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Background The present review examines the printing properties of different animal protein-based food inks/materials used in the production of 3D printed constructs. The review examines their microstructural, colorimetric, printability, rheological and textural properties and investigates how these properties correlate to or are reflected in the characteristics of the printed constructs. These characteristics include their shape and dimensional stability, textural, nutritional, microstructural and sensorial properties. The review also examines the potential for development of animal protein-based special diets for people with special requirements such as for dysphagia patients and geriatrics. A special focus has been given to the application of transglutaminase for the development of 3D fish-based products and the possibility of developing cultured meat-based products. Scope and approach The properties of different food inks and 3D printed constructs based on animal proteins such as beef, poultry, fish, egg, seafood, milk, cheese and dairy ingredients were analysed with emphasis on the studies that were published in the last three years. Studies on the development of special animal protein-based diets and the possibility of 3D printed products based on cultured meat were critically reviewed. Key findings and conclusions 3D food printing offers numerous possibilities for development of tailored animal protein-based structures and products which includes, but is not limited to, extraordinary flexibility in geometries, textures and flavours and customised nutrition. Technology for production of 3D printed meat products necessitates the reduction of particle size of meat and dilution of meaty and savoury flavour and this is generally expected to reduce the value of premium meat products. However, the technology might be a good option for utilization of lower value and tougher cuts and trimmings. Production of 3D printed cultured meat-based products is still at a conceptual stage and a little or no research has been done in this area. Consumer acceptance of 3D printed cultured meat products seems to be less favourable in Western countries like Australia. Technology for the production of several animal protein-based 3D printed products for special dietary requirements such as for dysphagia patients has been optimized and is currently feasible with good success. Fancy shaped 3D printed cheese and egg products may evolve as a new segment of foods with a focus on children, festive occasions and the personal gift market. This review expands our understanding of how the composition of food inks affects the properties of the printed constructs and generates knowledge that will be crucial for optimizing the 3D printed animal products for maximum nutritional and sensory benefits. Extensive research is required to develop unique animal-based products with functional and nutraceutical value to attract consumers. Scientific knowledge is required to decipher the underlying mechanisms of how 3D printing process affects the food microstructure and sensory characteristics and its impact on consumer acceptance that will expand the use of the technology within the food industry.

Background Milk and milk products often contribute a significant portion to the daily human diet and provide highly bioavailable animal proteins for maintenance and growth. Several processing technologies have the potential to affect the structural and functional properties of the milk proteins and can influence their fate in the gastrointestinal tract. Scope and approach The present review examines the thermal and non-thermal processing technologies that affect the digestibility of milk proteins and influence the behaviour of milk proteins within gastrointestinal digestion environments. We reviewed papers that have been published in the last five years on different aspects of milk protein digestibility. Key findings and conclusions Processing of milk and milk products can induce several modifications in the proteins that change their susceptibility to digestive enzymes in the gut. Several emerging nonthermal technologies, such as high-pressure, ultrasound, pulsed light, microfluidization and microfiltration, have been reported to induce protein structural changes which can cause denaturation, conformational changes and unfolding of the proteins, thereby increasing their susceptibility to enzymatic hydrolysis. Thermal processing technologies, such as ohmic heating, microwave and pasteurization, also have potential to induce protein structural and conformational changes which can affect their digestive behaviour during gastrointestinal digestion. Some of these processing technologies have been reported to increase the susceptibility of milk proteins that are otherwise resistant to gastric or intestinal digestion and can reduce the allergenicity of the milk proteins. The present review examines in detail the underlying mechanisms of how different thermal and non-thermal technologies mediate the digestibility of milk proteins. Expanding our understanding of the digestion of milk proteins has commercial potential and could increase opportunities for the application of milk proteins.

The food industry has recently been under unprecedented pressure due to major global challenges, such as climate change, exponential increase in world population and urbanization, and the worldwide spread of new diseases and pandemics, such as the COVID-19. The fourth industrial revolution (Industry 4.0) has been gaining momentum since 2015 and has revolutionized the way in which food is produced, transported, stored, perceived, and consumed worldwide, leading to the emergence of new food trends. After reviewing Industry 4.0 technologies (e.g. artificial intelligence, smart sensors, robotics, blockchain, and the Internet of Things) in Part I of this work (Hassoun, Aït-Kaddour, et al. 2022. The fourth industrial revolution in the food industry-Part I: Industry 4.0 technologies.

Meat tenderness is an important quality trait critical to consumer acceptance, and determines satisfaction, repeat purchase and willingness-to-pay premium prices. Recent advances in tenderness research from a variety of perspectives are presented. Our understanding of molecular factors influencing tenderization are discussed in relation to glycolysis, calcium release, protease activation, apoptosis and heat shock proteins, the use of proteomic analysis for monitoring changes, proteomic biomarkers and oxidative/nitrosative stress. Each of these structural, metabolic and molecular determinants of meat tenderness are then discussed in greater detail in relation to animal variation, postmortem influences, and changes during cooking, with a focus on recent advances. Innovations in postmortem technologies and enzymes for meat tenderization are discussed including their potential commercial application. Continued success of the meat industry relies on ongoing advances in our understanding, and in industry innovation. The recent advances in fundamental and applied research on meat tenderness in relation to the various sectors of the supply chain will enable such innovation.