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The article focuses on the resolution, submitted by the North American Assembly of State Arts Agencies, regarding arts and education in the U.S. The resolution aims to create a better learning environment for students and to support the teachers working toward better educational quality in American schools. The North American Assembly believes that arts are fundamental in American public education to encourage an open society and that they give way to the acceptance of cultural democracy. In addition, the committee considers an open teaching method in schools as a way to nurture students' capacities.

This paper is based on current studies within the O.E.C.D. Directorate for Scientific Affairs on problems of educational development. More particularly, the data used in this paper derive from a more general study of problems posed by the expansion of secondary education in O.E.C.D. countries, which will be completed by the Organisation in the near future. The views expressed in the paper are those of the authors. The paper was originally presented at the Ghent Meeting of the Comparative Education Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on the new proposed changes in the conditions of awarding the Scottish Leaving Certificate in the filed of education. According to the author, the proposed changes in the conditions of award of the Scottish Leaving Certificate would at once bring it more closely into line with the recommendations of the Advisory Council on Education in Scotland and with the General Certificate of Education in England. The changes, reportedly, involve the issue of a certificate to pupils who leave school around the age of sixteen after completing four years of secondary education, by the institution of papers at a lower level than those taken usually in the fifth year. Scotland, like England, is faced with the problem of early leaving. Recent figures published by the Secretary of State show that 56% of pupils leaving five-year courses of senior secondary education do so before reaching the age of sixteen, without completing even four years of the course. It is proposed to institute advanced level papers designed for pupils who have completed the university requirements in their fifth year, and who remain for a sixth year at school. The effect of the new proposals would, supposedly, be to encourage the extension of Sixth Form work, which has never flowered so freely in Scotland and England.

The paper presents a brief survey of factors relevant to educational wastage in primary education in developing countries. It is far from suggesting specific ways of tackling the problem. It offers no full account of the host of social, economic, and cultural conditions which, apart of the school system itself, form the causal syndrome for educational wastage in developing countries. The paper indicates that any policy restricted to remedy one single cause will be doomed to failure and calls for comprehensive strategies reaching beyond the school system itself to social, cultural, and economic roots of educational wastage.

The article provides information on the proposed new school examination structure in Scotland. In a Report of a Committee of the Advisory Council on Education in Scotland, entitled "The Post-Fourth Year Examination Structure in Scotland," a proposal has been made about the certification of education. The Committee has completed its consideration of one part of its remit, namely, to consider the post-fourth-year examination structure in Scotland. The present Scottish Leaving Certificate has two grades, a lower and a higher, except in the subject of Mathematics in which additional papers may be taken by candidates in their sixth year. The new proposals would add an advanced grade not only in the subjects of the higher grade but also in certain other subjects not generally considered "academic." The main purpose of the advanced grade examination is to encourage the development of genuine sixth-form work in the last year of the pupils' secondary schooling. The Committee are aware of possible difficulties and defects in the working out of their proposals. The Committee make a unanimous recommendation that the higher grade papers should continue to be set, if only because the universities appear likely to base their own certificate of attestation of fitness on higher grade passes, and other professional bodies, as banking and insurance, recognize such passes.

A conference paper presented by Marylou Kuhn, associate professor of art at Florida State University, at the XVII World Congress International Society for Education Through Art which was held in Prague, Czechoslovakia on August 3-10, 1966 is presented. It discusses the relevance of art education to the future. The need for individuals who can utilize the innovations being born in a rapidly changing society is emphasized.

This article reports that the story of how the state first involved itself in English primary education has long been a familiar part of the historical canon. It is informed that in 1833, the first reformed Parliament met. Flushed with the spirit of reform, the Radicals came forward with an agenda of measures to implement. One such measure was national education. Henry Brougham, a politician, had gained the reputation, since 1816, of being the most vigorous supporter of national education in the Commons. Although educationists took his accession to office in November 1830 as a sign that the Reform Ministry planned some measure in this area, it failed to bring any forward. The issue, however, was early on the agenda of the reformed Parliament of 1833. It is also reported that Brougham, as a minister, did not introduce the education bill which was expected of him, a bill similar to his measure of 1820. His own education committee had shown then that although voluntary contributions provided for considerable schooling, they were insufficient to supply all the required schools.

