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The article presents a study concerning the "parts" of cut-paper art products in an attempt to know the influence of teacher motivation and non-motivation on its overall aesthetic quality in art education. In relation, the definition of terms, population, and the experiment's procedure are presented. The study shows that the amount of overall aesthetic quality judged in the "parts" had much influence on the overall aesthetic quality in the final art product. It suggests that all complex relationships should be carefully defined and explored to understand the relation among the creator, the creative process, and the final art product.

Tins paper is intended as an effort at taking-stock of the reference group concept after nearly three decades of use, the latter two of which have been marked by its more than ample employment. Its popularity indeed has so frequently led to its serving as an all-purpose post hoc explanation of behavior that it has led to the wry definition, "Your reference group is a group that you behave like and you behave like them because they're your reference group" (Cohen, 1962: 104). The inconsistencies, lack of clarity, but also areas of agreement which have marked the varied formulations of the concept, will be apparent from the following review and commentary. The Final discussion indicates some of the matters still to be considered in the use of thin important but perhaps overworked concept. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports that with regard to attributes associated with individuals that is personality traits, the criterion problem is very often submerged in the multitude of possible measures that are advanced. It would seem that the ultimate criterion should be the ability to classify individuals in a consistent manner that is in accord with the expert definition of the variable. This means that if the judges find it satisfactory, a paper-and-pencil test could be provided which would measure the characteristic of "authoritarian." This would leave open the question, however, of whether authoritarianism is a behavior among individuals or a disposition to answer a paper-and-pencil questionnaire in a given way. If the assertion is that authoritarianism is a tendency to behave in a given way in interpersonal relations rather than in a given way to a paper-and-pencil questionnaire, then the criterion problem is not satisfied even when the judges agree that certain paper-and-pencil responses should be classified as authoritarian.

A theory is formulated with which to analyze transactions in social relationships. Economic types of exchange characterized by calculation and self-interest on the part of the actors are contrasted with more "social" forms of transaction such as occur in the cases of role relationships with interlocking rights and obligations and persons strongly attached to one another. The social factors and conditions determining the types of transaction likely to occur between actors are examined in the paper. The key idea in this respect is that the structural and temporal context of interaction, including the past and anticipated character of their relationship, affects actors' orientations toward one another, their preferences, decisions and interaction patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses evaluation and cross-cultural application of a Japanese form of the survey of interpersonal values. There is a growing literature reporting studies in which American paper and- pencil personality tests have been translated and then used in cross-cultural research. The present paper reports such an evaluation of a Japanese translation of the Survey of Interpersonal Values (SIV) prior to cross-cultural application. The scales in the SIV originally had been identified by means of an item factor analysis. A similar analysis was proposed for the translated items in order to determine whether the same constructs would emerge as factors in the Japanese culture. The results of the factor analysis indicated that the constructs incorporated in the SIV do emerge as factors in the Japanese culture, and that the large majority of the items in translation have their principle loadings on the same factors as did the corresponding original items. Data were gathered at five Japanese universities for samples of 258 males and 505 females selected so as to be comparable in educational and socioeconomic level to the individuals comprising the American normative group. In addition, 249 male and 227 female students were similarly selected and tested at three different Japanese urban high schools. The latter two groups were to be compared with an American sample made up of students from five Southern California high schools, of similar age and grade level.

