. The concept of group cohesiveness, which occupies a central position within this problem area, was reformulated within the framework of reinforcement learning theory and a number of specific hypotheses, derived from the theory, regarding the antecedents and consequents of cohesiveness, was presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports the major results of two questionnaire studies. One employed a dimensional analysis of an attitude and examined the value of the customary trait-list procedure for assessing a group stereotype of an attitude object. The other focused on a possible explanation for the Ss' choice of attributes under the trait-list procedure of the preceding study. In the first research, the attitudes toward Negroes of 65 students at Boston University were examined by means of a trait-list procedure and a variety of opinion-type questions that were designed to assess three conceived dimensions of attitude: C-opinions about characteristics of Negroes; OMP-allegations concerning the Ss' behavior toward Negroes; and SMP-opinions concerning how others should behave toward Negroes. Affect toward Negroes was assessed primarily by one opinion-type question. In the second study, 84 different students selected from the same trait list used in Experiment 1 the 10 attributes that were most important to them in interpersonal relations. They also indicated how they would regard a person who exhibited each of the 10 to a greater, equal, or lesser extent than most people. Then, the Ss gave their general impressions of an unidentified person characterized by eight attributes sometimes associated with Negroes and stated their personal regard for such an individual. Some of the findings were: 1. The conceived dimensions of attitude were markedly interrelated. But strength of feeling about one's opinions varied with the dimensions for the more favorable Ss: C > SMP > OMP. Although the less favorable Ss exhibited a similar ordinal trend of intensity, the differences among the dimensions were not reliable. The more favorable Ss exhibited significantly higher intensities than did the less favorable Ss on the C and SMP dimensions but not on the OMP one. 2. The Ss exhibited wide individual differences in their selections of five traits to characterize Negroes or as putative determiners of their attitudes toward them. Only approximately half of the total group subscribed to the two most popular selections; and much smaller percentages recorded the three, four, or five most frequently chosen ones. Also, the Ss evidenced a distinction between their selections of traits for description and as determiners of their thoughts and feelings about Negroes. Furthermore, attitude toward Negroes was not found to be related to the Ss' selections of traits. These results, as well as the finding that many characteristics not chosen by the Ss were ones on which they considered Negroes to be different from most other people, posed the problem of the basis for the particular selections made. 3. The attributes selected as descriptive of Negroes or as determiners of attitude toward them were rarely chosen as generally important in interpersonal situations; and the converse relationship was also found. 4. Although the characterization of the anonymous person evoked certain aspects of the commonly observed depiction of Negroes, few Ss spontaneously identified the person as a Negro or expressed dislike for him or rejected him from all interpersonal relations with themselves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an attempt to compare certain tests which have been employed at one time or another to measure emotional maturity in adults, the Willoughby E M Scale, the McNemar-Landis modification of this test, the Pressey Interest-Attitude Test and the Landis questionary were given to from 79 to 110 college sophomores. The Landis questionary was found to possess a split-half reliability of approximately .85 (stepped up to .92). The intercorrelations were all insignificant with the exception of that between the original and the modified Willoughby (found to be .46). The only conclusion that seemingly can be drawn from these data is that the tests are not measuring one common variable. A discussion of just what they are measuring is not within the scope of this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the perception of feeling among members of small groups. Recent approaches to the problem of perception of characteristics, actions, feelings and attitudes of persons with few exceptions have been empirical, highly operational, often guided by rather simple hypotheses and with emphasis upon accuracy. An analysis of what aspects of social objects have important consequences and relevance for the question of interpersonal or social perception is needed. The most basic systematic relationship affecting a member's accuracy is that the persons perceived as choosing one are usually among those chosen by one. This contingency between feeling perceived and feeling held vis-a-vis a certain person is very strong, the overlap exceeding 80 percent. Several personal qualities of the person making the choice, such as expansiveness, self-confidence, popularity, and responsiveness all play a part, but the main determinant of choice transparency is reciprocation. That is, when a member's choice is reciprocated it is more transparent than his nonreciprocated choices.