The article reports on a preliminary study of the relative standing, in both schooling and ready knowledge, of groups of liberal and conservative U. S. adults. The article states that the findings of the study provide a new perspective on the "attitudes-enlightenment" problem, and seem to afford some clews as to where certain types of education and information campaigns might make headway and where they might encounter important psychological barriers. The article provides information about the procedures or methods taken for arranging the data for the study. One of the techniques employed in the study was "Contrasted Groups" in which people in the survey who approved or agreed with a criterion attitude question were compared on information and education with people who disapproved or disagreed with the proposition. The result or the findings were summarized in form of tables. The 16 attitude areas were indicated in the first column together with the approximate date or dates when the questions were asked, and with the putatively liberal answers in capital letters. The most obvious conclusion is, apparently, that no consistent superiority obtains for either liberals or conservatives.

The article focuses on the impact of the 1870 Education Act in Great Britain on trade unionists and artisans. The advanced sections of the working class--the trade unionists and skilled artisans and their representatives--took a deep interest in education and played an active part in both the campaigns and the debates that accompanied the passing of Forster's Bill. In addition to purely economic issues, the trade unionists of the period interested themselves in a range of social questions, including the extension of the franchise (achieved by the great majority of the urban workers in 1867), legal security and a recognized position for trade unionism and an extended and improved system of popular education. This desire for improved instruction reflected the low level of education among the working class as a whole. According to Thomas Wright, who had extensive experience of workshop life, the educated working man was in a small minority in any place of work. Looked up to as a "scholard" by his fellow workers, he was constantly in demand to read or write letters, settle disputes, draw up petitions or addresses and act as spokesman in putting forward demands or grievances to the employer.

This article reports that it is generally agreed among educational historians that the establishment of the Endowed Schools Commission in 1869 following the on the state of Report of the Taunton Commission schools offering an education above that of elementary, led to many changes in secondary education in the last 30 years of the nineteenth century. Although most writers refer to the Commission, there has been little systematic attempt so far to examine its work in detail. It is hoped to show here some of the sources which are available for making such a study. Briefly, the tasks of the Endowed Schools Commission were to re- distribute charitable endowments which were not being fully utilized and to widen the areas which would receive benefits from them; to ensure that schools were put on a sound financial footing; to establish the grade of a school in a given area; to reform governing bodies and trustees; to destroy the Church qualification for headmasters, assistant masters and pupil entry; and to provide in the schemes for boys of ability the opportunity of benefiting from the reformed schools through exhibitions and scholarships.

The article presents information on some published sources for the study of contemporary British further education. It is first necessary to define the term British further education. British means concerning Great Britain, that is England, Wales and Scotland, but not Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man nor the Channel Islands. In one sense further education could mean any education undergone by someone who had left school, or was over a certain age, or both; but such a broad usage would cover activities conducted in a heterogeneous lot of establishments or in none at all. Because of this it is more useful to limit the term to a specifically-defined part of the statutory education system. In this article British further education is therefore defined as the education intended primarily for persons who have left school, through provision secured either by the British Minister of Education, by the Secretary of State for Education and Science acting in the capacity of the former Minister of Education, by the Secretary of State for Scotland or by local education authorities in accordance with appropriate Schemes or Plans approved by one of these ministers. Besides, the word sources is used loosely here; it means mainly government publications, reports of committees and conferences, and studies by individuals in published form.

The article focuses on how the Education Act of 1902 was implemented by the Board of Education in England. During the 19th century the bias of slowly developing post-elementary education had been towards the scientific and technical sides. It was in fact made clear that the secondary education fostered by the new authorities was to aim at the culture of the public schools and older grammar schools rather than the scientific and technical education associated with the higher grade schools of the school boards. The regulations and the covering memorandum which was published with them indicated that the secondary school was to have a status distinct from elementary schools. The Board's approval was necessary for the scheme of its governing body, including the plan of its relations with the authority itself. The new school was in fact to have a measure of independence of the authority. The Science and Art Department had checked extreme specialization in Schools of Science by requiring that some time should be devoted to literary subjects.