Within the present paper, we have attempted to clarify the role of social structural variables in shaping friendships. Our interest in the friendship relationship has stemmed from the conviction that it constitutes a role relationship in which healthier behavior may be observed. In addition we feel that the study of such a relationship might lead to better understanding of the manner in which personality and social structural variables interact. Social structure has been broadly conceived as the framework which defines and delineates the range of friendships available to an individual. The variable of social status and role are viewed as being particularly important in structuring communication and interaction patterns of participants within a social setting, and in predisposing certain relationships more than others to move beyond the formally prescribed level of interaction. The fact that role prescriptions within a given social structure may force certain participants to become involved in interlocking interactions is viewed as having a two-fold significance. On one hand, it allows each participant to explore the desirability of becoming involved in a less formally prescribed interaction with his co-participant. On the other hand, if one or both participants do not wish to become involved in a less formal personality-centered type of interaction, the fact that the relationship has been formed and continues to be based upon social structure allows for the maintenance of a less affectively personally involved relationship without its disintegration. We have suggested that as the nature of the friendship relationship is explored more fully, it becomes clear that it must be viewed as a special type of role relationship--an integrative one in the sense that the multiple roles of each participant are brought together, shared and organized. In this connection, we hypothesize that the more central are the roles that each partner can share with the other in their friendship relationship, the greater the amount of closeness possible and the more satisfaction they experience in their mutual friendship interaction. `Within the present paper, we have spoken as if there were no individual differences in response to social structure. The fact that this isn't the case presents numerous opportunities for further exploration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper tested experimentally the relationship between group cohesiveness, defined as the willingness of individuals to stay in their group, and power, and acceptance. Power was defined as the ability to satisfy needs and acceptance as to the willingness to do so. A division of groups into three categories was suggested. In an instrumental group people seek to receive power and acceptance; in a mutual acceptance group people join having in mind to give and to take power and acceptance; in a vectorial group the aim of the people is to give power and acceptance either to some individuals or to an ideal. It was found that cohesiveness is better correlated to power than to acceptance in the instrumental and vectorial groups, and better correlated to acceptance in the mutual acceptance group. When all three groups were exposed to stress, cohesiveness has suffered most in the instrumental group and least in the vectorial group. All these findings are tentative and more experiments are forthcoming in order to corroborate the data obtained in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper offers the generalizations that habituated attitudes are influential factors in determining the seriousness of the handicaps to successful adjustment, that the obstacles to such adjustment increase in difficulty as the nature of the attitude distributions move from the leptokurtic curve, through the normal, and platykurtic, to the balanced U-curve forms, and that the J-curve form imposes mild or extreme handicaps as one moves through a range of conflict situations from the average of the homogeneous group to opposing groups. The permeability of the barriers to successful adjustment is, also, related to the steepness of the slopes, which may vary within limits, for each of the four characteristic non-normal curves. The supporting argument is largely based upon the generalization that adjustment is relatively easy where the attitudes held conform to the average of the group in which conflicts arise, and that social skills adequate to meet conflict situations with success are most regularly found where these skills cover average situations. These generalizations on curve forms and slopes are applied to an analysis of the seriousness of adjustmental handicaps in the Lehigh sample and in the field of international relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Utilizing replies from a selected sample of contributors to the literature of symbolic interactionism, this paper examines the nature and extent of institutional ties among respondents holding similar views as to appropriate methodology in sociology. The specific institutional ties examined are those as: (1) fellow graduate students, (2) teachers and students, and (3) departmental colleagues. The methodological differences between the Chicago and Iowa schools, described in other studies, manifest themselves in the present sample, as do other views not neatly classifiable within either of these schools of symbolic interactionism. The more unconventional the conception of methodology held by a respondent, the more likely is the respondent to have been a fellow graduate student, a departmental colleague, and/or involved in a teacher-student relationship with other symbolic interactionists favoring the same conception. Respondents preferring the more orthodox methodological stances in modern sociology are less likely to have shared in such institutional