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The endemic New Zealand lichenPannaria xanthomelanahas been restudied and found to be characterized by a secondary chemistry of pannarin and porphyrilic acid in addition to terpenoids, and by always having abundant, conspicuously large, and mostly foliose cephalodia. Its verruciform pycnidia and bacilliform pycnoconidia/spermatia are described here for the first time. Two other related New Zealand endemics,P. gallowayiandP. aotearoana, are described as new. Both have small, relatively rare and inconspicuous cephalodia. They contain a new chemosyndrome, with pannarin, contortin andO-methyl-leprolomin together with major quantities of several unidentified terpenoids, previously reported from the related Australian species,P. isidiata.O-methyl-leprolomin is a novel compound, with similar TLC properties to leprolomin, but with different Rfvalues. Most collections of both species from the North and the South Islands of New Zealand contain additional porphyrilic acid. However, this compound is absent from many collections of these species from the subantarctic Campbell and Auckland Islands. Aside from chemistry,Pannaria gallowayiis also distinguished by having broad, papery lobes.Pannaria aotearoanawhich appears to be the more common species, has a thick thallus and characteristic thick, convex, marginal phyllidia, larger spermatia and more conspicuous pycnidia thanP. gallowayiandP. xanthomelana. The three species share two different major chlorobionts.Trebouxiadominates in the north, and is gradually replaced southwards by a type provisionally called cf.Myrmecia.

The lichen-forming fungal genus Flavoparmeliaincludes species with distinct distribution patterns, including subcosmopolitan, restricted, and disjunct species. We used a dataset of nuclear ITS and LSU ribosomal DNA including 51 specimens to understand the influence of historical events on the current distribution patterns in the genus. We employed Bayesian, maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony approaches for phylogenetic analyses, a likelihood-based approach to ancestral area reconstruction, and a Bayesian approach to estimate divergence times of major lineages within the genus. We identified two major clades in the genus, one of them separating into two subclades and one of those into four groups. Several of the groups and clades have restricted geographical ranges in the Southern Hemisphere, but two groups include species with wider distribution areas. Our analyses suggest that the genus originated in southern South America during the Eocene–Oligocene transition and that the diversification of the Australasian groups occurred recently. The subcosmopolitan distribution of species is explained by long-distance dispersal, while vicariance probably played a major role in the origin of the genus. Several currently accepted species were found to be non-monophyletic, indicating that the species delimitation in the genus requires further studies.

The new species Zwackhiomyces sulcatus sp. nov. growing on Austroparmelina macrospora from Australia is described as new to science. This species represents the first lichenicolous fungus found growing on this recently described Southern Hemisphere parmelioid genus. The most important characters are discussed and compared to morphologically closely related species.

The new species, Cresponea sorediataElix, Øvstedal & Gremmen, based on material from Gough Island, is described. It is characterized by a sorediate thallus, but no apothecia has been found. The diagnostic substances of the new species are usnic acid, isousnic acid and consimonyellin.

Lecanora peninsularisfrom the San Jacinto Mountains of southern California in western North America is described as new to science. The species is lignicolous and apparently related to L. crassithallina, presently known only from Mexico. The main diagnostic substances present in the new species are isousnic acid, gyrophoric acid, and 7-O-methylnorascomatic acid.

Parmelioid lichens are a diverse and ubiquitous group of foliose lichens. Generic delimitation in parmelioid lichens has been in a state of flux since the late 1960s with the segregation of the large, heterogeneous genus Parmelia into numerous smaller genera. Recent molecular phylogenetic studies have demonstrated that some of these new genera were monophyletic, some were not, and others, previously believed to be unrelated, fell within single monophyletic groups, indicating the need for a revision of the generic delimitations. This study aims to give an overview of current knowledge of the major clades of all parmelioid lichens. For this, we assembled a dataset of 762 specimens, including 31 of 33 currently accepted parmelioid genera (and 63 of 84 accepted genera of Parmeliaceae). We performed maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses of combined datasets including two, three and four loci. Based on these phylogenies and the correlation of morphological and chemical characters that characterize monophyletic groups, we accept 27 genera within nine main clades. We re-circumscribe several genera and reduce Parmelaria to synonymy with Parmotrema. Emodomelanelia Divakar & A. Crespo is described as a new genus (type: E. masonii). Nipponoparmelia (Kurok.) K.H. Moon, Y. Ohmura & Kashiw. ex A. Crespo & al. is elevated to generic rank and 15 new combinations are proposed (in the genera Flavoparmelia, Parmotrema, Myelochroa, Melanelixia and Nipponoparmelia). A short discussion of the accepted genera is provided and remaining challenges and areas requiring additional taxon sampling are identified.