The article presents a list of books related to the scholar James Phillips Kay-Shuttleworth. The books mentioned in the article include "The Present Condition of the Administration of the Parliamentary Grant"; "Education Commission: Evidence"; "On Public Education and the Relation of Moral and Physical Forces in Civilization"; and "The Irish Church."

This article focuses on the sources for the history of the British grammar schools. The most famous of all the girls' grammar schools of charity school origin are Red Maids' School, Bristol; Burlington School, Westminster; and the Grey Coat Hospital, Westminster. Usually a girls' grammar school incorporating or connected with an ancient foundation falls into one of two classes: it may be based on a charity school, or it was established in Victorian times, with a scheme under the Endowed School Act, for allotting it a cash endowment of its own. Parish records--even more varied in their content than are those of the counties--often throw light on the history of an ancient school. At the least, if a schoolmaster dwelt in the parish, the parish register should give the dates of birth of his children, and the date of his burial. Similarly a schoolmaster often served a parish office, and he may be found in the vestry minutes. Even before 1870 voluntary "higher grade" or "middle class" schools had developed among British and National School foundations. Of the rival institutions set up by the Boards, a very great number appear to this day in the list of recognized and grant-aided grammar schools. The movement for establishing them seems to have begun in Manchester.

The article focuses on the importance of science and education in developing a new type of society in China. It enumerates the official objectives or policy goals that has been considered by educational institutions in the country. It also discusses the ways and means of implementing the policies related to science and education and has mentioned on the three distinct types of education that affects the educational objectives. Furthermore, it explores the organization and the development of science and technology which have changed the Chinese society.

The article comments on the distribution and proficiency of bilingualism and bilingual education in Cameroon in 1974. Key issues discussed include the social and political repercussions of the government's language policies, the problematic aspects of research on bilingualism, background information on language and language policies in Cameroon and their effects on the country's educational system, the role of bilingualism in the establishment of bilingual schools and the issues' implications for comparative education and education policy.

The article comments on the difficulties of the proposed convergence of the educational systems of Europe. Key issues discussed include the cultural and technological imperatives that were forcing the integration of educational systems, the effects of the growth of international organizations dedicated to the fostering of cooperation and even integration in educational affairs and the subordination of the transmission, diffusion and generation of knowledge and skills to chauvinistic foreign policies.

The article presents a critique of the U68 report on higher education and education policy in Sweden in 1974. Key issues discussed include an examination of the usefulness of the preponderantly manpower requirements presented by the report, the distribution of education among different age groups and status levels in Sweden and the implications of the proposals for the spatial and administrative reorganization of higher education and for a separation between teaching and research in the country.

The article discusses the artisan skill gained by very considerable numbers of young people in Kenya, even though their years of schooling had been completely devoid of prevocational basis and practical work experience. Key issues discussed include the relationship between the school system and labor productivity, the emergence of some form of self-employment in Kenya during the 1960s, contradictions in the training of artisans and the issues' implications for government policies on education and labor.

The article takes a brief look at Thai education within the national context to examine some of the problems in primary education and to observe what is being done and what can further be done to improve the situation. The rate of expansion in the Thai education system has been considerable, as data on primary school enrolments between 1950 and 1971 indicate. The education system has increasingly been seen as a means of bringing about social and economic development. The author describes the system as wasteful and irrelevant to most of those who live in the rural areas, using up vital resources and not leading to greater economic or agrarian development. Many of these problems are recognized, but reforms set in motion do not go far enough but merely help to perpetuate the existing system.

The article examines the position of literature in the schools of the Soviet Union. The Communist Party has always regarded literature as a social weapon, a powerful influence on the course of public affairs. All students study the same basic literary works under the government's officially stated goal of preservation of culture. Furthermore, the study of literature, especially foreign literature, is viewed as a way of realizing the communist goal of establishing a cultured, classless society that extends beyond Soviet borders. Finally, literature, which has always been received enthusiastically in Russia, is studied in the schools as an enriching and humanizing experience for the individual.