flea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports an exploration of the relationship between members' role performance and the benefits they receive from their organizations. The general relationship is interpreted in the context of a "social exchange model" for voluntary associations. Data for the analysis pertain to members of four voluntary farm organizations: Farm Bureau, Farmers Union, National Farmers Organization, and Grange. The data were obtained in a state-wide survey of Wisconsin farm operators in 1965. In general, the data show a moderate relationship, in a positive direction, between benefits and role performance. The benefits tend to differ in the magnitude and, in some instances, in the direction of their relationships to such performance. The findings indicate the importance of taking into account magnitude and direction of relationship, as well as interaction among the benefits and among costs, in order to devise a viable social exchange model of cost benefit relations for voluntary associations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review of but a small amount of the empirical and theoretical research should suffice to indicate the areas of focus and concern in relating family and home environment with juvenile delinquency. It is evident that significance is attached to family cohesion, affection and adjustment both between the parents and between parent and child. Many authors (Udry, 1966; Blood and Wolfe, 1960) maintain that communication is a basle ingredient for a successful marriage. The open communication between spouses facilitates an understanding of expectations, interests, and frustrations. A marriage void of communication may lead to inhibited and ritualistic discussions, inner frustrations, and an absence of expectations and desires. If one accepts this position concerning communication between spouses, then there is reason to believe that based on the above-cited works, facilitation of the channels of communication within the family may influence the delinquency of the children. It appears plausible that a child who perceives the channels of communication within his family to be dosed may feel alienated from the family as a primary group. Without communication, the child may feel that the parents are not interested in his ideas and behavior, that the parents underestimate his desires and expectations, and that the parents reject him. Without communication the parents may not, indeed, be aware of the child's desires, values, and actions and may not succeed in transmitting their own values to the child. Although the parents would not condone delinquent behavior, as a result of their lack of communication with the child the parents may, by remaining silent, be sanctioning behavior of which the child feels the parents are aware. That is, if the child engages in delinquent behavior and feels that the parents are aware of that behavior, then he expects some negative sanctioning by his parents; due to the lack of communication, the parents may not be aware of the behavior, they do not sanction the child, and thereby reinforce his delinquent behavior. A lack of communication of this nature indicates a misunderstanding between parents and child concerning acceptable behavior and values. With the assumptions set forth above, it is of value to investigate the relationship between communication within the family and the delinquency of the child. It is the intention of this paper to ascertain: (1) the degree of communication that exists between the parents and the child concerning the child's participation in various forms of delinquent behavior; (2) the degree of communication that exists between the parents and the child concerning the punishment to be meted out for such behaviors; and (3) the effect of this communication on the child's participation in delinquent forms of behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sociologists and social psychologists, perhaps more than some of their fellow social scientists, have striven for what is in many respects one of the most elusive aims of science—valid generalizations. Examination of the results of the past thirty years of research are, however, far from encouraging. Arnold Hose, in addressing himself to the problem of generalization in the social sciences, is tempted to raise the question as to whether or not there has been considerably more striving than achieving. Certainly it is apparent that the replications often do not verify the original study. The data presented in this paper are drawn from a study of delinquent behavior which I conducted in New Zealand. My research in this field constituted in part a replication of research conducted by Nye and Short in the United States. The data from these two studies provided an opportunity for fruitful cross-cultural comparisons in the area of delinquent behavior. The rationale presented in this paper may be interpreted as a modest attempt to pursue what Rose has called "generalizability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports a purely exploratory attempt to locate the role-specific-significant others (Sullivan's significant others) and the orientational others of a small sample of college students enrolled in a large midwestern university. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the social psychology of physical activity and sports. Physical activity refers to vigorous activities which encompass competitive sports competition to simpler modes of human movement, such as calisthenics. Physical activity and sports are two methods by which man socializes with his fellow beings, thus the necessity of understanding social behavior while involved in the said interaction. The variables affecting physical activity and sports are attitudes, personality and culture.