An item analysis of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory in two different high school senior classes using the Levinson-Sanford anti-Semitism scale as a criterion yielded 32 items, each of which significantly differentiated the criterion subsamples in both classes. These items were strongly suggestive of certain personality trends on the part of both the more and the less prejudiced students. The 32 items were also considered as a scale, which appeared to be sufficiently reliable and valid to be used as a measuring instrument in its own right. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on a theory of social dynamics. In a "class" theory, the characteristics of behavior common to different individuals of a class are abstracted. If the behavior of another individual shows these characteristics, it is included in the class, and the behavior is then regarded as explained. All concepts like instinct, purpose, libido as used in contemporary social psychology are entelechy concepts rather than vector concepts. Sociological analyses which use statistical tabulations without attempting statistical correlations are primarily structural. At the present time, even when correlations are attempted they are usually so low that one cannot adequately speak of functional analysis. Causation in a theory of field dynamics is always simultaneous, however, from the underlying genotype to the existent phenotype. For every change in the phenomenology of experience there is a change in the structure of the underlying dynamic field. The article concludes that social groups do show the properties of structured fields and are amenable to treatment by the concepts of the logic of dynamics. At the present time there is a rather general agreement among social psychologists that groups represent "organic wholes." There is, however, considerable variance in opinion regarding the properties of organic wholes.

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The article presents an acquaintanceship questionnaire which was originally intended to search for characteristic qualitative patterns of acquaintanceship, the hypothetical assumption being that personality traits in part determine, and in part are determined by, the social contacts in occupational, religious, fraternal, recreational, and other circles of social interaction. It soon developed, however, that the solution to this problem, which the authors still regard as highly important to the progress of social psychology, lay far beyond the available facilities. Hence the results with which this article is concerned are those based on raw quantitative scores, that is, the total number of acquaintances. The material of the questionnaire consists of a standard list of 191 commonly used designations of types of persons, embracing those by occupation, religion, recreational interest, nationality and race, fraternal affiliation, academic classification, and certain other designations, miscellaneous but familiar.

The article discusses the relationship between the physical distance between interactants and their psychological distance. Basically, most of the studies have shown that physical proximity is related to such psychological factors as felt similarity, comfort, and acceptance although contradictory results have also been obtained. The extent to which similar attitudes produce greater physical proximity is an unsettled issue, complicated by procedural aspects of relevant experiments. Two additional points may contribute to limiting the generalizability of spatial distance studies. The first is that, with rare exception , the experiments are conducted with the readily available college student. The second point is that in spite of the often-cited differences in the use of personal space by different cultures, there is an apparent absence of experimental work using ethnic variables. One recent exception is the field study of proxemic behavior of young school children which found significant differences in interaction distances of middle-class white children who stood farther apart from each other than lower-class black and Puerto Rican children .

The article presents a research to assess the construct validity of the two leadership dimensions, which are Job-centered and Employee-centered, as well as assess the measure of group climate frequently used by professor of social psychology Klaus Fiedler and his associates. Three sources of rating these behaviors were used--leaders, observers, and members--and three constructs were evaluated--task-related behavior, interpersonal behavior, and group atmosphere. The major purpose of this study was to examine the reliabilities, and relative construct validities of certain measures used in current research on leadership. The results presented indicate that the variables under consideration had relatively low reliabilities and an almost complete lack of relative construct validity. There is also evidence that the member and observer ratings of the same stimulus were more similar to each other than they were to the ratings made by the leader. It is apparent that different methods of observation produced different ratings at least for American subjects in the setting described.

The article presents a paper on the learning of congruent and noncongruent social structures. The task of learning a social structure requires the subjects to learn the interpersonal relations existing between a set of people using a type of paired-associates paradigm. In the present experiment, subjects were assigned the task of learning the existing relation or either "influences" or "likes" in a group of four people whose transitive structures had either the mathematical properties of asymmetry and completeness or symmetry and incomplete transitivity. Through findings, it appears that the learning of social structures is a function of expectations or social schemas learned through prior social interaction. Further, it appears that when the cues provided by the formal organization of a group are in keeping with the informal or existing structure of the groups as reflected in the interaction between members, then the learning of the social structure and the process of adjusting one's role expectations and role behaviors should he relatively easy.

Independent pairs of Very Best Friends, Friends, and Enemies were identified on a college campus and were administered the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule and rating scales to determine whether there is similarity or complementarity in such relationships. A few statistically significant positive correlations were found for all groups for the PPS data, and a considerably greater number of significant correlations for the rating scale data, with agreements in perception of the relationships characteristically found for the first two groups and disagreements for the enemy group. These data were interpreted as less than compelling evidence for general tendencies toward either similarity or complementarity in friendships, and some speculations regarding Riesman's other-directed individual were offered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a list of books on social psychology. "Collected Papers in Psychology," by E. C. Tolman. "General Theory of Neuroses," by R. Brun. "Theoretical Foundations of Psychology," edited by H. Helson. "Comments and Cases on Human Relations," by F. K. Berrien. "Behavior Pathology," by N. Cameron and A. Margaret. "Psychological Analysis of Economic Behavior," by G. Katona. "Thematic Test Analysis," by E. S. Schneidman and others. "Chamorros and Carolinians of Saipan," by A. Joseph and V. F. Murray. "Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior," edited by L. A.. Jeffress.