The central theme of this article is: What changes in the educational system might diminish the existing social disparities of opportunity in obtaining an education. The point of departure for the discussion is the fact that there exists a continuing stable distribution of education among and between various social classes. The author suggests that the educational policy instrumented thus far has been inefficient in achieving a redistribution of education among the various social classes. This development has been largely due to the educational policys general insignificance in effecting the chances of success for those seeking an education. In face of this situation he proposes two determining conditions for the diminishment of social inequality in aquiring an education: in part, thorough changes in the educational structure, as shock effects; and in part, through altered student-teacher interaction. In light of the objective of equality the author then evaluates some of the main tendencies in Danish educational policy in recent years and proposes some elements for a new, more equality-oriented educational policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents information on the role of the National Advisory Council on the Training and Supply of Teachers in Great Britain. The council was set up in 1949 to provide the Minister of Education with the means of obtaining advice on national policy relating to the training, qualification, recruitment and distribution of teachers. The advisory function of the NACTST, endorsed proposals put before it by the Minister. References to such endorsements are found in the Ministry of Education's Annual Reports during the 1950s and it is evident that the proposals put to the Council were generally of a minor and non-controversial nature. In 1949 the first task of the Council was to review the future supply of teachers for maintained schools. This it did in its Report on the Training and Supply of Teachers, in May 1951. In all these early published Reports the NACTST were operating within narrow fields of inquiry, and they produced unanimous recommendations which were either acceptable to the Ministry and subsequently implemented, or were quietly shelved until official policy had been formulated.

The article presents a calendar of events on education. The third Biennial Conference of the Comparative Educative Society in Europe will be held from June 6 to 10, 1967 in Ghent, Belgium. A conference of subject experts in mathematics, physics and Latin was held in Strassbourg in November 1966. The International Schools Examination Syndicate of Geneva held a Policy Conference in Paris, France in February. The Comparative Education Society of Great Britain was formally constituted at a meeting held in Reading in October 1966.

The article reflects on the efficiency of the Soviet school system on German education. Efficiency of the Soviet school program attracts efficient function of educational policy that can affect several factors including the structure of intermediate and lower vocational training and the informative task of leading general secondary school students to university studies and to work at practical occupations. It states that the educational program earns positive inclinations obtain as a result of primary and secondary education relative to Germany's current economic needs and future perspective.

The article reflects on the educational and social problem faced by Ethiopia. It involves achieving a balance between the growth of the economy and the growth of educational facilities, and certain decisions that affects the rate at which educational systems develop, the shape of the educational pyramid and the quality of education. This section also offers certain situations that will helpful in studying Ethiopia's educational growth with reference to: the demographic background, the nature of the economy, and the structure of the educational system.

This article discusses the educational policy of Sweden. Sweden has been always a forerunner in the educational reforms. The official Swedish report to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development suggests that the Swedish educational policy represents a social demand approach towards the students. In Sweden, the educational policy in the nine year comprehensive school, which includes compulsory education for students of 7 to 16 years of age, is based on the need to develop students' talents and interests. However, the senior secondary education is dictated by the need to prepare the future career of the student. There are two major changes being carried out at the senior secondary level. First, the tripartite gymnasium organization is being replaced by a new unified gymnasium and second, the two-year continuation school called fackskola is being established in the country.

The article presents a comparative analysis of the current state of education across the world from a political perspective. Today, it is being claimed that political scientists have discovered education. This claim, supposedly, is motivated to direct the attention of political scientists toward the idea that non-political institutions, such as schools, have political consequences. It is also aimed to emphasize on the political socialization of education. The author argues that there is a need for an educational process that serves as an agent of social change. He links the future of all national educational systems with the basic outlooks and values of the political order. In developing countries, particularly, the educational system is viewed as the key to rapid social change. However, students of socialization have made a strategic error in concerning themselves primarily with the manifest content of social studies programs. In advanced industrial societies, especially stable democracies, the important thing about political socialization is not the explicit content of political education programs. The author argues for a centralized attention towards the issue of socialization in schools. He mainly suggests to pay attention to two aspects of the educational process: first, aspects of political life not included in typical social studies courses, and second, techniques of instruction.