Studies of the effectiveness of management control have usually been based on observations of inter-personal or inter-departmental relationships within an organisation. This paper suggests that a new approach would be to observe what happens to plans, decisions and tasks, from inception to completion. It discusses the application of scientific methods for analysing management control, with particular emphasis on research techniques for measuring and evaluating the effectiveness of control procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The late 1960s saw the emergence of a few "super gangs" whose political and economic activities attracted much attention. More recently, gangs apparently similar to those of the 1950s have become newsworthy again in several major cities. This paper surveys these developments against the background of a variety of macro- and microsociological processes. Research conducted in Chicago and elsewhere during the late 1950s and early 60s suggests that delinquent gangs were rather "innocent" participants in the broad social trends of the times and that most gang members were relatively unaffected by the ideological currents associated with them. The primary effect on gangs was indirect, by changing the perceptions and attitudes of others toward gangs, and their behavior in relation to them. Gang life for most members of most gangs, individually and collectively, appears to have changed little in recent years. The prospects for channeling the energies of gangs into socially constructive programs seem bleak, because of the operation of group processes, and the limited experiences and social abilities of most gang members. Basic structural limitations on opportunities for the poor and the powerless to achieve economic and political power provide the framework within which these processes operate today as in the past. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper summarizes part of a larger-scale investigation on the "Impact of technology on personality and values." Eight of Murray's TAT cards were used with 10 subjects. Five were from an industrial, urban, educated group and five were from a preindustrial, rural, uneducated group. The analysis of themes shows a difference in the perception of authority, in the nature of interpersonal relationships and family roles, and in the dimensions of security- insecurity, conformity-nonconformity, etc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a paper that uses the social role concept as developed by social science to analyze a subject of interest to social work. The social role is a way to look at the behavior which is expected of people in a certain status by other members of a social group. In this instance the article analyzes the expectations of the foster-parent role in relation to others in the foster care situation--child, natural parents or the child's immediate family, and professional representatives of the agency. Analysis will be built on the fact that there are actually two roles for the foster parent which have not been thought out by social work. One role is seen by the lay person, and the other is visualized by the professional social worker or the child placing agency. The professional role can be characterized as one of temporary maintenance or temporary home care. The objective is to maintain the child in a physical and emotional condition so that he is able to return to his own home--maintenance with parents, family past, and identity and integrity of parental relationship.

The article discusses the conceptualization of two personality orientations and sociometric choice. The purpose of the paper presented in this article is to bring more sharply into focus the relationship between two selected personality dimensions--called "dependency" and "personalness"--and a structural variable, sociometric choice. The core of this theory is that groups which meet over time in a relatively unstructured environment have to resolve two major issues, issues which represent invariant interpersonal tensions. The first of these is the area of group members' orientations toward authority, or more generally toward the handling and distribution of power in the group. The second is the area of members' orientations toward one another, in terms of closeness and intimacy. The personal aspect consists of the member's characteristic patterns with respect to interpersonal intimacy. The article authors hypothesize that members' orientation toward authority and intimacy contribute toward subgroup formation within the group.

This article informs that sociologist L.J. Cronbach suggested in a recent paper that social perception could be fruitfully studied in terms of the "perceptual space" within which an individual distributes persons he perceives. The present study explores certain measures of the perceptual space with particular emphasis on their reliability and their relation to two external criteria, viz., sex and adjustment. Preliminary studies have shown that the means and standard deviations of his ratings of others are the most promising variables for the purpose of describing his perceptual space. The Mean may be interpreted as the Subject's (S's) conception of the average of personality characteristics in other people. The Standard Deviation may be regarded as indicating S's tendency to differentiate along a particular dimension. Eighty 5s took part in this investigation; of these, 40 were "maladjusted" and 40 were "adjusted." Each group consisted of 20 males and 20 females. The "maladjusted" group consisted of adults who had voluntarily sought professional help for their emotional problems from several outpatient centers, except for three of the 40 S's who came from an "open" ward of a VA Neuropsychiatric Hospital which contained individuals receiving maximum psychotherapeutic treatment.