This article focuses on interpersonal distance scale. Few studies have been reported in which experimental measures are related to actual interpersonal distance, the phenomenon of real concern. 70. The strongest relationship existed for an individually administered "simulated" personal distance test in which subjects placed 12 inch figures at preferred distance from a self figure. The present effort was an attempt to establish further the validity of the CID by assessing, in a controlled manner, the relationship between CID scores and real-life distancing preferences. The CID was administered with the usual instructions for same sex-same race and opposite sex-same race approacher entering the imaginary room from either directly in front of the subject or directly to the rear of the subject. Distance in inches was measured from the toes of the subject to toes of the approacher after the subject had indicated that the approacher should stop.

Seven studies investigated the relative importance of social cost, belief incongruence, and race in the preference for "types" of people or stooges. The Ss in five studies completed a "Person Preference Test." The test required the Ss to state their preference for eight person types, composed of all possible variations of the three variables across six relationships varying in intimacy. The Ss ranked in order of preference the eight person types, and one study asked the Ss to indicate preference for each of all possible pairs. The results showed that complete congruency (same beliefs, race, and low social costs) is the most important factor. Race is particularly important for the most intimate relationship. Excluding a consideration of complete congruence, the relative importance of the variables were the following: social cost, belief incongruence, and race. Two laboratory studies tended to support the relative importance of social cost, in the preference for stooges differing in social cost, belief incongruence, and race. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A number of types of husband-wife interpersonal compatibility derived from Schutz's Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation inventory, or FIRO-B (14), were related to several measures of pair success in managing or dealing with occupational and life stresses. Types of compatibility included (a) interchange compatibility, (b) originator compatibility, and (c) reciprocal compatibility. The dependent variables were oriented towards mutual helping, open two-way communication, and effective joint problem solving. The data were obtained separately from husbands and their wives. In SS pairs, the husband was a member of an engineering association; in 74 pairs, an industrial accountant; and in 61 pairs, a chartered accountant. Few occupational differences were found. The results indicated that husband-wife compatibility as measured by the FIRO-B was not strongly related to measures of stress management. The statistically significant correlations ranged between .15 and .25. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the applicability of normative theory to helping behavior. Temporally defined norms, such as those associated with holidays, are not subject to the criticisms applied to situationally defined norms. The charitable gift giving norms associated with Christmas were assumed to grow stronger as Christmas Day drew nearer. An observational study indicated that the average donation to a Salvation Army kettle increased with temporal nearness to Christmas. Analysis of these data and earlier studies suggests that intensity of charitable behavior may be associated with subject characteristics including strength of felt norms; whereas extensity may be associated with situational features. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two experiments examined how intersubject language differences and message length influenced the accuracy with which people communicate their personality judgments to other individuals. An interpersonal communication paradigm was used in which an encoder made personality judgments of object persons based on videotaped interviews. A decoder viewed the object person videotapes and attempted to match each judgment with the intended referent. Experiment I tested the effect of reducing intersubject language variability on impression communication accuracy and found efficiency improved. Moreover, it indicated that too much control may interfere with responding and produce an increased communication error rate. Experiment II investigated the effect of 10, 20, and 30 word messages on communication accuracy. Increasing information was found not to facilitate communication accuracy. Reliability for the impression communication paradigm was considered by comparing mean error rates for two object persons from several different studies and was found to be relatively high. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Four studies using both opposite and same-sex dyads were conducted to examine the relationship between sex and willingness to volunteer to be a subject in an experiment. The degree of contact between the experimenter and subject was varied. In three of the four studies, a significant interaction effect was found, with subjects helping experimenters of the opposite sex more often than members of their own sex. No evidence supporting an ingratiation interpretation was found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two experiments were conducted to examine whether linguistic style affected subjects' estimations of interpersonal distance. In accordance with Hall, it was proposed that distinct linguistic styles would produce differential estimates of interpersonal distance and involvement between interactors. Subjects confirmed this proposal in Experiment I. In Experiment II the finding was replicated, and it was further shown that content of interaction was less influential than linguistic style. It is suggested that some sort of grammar for distance best accounts for the results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses alternative methods for scoring interaction process analysis. Researchers using Bales' Interaction Process Analysis categories have generally used the in-process method of scoring, i.e., direct observation and simultaneous scoring of the interaction as it proceeds. Though undoubtedly the most economical method in terms of time and cost per hour of interaction scored, the in-process method requires considerable training of observers before sufficient speed in scoring can be developed. The observer cannot score the interaction at a leisurely rate but must keep pace with it as it occurs. Because of the fact that the observer has an opportunity to examine the transcription of the interaction at his own pace freed of the pressure of time and also restricts his attention to one actor in the preliminary observation thus increasing the chance of observing non-verbal gestures, it was expected that the protocol method would yield substantially more scores. Judgment of whether a greater number of scores is in fact derived when scoring tape recordings and whether these differences are reliable and significant should be reserved, however, until controlled comparisons of observers who are equally well-trained in the use of Bales' categories can be made.