The article focuses on the current state and the future of education in developing countries. The author analyzes the process of the development and modernization of the existing educational systems of these countries. Developing countries, reportedly, centuries have possessed the following instruments for educational development: a full gamut of schools, the press, elaborate structures of administration, and the immersion in the pecuniary network. Nations are re-discovering that once schooling becomes accepted and enrolments begin to rise, the rush into secondary and higher schools can become irresistible. This is expected to occur over progressively larger areas of the world at a comparatively earlier stage of educational evolution than in the West. The author analyzes the risks of overloading the schools. He also highlights five widely accepted functions performed by schools, which are: preparing individuals in some degree to earn a living, introducing children to some elements of a common culture to widen their mental horizons, ensuring that pupils' individuality is heightened and they gain new conceptions of themselves, help to identify and to mould elites, and strengthening and preserving the educational system.

The article explores the characteristics of centralized education in Latin America, particularly in Venezuela. It comparatively deals with some problems related to the centralization-decentralization question by highlighting the organizational structure of public education in Venezuela. The concepts of centralization and decentralization focuses on the distribution of decision-making authority. The Venezuelan Constitution established guidelines along with which the educational system must be structured and administered. All citizens are assured the right of free public education. The country's Ministry of Education, reportedly, is divided into various subsystems, two of which are of special attention in this article: the Primary and Normal School section, and the Secondary and Higher Education section. The educational system of Venezuela is often criticized as being bureaucratic. The national curriculum is written in the form of elaborate lesson plans, one for every school grade. The range of decisions at the school unit level is very narrow. All the educational organizations usually shift from centralized to decentralized administration in order to improve the quality of their decisions as well as provide a rapid response capability in the face of certain types of problems.

The article comments on the evolution of the baccalauréat examination in France citing reforms to the transitional baccaulauré in 1966 and 1967. Problems arise from attempts to adjust an examination indicating the history and evolution of education in the country. French Prime Minister, M. Georges Pompidou has outlined their plans for education which constitutes reform and a revision of the whole structure of advanced secondary and higher education relevant to policies on the democratization of education.

The article explores some aspects of bureaucracies, development and education in Papua and New Guinea. It focuses on the localization of one section of the public service in the country and some general implications. The more immediate difficulties in organizing a scheme to localize the public service are discussed. The article examines the question as to whether government routines and a conventional public service approach can led to rapid change in the direction of modernization. It considers a program for the development of executive talent in the Education Department.

The article focuses on the responsibility of comparative education to provide developmental perspective in relation to other social sciences. There is a growing committedness to help formulate a strategy of decision and developmental programs to address the educational needs of young people. The comparative studies of education are associated with works in sociology, economics and regional studies of development. The continuous rethinking of educational policy can be ensured by the establishment of one or more parliaments for educational policy at different levels. There is shortage of actual training for the implementation of decisions.

The article reports on the claim that comparative education and international education are undergoing an identity crisis in the United States. It considers the claim that there really is no such identifiable field of study as comparative education or international education. The author comments on the accelerated attention being given by social scientists to international studies. He also expresses his concern with the direction of social change that has been popular among empirical social scientists. The article explains why the civilization-building process is appropriate as a theme for the history of education and especially for international education.

The article reflects on comparative method in education from 1964 to 1966. It discusses the efforts to improve methods of cross-cultural analysis which, according to the author, is of immediate importance to professional researchers in the field of comparative education. The article discusses the search for systematization of comparative methods in education and related fields. It considers efforts concerning foreign education which could be listed under the heading of International Studies in Education.

The article presents a comparative study of educational organization in the 16 plus range. It focuses on the educational systems in Austria and England. The difficulties created by the different historical backgrounds of England and Austria are discussed. The article considers the "Federal School Law of 1962," which is considered as the most important single document concerning school organization in Austria. An overview of the Austrian grammar school is explored. The article also discusses the problems of Austrian educational thought and organization.