The purpose of this paper has been twofold: to offer propositions to test the existence of lawful relationships among variables relevant to small group behavior; and to illustrate the applicability of a general behavior theory to this specific problem area within social psychology. The concept of group cohesiveness, which occupies a central position within this problem area, was reformulated within the framework of reinforcement learning theory and a number of specific hypotheses, derived from the theory, regarding the antecedents and consequents of cohesiveness, was presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports the major results of two questionnaire studies. One employed a dimensional analysis of an attitude and examined the value of the customary trait-list procedure for assessing a group stereotype of an attitude object. The other focused on a possible explanation for the Ss' choice of attributes under the trait-list procedure of the preceding study. In the first research, the attitudes toward Negroes of 65 students at Boston University were examined by means of a trait-list procedure and a variety of opinion-type questions that were designed to assess three conceived dimensions of attitude: C-opinions about characteristics of Negroes; OMP-allegations concerning the Ss' behavior toward Negroes; and SMP-opinions concerning how others should behave toward Negroes. Affect toward Negroes was assessed primarily by one opinion-type question. In the second study, 84 different students selected from the same trait list used in Experiment 1 the 10 attributes that were most important to them in interpersonal relations. They also indicated how they would regard a person who exhibited each of the 10 to a greater, equal, or lesser extent than most people. Then, the Ss gave their general impressions of an unidentified person characterized by eight attributes sometimes associated with Negroes and stated their personal regard for such an individual. Some of the findings were: 1. The conceived dimensions of attitude were markedly interrelated. But strength of feeling about one's opinions varied with the dimensions for the more favorable Ss: C > SMP > OMP. Although the less favorable Ss exhibited a similar ordinal trend of intensity, the differences among the dimensions were not reliable. The more favorable Ss exhibited significantly higher intensities than did the less favorable Ss on the C and SMP dimensions but not on the OMP one. 2. The Ss exhibited wide individual differences in their selections of five traits to characterize Negroes or as putative determiners of their attitudes toward them. Only approximately half of the total group subscribed to the two most popular selections; and much smaller percentages recorded the three, four, or five most frequently chosen ones. Also, the Ss evidenced a distinction between their selections of traits for description and as determiners of their thoughts and feelings about Negroes. Furthermore, attitude toward Negroes was not found to be related to the Ss' selections of traits. These results, as well as the finding that many characteristics not chosen by the Ss were ones on which they considered Negroes to be different from most other people, posed the problem of the basis for the particular selections made. 3. The attributes selected as descriptive of Negroes or as determiners of attitude toward them were rarely chosen as generally important in interpersonal situations; and the converse relationship was also found. 4. Although the characterization of the anonymous person evoked certain aspects of the commonly observed depiction of Negroes, few Ss spontaneously identified the person as a Negro or expressed dislike for him or rejected him from all interpersonal relations with themselves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reports problems of human relations in industry in Pakistan. The pace of industrialization in Pakistan is faster than was generally believed to be possible at the time of partition. Within a decade cotton, paper, and jute mills are going into production in the country. As a result, therefore, new problems of social and cultural adjustment have arisen. The old agricultural economy is crumbling and rapidly becoming industrial. Problems of human relations feature wherever human beings come into contact with each other. These problems have always to be discovered and analyzed. Maladaptations, frustrations, and anxieties are rarely expressed aggressively through riots and industrial strife. In industrial populations these are generally evidenced through accidents, neuroses, absenteeism, complaints to management, and many other such devices. The study of human relations in industry mostly bears upon the motivations of the workers and the related problems of morale arising there from. These in general pertain to the attitude of the workers to the job and the employers; attitude of the employers to the workers' needs; the basic satisfactions provided by the industrial situation in general and above all the co-ordination of effort on the part of all employed in the organization.