Two blocks of information were prepared about an individual unknown to the subjects. One block described rather extrovertive behavior, the other block more introvertive behavior. In previous experiments the two blacks were put together, one immediately after the other, in either extrovertive- introvertive order or introvertive-extrovertive order; clear-cut evidence of primacy effects was found in the sense that when a questionnaire about the described person was answered after the entire communication, the first block was more influential than the second. In the present experiments, 60 high school students, half of whom received the blocks of information in the extrovertive-introvertive order and the others in the introvertive-extrovertive order, answered the same questionnaire after each block. Primacy effects were not found; instead recency effects prevailed in the sense that each questionnaire was answered predominantly on the basis of the most recently read block, so that the same subject often gave diametrically opposite answers in the two administrations of the questionnaire. The present findings were compared with those obtained under other experimental conditions. We discussed various explanations for the interpolated questionnaire operating more effectively against primacy than did an interpolated warning against primacy or than did arithmetical tasks given between the two blocks. Experimental conditions were compared with those used by Lund who obtained findings that led him to promulgate a "Law of Primacy in Persuasion." Factors of "commitment" and definitiveness of impression were also discussed in relation to primacy-recency. Implications were drawn for reduction of rigid adherence to first impressions and for increasing or decreasing an individual's awareness of change in information or of inconsistencies in communications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article cites study that reports some of the methods and findings which were employed to investigate the relationship of personality structure to political views among individuals. More specifically the project was concerned with devising a means for identifying a personality variable in an elite group and then relating that variable, ego control, to the selection by elite members of their social and political heroes as expressed in their choice of the five Americans they considered most influential in the development of the U.S. and the five greatest living Americans. Responses to the questionnaire were treated as reports of social perceptions. The personality variable selected for investigation as a determinant of questionnaire response of social perception was that of ego control. The results were interpreted as indicating that it was feasible to infer elite personality characteristics from non-clinical materials produced by or about elite members. Knowledge of ego control characteristics can lead to successful predictions about values, ego ideals heroes and models, war-like I interests, susceptibility to prestige suggestion, the utilization of particular, defense mechanism, power and prestige concerns, and social and political conservatism.

This article cites a study, concerned with the value attributed to intelligence in the heterosexual union. Nine hundred sixteen men and women were asked to describe those characteristics, which they considered most desirable in males and females. Eight hundred forty-nine of these spontaneously interpreted the questions as referring to their personal preferences in the love or the marital relationship. By comparing every respondent's remarks referring to the opposite sex with the comments pertaining to the same qualities in his own sex, to himself, and to additional predilections or aversions regarding the heterosexual relationship, the attempt was made to determine what personality patterns, if any, are correlated to the preference of a lower, a higher, or an equal intelligence in the partner. The reactions of both sexes indicate that the differential evaluation of intelligence is caused by the feelings of adequacy or inadequacy to the sex role. In the female sex role intelligence is not a factor of significance; the girl, therefore, can forego competition in this field. Equally, to choose her despite the absence of great mental abilities does not reflect unfavorably on the chooser. In the male's feeling of role adequacy, intelligence is of significance.

This article discusses some considerations which are essential to the treatment of certain aspects of social psychology on a quantitative basis. In recent years there has been one new and significant development in social psychology, which has not as yet received sufficient attention. This is the field of diffusion theory and research. Diffusion theory deals mathematically with one of the basic problems of social psychology, namely, how does new behavior, once it has arisen, diffuse through a given population, particularly when its chief means of spread is on a person-to-person basis. By new behavior researchers mean a response or activity which has never appeared before and which may be expressed in any sensory modality. Such behavior may originate in one individual or simultaneously in a group of individuals, although new behavior is generally assumed to arise uniquely in one individual. Such behavior diffuses under various types of social constraint, social selectivity, cycles of sociality which describe the variation in any single individual's day-to-day contacts with friends, errors of social judgment, and dozens of similar considerations.