The article talks about the state of education in Ireland and the integration of European countries. A report of the Council of Education on the primary school's curriculum, which is centered on religious doctrine, reading and writing in Irish and English and arithmetic, is offered. The relationship between the schools and the state laid down in the 1937 Constitution of Ireland is discussed. It also discusses the rules and programs for secondary schools, the need to examine the relationship between education and economic progress, the study of European languages, and the dissemination of knowledge about the new Europe.

The article looks at the state of education in Germany, focusing on the Institut fur Bildungsforschung in der Max-Planck-Gessellshaft. It examines the public concern over the dangers inherent in the state of German education. The article considers one of the basic factors of German educational policy to which the present state of emergency is to be ascribed. It explores the constitutional principle of cultural federalism within the Federal Republic which coupled as it is with a high degree of central control by the Lander and local authorities. The article also considers the relationship between research, planning and policy. A comparative study on the strategy of educational reform is presented.

The article explores the situation in higher education in Great Britain as of November 1965. It highlights the results of the report of the Committee on Higher Education chaired by Lord Robbins. The report proposed that the numbers in full-time higher education should grow from 216,000 in 1962/63 to 392,000 by 1973/74, and further to 558,000, by 1980/81. The article argues that the situation in higher education is very confused, full of uncertainty and charged with underlying ambivalent attitudes of the government, education and industry towards each other. It also discusses the establishment of cooperative schemes between industry and universities and the influence of the Science Research Council in developing relationships between industry and the universities. The article also suggests that need to fully utilize scarce resources is bound to become increasingly important as the number of students to be educated increases in the technical college as well as in universities and colleges.

The article reports that the educational policy in Sweden should be evaluated in a socio-economic perspective. The approval of an Education Act provided for the establishment of a unitary school which proved the usefulness of the first nine years of schooling. The reform meant a break with the organizational set-up. The academic type of school was opened to children from all walks of life and admission was based on competitive entrance examinations.

The article discusses key issues concerning a number of interrelated myths and misconceptions on the economic aspects of educational policy and planning. These misconceptions affect underdeveloped areas which struggle to achieve self-sustaining growth in times of great difficulties due to insufficient resources including foreign aid. Key issues discussed include the implied assumption that investments in the human factor can be isolated in the process of historical growth and the systematic relationship between the volume of productive factors and output.

The article discusses key issues concerning the French experience on the difficulties and complexities of educational planning in industrial societies. Key issues discussed include the motives of the state in engaging in educational planning, the social and economic background of educational planning and education policy in France, the key features of French educational policy, the peculiar difficulties and determinants of educational planning in France and the issues' implications for comparative education.

Focuses on obligations of negative team in debate on educational policy in high school and colleges. Assumptions on which responsibilities of negative team in debate is built; Efforts of the negative team to project a general frame of reference which justifies established policy; Approaches which negative team can pursue during the debate.

Emphasizes the importance of understanding the parents or grandparents in order to understand a child's speech. Parent education as observed by the state departments of education in the U.S.; Parent education as observed by university speech and hearing clinics; Details of planning a program of parent education in the college clinic.

The article examines a memorandum by politician W. E. Forster which presents suggestions for consideration in Framing the Education Bill for England. The memorandum has traditionally been regarded as the basis of the elementary education bill submitted to Parliament in February, 1870. Both T. Wemyss Reid, Forster's biographer, and David Roland, author of an extensive thesis on the 1870 Act and its aftermath, assumed that the first draft was submitted to the Cabinet. Reid included in his biography excerpts from the first draft which were excised from the second; Roland quoted the first draft in his thesis as if it were the only one. The material omitted from the second draft was concerned with two of the most controversial aspects of the education question, the relation of the state to religious instruction and the enforcement of school attendance. The first draft contained a well-argued critique of the former problem and provided a guide-line for dealing with it. It is informed that the changes made with regard to the attendance question had no effect on the future of the education bill.