The theory underlying juvenile delinquency is that emotional or social maladjustments are manifested in overt activities termed "anti-social" by society. The latter include: (a), harm to person, self, or others directly or indirectly involved in the social situation; (b) damage or misappropriation of property; (c) refusal to obey either parental, academic, or legal authority; or (d) acts leading to possible danger to self or others. Activities may be premeditated or spontaneous and are often performed without full knowledge of the social consequences. However, most latent inner tensions are directly traceable to distorted parent-child, teacher-pupil, or peer group relationships. In this paper, a consideration of the behavior of Chinese juveniles is paramount and a controlling hypothesis may be stated; viz, that the overt anti-social activities result from (a) cultural conflicts between parents of foreign-born or mixed nativity and native-born children, (b) broken homes and (c) longings for `self expression. Thus, acculturation on the part of children seeking identification and status in, the society wherein they are born may cause tensions which may be absent where two sets of cultural norms do not simultaneously operate. The length of time a given culture has persisted is not as important as the pressure exerted by parents, or their generation, upon the youth who desire submergence with the immediate and prevailing culture. Parents of foreign-born or mixed parentage often unmeaningly alienate their children from the cultural traits which they imported into the American society. Over-anxiety results in constant and insistent ordering and forbidding. In time, both parents and children express and experience emotional confusion. Foreign-born parents feel "ashamed" of their inadequacy and consider any public knowledge of this as evidence of their unsuccessful rearing and control of offsprings. When new-world traits challenge village mores and customs, parents become genuinely bewildered. Moreover, the nearest kin, as an additional authoritarian figure, may. likewise have failed to reinforce them. Thus, a shattering of ideals and values motivates them to exercise greater constraints which but serves to widen the chasm between them and the children. A major problem confronting native-born juveniles is where to seek guidance, counsel, or sympathetic understanding when they believe their parents fail them. The desire to shield their elders deepens the conflict. Often the absence of the proper explanatory terms in another language. hampers effective interaction and the troublesome situation remains when experiences cannot be mutually and sympathetically shared; An added fact is that the children's social world is vastly different from that of the parents and each may participate in totally dissimilar orbits, with neither meeting. Fortunately, maturity is a steadying influence and the "marginal man" may attain stability through the services of preventive and correctional agencies established by the society. Should the Chinese juvenile delinquency rates increase for the future, it is caused by the greater proportion of native-borns who must perforce undergo the Americanization process, disturbing as this may be for some. The ascendancy of dependent and neglected children will be forthcoming as native-born parents reach another phase of Americanization. They have learned that the larger society will provide care for dependent children when (a) they prove inadequate as parents, (5) they are unable to provide for the financial support of offsprings, or (c) the home situation is untenable. Either or both parents may be at fault but so long as the child's welfare is at stake and our society provides substitute parents or renders financial assistance, more will turn to social agencies for aid. The future generations of Chinese juveniles may experience more overt rejection and exhibit emotional disturbances such as are found in other groups in the population. Divorce is increasing among native-born parents, a phenomenon which has produced more emotional problems for children. Moreover, rising incidents of remarriage brings similar social effects. Whether the parents are foreign-born, of mixed parentage, or native-born, a conclusion embraces all of the group under study. Whatever the nature of the anti-social manifestations by juvenile delinquents may be, they are striving toward more acceptable forms of acculturation through devious routes. Parents may hinder rather than help in the process. Where children are abandoned by parents (mainly native-born), the latter have attained acculturation and have accepted prevailing cultural norms. In both instances, children are the victims. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social psychology has reached the stage where it can exploit some of the concepts of the other disciplines in the social sciences. Some such concepts are social stratification, ideologies, and ways of life. Techniques have been developed to the point where it is no longer necessary to speculate and introspect concerning the social psychology of stratified segments of the society. This paper suggests that a point of departure for developing a social psychology of stratification in our society may well be occupation. We have suggested some techniques, questions, and procedures which may be utilized to develop a social psychology of occupations. The results obtained from the case study of Greenbelt, Maryland, may in no way be interpreted as conclusive or as representative of the U. S. A. However, some differences have suggested themselves which may be corroborated or disproved with further research. Our data suggest some tentative conclusions. 1. The prestige hierarchy of occupations may not be conceived as unilateral in any sense. The evidence points to the fact that manual and white- collar groups view the hierarchy with different perspectives. Manual workers may regard their occupations as honorific as white-collar occupations. Both groups tend to believe that their occupations are in the middle of the occupational scale. 