The article reports that group psychotherapy need not be simply individual therapy writ large. Goals, techniques, and analysis of processes need not he founded on the dynamics of a hypothetical individual, but may be interpreted in terms of the group's structure, the group's dynamics, and the group's productivity. Group therapy offers unique opportunities for the clinician to discover important variables of group behavior and to experiment with techniques with which to study, control, and influence group processes. The clinical psychologist, with his training in social psychology and experimental psychology, may be able to make a unique contribution via group therapy- not to be merely a non-medical therapist, but also a scientist concerned with the social psychology of mental disorders and with the manipulation of social field conditions for therapy. An understanding of present behavior requires an analysis, by the patient and not only by the therapist, of immediate field conditions. Therapy is not merely a rehashing of past experiences but is part and parcel of present living. Therefore, the group sessions were concerned with the present, with present experiences and problems of the group or of its individual members.

The article presents information on the four effects of co-operation. In spite of the rapid development of social psychology in recent years, relatively little attention has been paid to the problems of cooperation. There is some experimental evidence, which, however, has remained rather unsystematized. The work songs, well known also from studies of primitive societies, obviously served the purpose of temporal coordination. There is no doubt that the average effect of cooperation is a very important one, and very well distinguished from the other ones. It occurs in a lot of situations in daily life say, when school marks, obtained from different teachers, are combined. The rapid development of science during the last 100 years is certainly a consequence not only of the accumulated knowledge, forming a better base for further work, but also of the rapid increase of the number of scientists. This number is of importance in two ways. It means a broadening of the field under research more problems can be attacked. But it also means an increasing probability of certain valuable scientific performances, i.e., when different workers attack the same problem or group of problems.

The article presents some perspectives onto intrapersonal and interpersonal determinants of individual differences in sociempathic ability among adolescents. Sociempathy was used by pschometrician to describe a particular variety of social perception an individual's awareness of his own and others' sociometric status in a given group of which he is a member. It was postulated that as children grow older they become increasingly able to perceive sociometric relationships involving themselves and others, and that this ability is basic to group organization, to social behavior in the group, and to individual adjustment to and effectiveness in group situations. In the present study a refined measure of individual rather than group sociempathic ability was used. Individual discrepancy scores were obtained which took into account the deviation of each particular prediction of a sociometric rating from the corresponding rating.

The aim of this investigation was to study the attitudes of high school students and adults towards the Doukhobors in a southern British Columbia district, and further to determine whether the more overt antisocial behavior of the Doukhobors themselves, which strongly prejudiced local attitudes, has any basis of historical fact and religious credo. The early history of the Doukhobors both in Russia and Canada was briefly traced. Current antisocial practices such as incendiarism and nude demonstrations were found to be an outgrowth of their creed, though their religion did not channel the specific expressions of either intergroup or intragroup hostility. To gauge the attitudes of the local population towards the sectarians, a scale of 36 statements was constructed using Thurstone's method of equal a appearing intervals. This scale was administered to 205 students in Grades 9 to 12 inclusive. Four hundred blanks were mailed to adults resident in the same school district; of these only 98 were returned. The reliability of the scale, checked by the "split-half" method was 0.88. Mean scores on the attitude scales of Grades 9 to 12 showed an increase, but significant differences existed only between Grades 9 and 12 and between Grades 10 and 12. The Grade 12 students thus exhibit a greater degree of prejudice than either Grades 9 or 10. The mean for the adult group holds an intermediate position between Grades 11 and 12. No significant differences in degree of scatter were found on comparing the standard deviations of the groups. Adults, on a basis of occupation, were divided into "competitive" and "non-competitive" groups. Adults in the former group proved to be more hostile to the Doukhobors than, did the non-competitive sample. An analysis of the 36 items on the scale revealed qualitative differences in attitudes between Grades 9 and 12 and between Grades 10 and 12. Further differences were found between adults and students even when degree of prejudice as measured by the total scale, appeared fairly uniform. The responses of adults to the "like-dislike" question pictured a composite stereotype of Doukhobor behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a study which indicates the influence of institutionalization upon personal adjustment in old age. It investigated the factors affecting personal adjustment of aged persons living in institutions as compared with aged persons living outside of institutions. Findings of the study revealed that institutionalized old people are characterized by larger proportion of females, old maids, and widows; and have higher formal schooling than the average. Old people spend much time in reading, have many hobbies, enjoy good health and feel a sense of security. All these factors are directly effected by institutionalization. They are deeply religious. This factor may be effected by selection of sample since all subjects in present study live in Protestant church homes, and were given priority for admittance because of their affiliation with the Protestant church. They have unfavorable family relationships, and have a resigned conviction that they are through with their career. This may be the chief reason for their request that the institution take care of them.