The article focuses on professor R. S. Peters' notion of "education as initiation" and to suggest that it involves a paradox of freedom for both teachers and pupils. The apparent modification of his criteria as more applicable to a concept of "the educated man" rather than to the concept of "education" may not have done more than suggest that his criteria are rather elitist or at least irrelevant to the majority to be educated. Knowledge and understanding of a subject at particularly deep levels do not necessarily have to do with a sense of personal appreciation or satisfaction. The concept of a good life is a present rather than an ultimate goal. The notion of initiation as into a form of life which emphasizes the process as an end state rather than getting started on some thing, whether the talk is about "education" or the nature of "the educated man," has inbuilt limitations for sorting out the range of questions related to practical curriculum problems. Peters in introducing the idea of education as initiation sees it as a Social Process. It is to be understood as a concept which, although it marks out no particular transaction between teacher and taught, nevertheless, states criteria to which such transactions have to conform.

The article focuses on technical education and the politicians in Great Britain during the period 1870-1918. In the half century under review demands for secondary and technical education were undistinguishable, and the latter was particularly "the scheme of Liberal Britain." This is noticeable in the strong Liberal support given to the National Association for Secondary Education, and in the support given to technical education by leading Liberals. Foremost among these was the Sheffield manufacturer and M.P., A. J. Mundella, the "animating force" of whose radicalism was the fervent belief that in technical change and progress lay the prosperity of the country. He claimed to have begun fighting for technical education in 1865. The appearance of the Report of the Royal Commission on Technical Education in 1884 may be considered as a watershed. Its declaration that the best preparation for technical study is a good modern secondary school once again established the connection between technical and secondary education and forced politicians to define their position in relation to the Report.

The article focuses on the areas of tension in and related to the teaching profession as far as they concerned the children of the poor in Great Britain. With the growth of the state system after 1870 new and powerful pressures confronted education. Government supervision and control aggravated innate problems of organization in a sphere of society which had no experience of mass movements and neither the facilities nor the experience to cope with them. Inevitably tensions appeared as the state provision grew in complexity and scope with remarkable speed. Since the Revised Code had been introduced in 1862 there had been no lack of evidence that its effect had been to create tension between the Education Department and the schools, between the teachers and the managers and between teachers and children. On the whole, criticism of the Code was leveled at its effect inhibiting the curriculum and on narrowing education generally, rather than as a possible danger to mental and physical health. The medical profession regarded it as a cause of ill health or even of death among children, while teachers tended to interpret it as stress on themselves which inevitably passed to their pupils and was the result of government manipulation of education through examinations. Before about 1860 leading medical journals concentrated on the containment of contagious and infectious diseases in the school setting, rather than upon the effect of general school life on children.

The article focuses on the importance of infant education in Great Britain. The tone of a school and its standard of discipline would improve in proportion to its success. It would attract by degrees a superior class of children, and appeal to a more fastidious class of parent. The state of infant schools appears to be improving. Yet when the proportion of London under-fives at school was dropping to one of the country's lowest at ten percent where the infant school movement was strongest the attendance of infants was at its weakest. The educationists pointed out that the public elementary schools were not providing a suitable type of education for children below the age of five, and that in some instances the training given tended to dull the children's minds. Certainly the ending of fee-paying in 1891 would make public infant schools more attractive to parents. Presumably a combined sense of compulsory attendance and of the specifically educational benefits available was beginning to affect even the younger children and of course they would tend to accompany older brothers and sisters to the board school.

The article discusses the evolution of secondary education in Great Britain. The schools, while meeting the needs of those pupils who can give their whole time to instruction, are also to serve as continuation schools for apprentices in towns and also for winter schools for the young members of the population. The establishment of new schools would conduce in the most certain and effectual manner to the improvement of the great public schools', of which the principal defect at the time to be too much pre-occupation with Latin and Greek. Thus it would appear that the term secondary education had a political aroma and for many years carried with it a presupposition of a reorganization of English education upon lines different from those recognized by tradition. The organization of middle-class education must be a State affair and that the intervention of the British Government would be indispensable in order to create a national and systematic approach to a widespread provision of education. In retrospect, the nineteenth century saw an impetus given to the development of elementary education, the first half of the twentieth century saw an impetus given to the expansion of secondary education.