Phylogenetic relationships of the genera Cladiaand Heterodeawere reconstructed using a combined dataset of nuclear ITS, nuclear LSU and mitochondrial SSU rDNA sequences. Based on different analyses (Bayesian approach, maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood), the ingroup (Cladia+ Heterodea) is strongly supported as monophyletic. Pilophorus strumaticushas a well supported sister–group relationship to the ingroup and together they form a sister group with a well–supported clade, which includes Metus conglomeratusand Pycnothelia papillaria. The Shimodaira–Hasegawa test and the ELW test significantly rejected monophyly of Cladiaexcluding Heterodea. Within Cladiathree main clades can be distinguished which share morphological and chemical characters. The position of the foliose genus Heterodeawithin the fruticose Cladiais supported by anatomical and chemical characters. The species of clade II that includes two Cladiaspecies and Heterodeashare a similar type of upper cortex and two–layered medulla with an inner or lower medulla consisting of dark pigmented, thick–walled hyphae. Our phylogenetic estimate and the anatomical studies indicate that the foliose thallus of Heterodeaoriginated from pseudopodetia of Cladia. It is discussed that the species currently classified in Cladiaand Heterodeaneed to be placed in the same genus.

Species delimitation in lichens of the Physcia aipolia group in Australia has been studied based on thalline morphology (lobe width, upper surface pruinosity) and medullary triterpene chemistry as main character complexes. Previous treatments have utilised the presence or absence of atranorin and zeorin in the medulla as useful discriminators, but have neglected utilising the diversity of medullary triterpenes for taxonomic purposes. We have now tested the phylogenetic patterns of distribution of subtle morphological characters and terpenoid chemistry by means of molecular phylogenetic analysis of nuclear ITS and mitochondrial SSU rDNA sequences. Our analysis supports triterpene chemosyndromes and subtle morphological characters for the distinction of distinct lineages. Three new species are described for Australia, P. austrostellaris Elix, P. littoralis Elix and P. tropica Elix. In addition, the detailed chemical variation of species within the group is documented and three major chemosyndromes of triterpenes have been identified.

The new species,Brigantiaea leprosaKantvilas & Elix, based on material from Tasmania and New South Wales, is described. It is characterised chiefly by a leprose-sorediate thallus, with the soredia arising from scattered pustules, and by the presence of caloploicin and vicanicin in addition to atranorin and zeorin.

Pertusaria labuensisA. W. Archer & Elix andP. mankiensis A. W. Archer & Elix, from Papua New Guinea,P. palumensisElix & A. W. Archer andP.wallamanensis Elix & A. W. Archer, from Australia,P. simoneanaA. W. Archer & Elix from New Caledonia andP. wilsonii, A. W. Archer & Elix from Vanuatu are reported as new to science. Pertusaria balekensisA. W. Archer & Elix,P. buburanaElix & A. W. Archer andP. oblongata Müll. Arg. are reported as new records for Australia,Pertusaria hypochryseaVain. for New Caledonia andP. pilosulavar.abditivaJariangprasert andP. roseolaA. W. Archer & Elix for Papua New Guinea.Pertusaria howeana A. W. Archer & Elix is reported as a later synonym ofP. oblongataMüll. Arg.

It has been suggested that the usnic acid-containing species of Lepraria do not belong to Lepraria s. str. In addition, the two usnic acid-containing Lepraria species, Lepraria usnica Sipman and Lepraria coriensis (Hue) Sipman, were suspected to be conspecific by some authors. We incorporate molecular sequence data from two independent loci to test several hypotheses regarding the conspecificity and phylogenetic position of these two taxa. The two species do not form a monophyletic clade, thereby rejecting conspecificity, but both fall outside Lepraria s. str. The placement of L. usnica in Pilocarpaceae is well supported, while the familial placement of L. coriensis could not be determined; the species clusters with taxa outside Lecanorales s. str. This study further illustrates the polyphyly of the leprose growth form and also suggests that certain leprarioid lichens may represent sterile forms of otherwise well-known genera, such as Sporopodium in the Pilocarpaceae.

The secondary metabolites of eleven species belonging to the Neuropogon group in Usnea have been investigated using thin-layer and high performance liquid chromatography. In addition to usnic acid, eight chemosyndromes were found including the echinocarpic acid and neotricone chemosyndromes, which are reported for Usnea for the first time. Seventeen compounds are reported for the first time for the Neuropogon group. The new substances isomyelochroic acid and protoneuropogolic acid are described.

Parmotremais one of the larger genera segregated from Parmelia s. lat.Additional genera recently have been segregated from this large genus based mainly on morphological and chemical features. We have employed molecular data from three genes to continue a revision of the generic concept within the parmelioid lichens. A Bayesian analysis of nuclear ITS, LSU rDNA and mitochondrial SSU rDNA sequences was performed. The genera Canomaculina, Concamerella, Parmelariaand Rimeliaappear nested within Parmotrema.Alternative hypotheses to maintain the independence of Canomaculina, Concamerellaand Rimeliaare shown to be highly unlikely and are rejected. As a consequence these three genera are reduced to synonymy with Parmotrema.An alternative topology segregating Parmelariafrom Parmotrema s. lat.cannot be rejected with the dataset at hand. However we have established that this genus is closely related to Parmotremarather than to cetrarioid species as was considered previously. The revised genus Parmotremaincludes species that have an upper cortex consisting of a palisade plectenchyma or rarely paraplectenchyma with vaults, have a pored or fenestrated epicortex, lack pseudocyphellae, have or lack cilia, have laminal, perforate or eperforate apothecia, usually have simple rhizines and filiform, cylindrical, bacilliform or sublageniform conidia. It is closely related to Flavoparmeliabut the status of these genera requires further investigation. Nineteen new combinations are made.