The need for criteria in experimental social psychological research was pointed out. Representative sociometric techniques were surveyed from the point of view of supplying such a criterion. It was maintained that, though there are many problems and limitations involved, the sociometric index might serve as a valid, reliable, and meaningful criterion for experimental research in social psychology. Reciprocal analysis of sociometric data involving an analysis of choices given as well as received was advocated. Finally, it was suggested that the extension of perceptual theory to the social field might be facilitated by the application of sociometric technique, which could yield research data on the perception of social stimuli. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the relationship between prejudice formation and the presumed knowledge variable. Prejudice is usually classified as a special type attitude. It incorporates the notion of pre-judgment or judging before the fact. As well, a state of prejudice is usually conceived as involving a relatively strong affective component and while ordinarily connoting antipathy may, in reality, take either a positive or negative direction. It is generally agreed by individuals, working not only professionally in social psychology, but by lay and professional people in many other fields, that the employment of prejudice is a fundamental impediment to equitable and euphoria accompanying interpersonal relationships. On a person-to-person experiential level prejudices are not difficult to detect. For the most part, such first hand experiences afford what information most lay people have about prejudice. And it is this level of information which is foundational to most social programs designed to lessen or eliminate prejudice.

The article focuses on hostility and its implications in the field of international relations. The study is concerned with the investigation of some dynamic problems of international tension by means of a verbal test. It is designed to find what relationships exist among expressions of hostility in three kinds of social situations: everyday situations, professional (teaching) situations and international situations. The hypothesis are (a) different categories of hostile responses exist in given social situations and (b) measures of hostility among the three different kinds of social situations are related. The construction of the instrument used in this study involved the following steps: (a) development of brief situations, (b) administration of these situations in open-ended form, (c) categorization of open-ended answers and refinement of the situations, (d) referral of situations with categorized answers to judges and (e) preparation of the final inventory. The instrument includes short verbal situations in three fields of social behavior: everyday, professional (teaching) and international.

The relationship of the Pr (prejudice) scale to a number of other factors in two high school senior classes has been presented. A comparison between these relationships and those obtained for a conventional anti-Semitism scale was made. The two sets of relationships were highly consonant, tending to substantiate the validity of the Pr scale. The findings also served to expand the meaning of the Pr scale, and to show what other traits and factors tend to covary with it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents some psychological and sociological correlates of anti-Semitism with regard to studies of social intolerance. One of the continuing tasks of social psychology is the need to account for the direction, strength, and origins of social attitudes. This responsibility is of special importance in respect to questions of social intolerance, where hostile and antipathetic attitudes may have consequences ranging all the way from personal ill-will to individual character disturbance and group conflict. A consideration of recent studies devoted to these issues yields the strong impression that social attitudes do not exist independently of each other, but are, on the contrary, highly interrelated and organized. It can be shown that social attitudes convey in reliable and predictable ways, and that what a person feels in regard to one issue can be quite accurately foretold by canvassing his opinion concerning other issues. Some of the studies have argued that the intercorrelational network has much more than a superficial or phenotypical consequentiality, and that the observed reticulations of interrelated opinions and beliefs are themselves but the external manifestations of certain basic personality factors and predispositions.

An attempt has been made to formulate a first approximation to a kinetic theory of the diffusion of novel social behavior. Ideal hypothetical conditions of diffusion have been stated and mathematical equations have been derived for these conditions. The type of correction which would be needed to make these equations of ideal conditions more realistic, have been discussed. The use to which any such functions may be put, when once they have been verified, has been elaborated. A method for determining the most likely hypothesis (equation) to explain the propagation of any given species of social behavior, has been outlined, and an example furnished of the manner in which empirical measurements would have to be made, in order to derive observed values for the growth of the diffusion process, itself, as well as to make clear the manner by which a kinetic theory of socio-psychological diffusion would have to be confirmed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]