2. In occupational aspirations for themselves and for their children, both groups rank the professions highest. They conceive of upward mobility to be largely in the direction of the professions. Although aspirations for "independent occupations" are strong, more prestige is still given to the professions. Business groups might well disagree here. 3. Education is considered by both groups as necessary for occupational mobility. This appears to be more abstract knowledge on the part of the MW., but more concrete on the part of the WCW. The latter have not resigned themselves to status immobility neither for themselves or for their children. They intend that they and their children shall get more education flow. 4. This white-collar faith in education reflects itself in the aspired use of leisure time. WCW prefer to use time for self-improvement by study, education, travel, reading, etc. MW would more likely use their time for rest, recreation, sporting, and associated activities. 5. MW believe more in unionization and group action for economic self betterment than do the WCW. This fact does not reduce their self- esteem, as it does for some WCW. 6. MW believe that WCW should be willing to join them in economic bargaining. Although WCW tend to disagree slightly,, they hesitate to disagree on the basis of their status superiority. Individualistic rationalizations come to the fore. 7. These perspectives reveal themselves somewhat in attitudes toward productive property and profits. In deciding how profits of a corporation should be distributed, MW want employees (themselves) to share more in the profits accruing to. the stockholders. They are confused and inconsistent about the method of distributing profits to other groups. On the other hand, WCW are more diffused and ambivalent in their attitudes, trying to "be fair all the way around." They try not to forget the consumer. 8. Clear-cut principles of political self-identification are almost absent. This may follow from the undeveloped state of American politics. Should clear-cut political divisions develop further in this country, we may see occupational differences in political orientations. Our data suggests that MW are cautious to identify themselves politically; they are even ignorant of political outlooks at times. WCW, although they may he somewhat more conservative, are more aware and conversant concerning political positions and principles. 9. A large number of research studies must be made on a regional basis before we can predict occupational attitudes and behavior in specific situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on the problems faced by scientists who contemplate research in prison. According to the author they are beset by a number of special problems, both the homely, practical ones of technique and more formal ones of methodology. The study that this paper presents is based upon experience of researcher both as a working prison psychologist and as a researcher in a prison. The author remarks that the prisoner is beset by overwhelming desires, frustrations, and antagonisms. Compared with him the nonprisoner generally presents a far more neutral psychological field, involving much weaker forces. This is one of the basic reasons which necessitates the development of unique research techniques for the prisoner. The prisoner may simply refuse to comply with the experimenter's request. If forced to do so by autocratic authority his behavior will not be that desired. Many valuable experimental techniques are thus rendered either totally inapplicable or at best more difficult to apply.

In this paper, the authors describe a quantitative study of the relation between the extent to which a person is annoyed by the behavior and characteristics of other people and the extent to which he does the same things and has the same characteristics himself. Annoyance are good material for studies of this kind because they possess a very high degree of concreteness and specificity. If a person is annoyed by being slapped on the back, does he slap others on the back; and if he slaps others on the back, is he annoyed by being slapped, on the back? The authors have studied contingencies of this kind for 65 annoyances, and in each case have obtained the regression of the subject's being annoyed by something in other people on doing the same thing himself, and the regression of the subject's doing something himself on his being annoyed by the same thing in other people. One of the chief categories of social psychology is the psychology of interpersonal behavior which involves complex patterns of stimuli and responses, and which includes inner affective processes as well as manual and verbal activities.

This paper reports on the first of a series of investigations we are attempting on this topic. Because games are social in nature, we assume that they mediate and shape the mutual socialization which is occurring in peer groups. Hence the type, frequency, and social context in which games are played may be important for understanding differential socialization outcomes. Given that there are important differences in the socialization process within racial groupings, it was decided to ask whether similar differences occur with regard to games. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The significance of occupational status and income for suicide is not clear. One study indicates a positive relationship; five reveal a negative relationship; two show a higher suicide rate for very high- and very low-status occupations than for middle-status occupations; and the combined results of a study of three English cities are inconsistent. Although evidence is strongest for a negative relationship, no definitive conclusion can be made. Very likely, the relationship varies depending upon other conditions. In particular, it may vary with employment status; income may be directly related to suicide under conditions of unemployment, but inversely related under conditions of employment, or vice versa. In this paper an attempt will be made to determine whether and in what way employment status may influence the effects of income. In addition, effort will be made to determine whether unemployment is related to suicide at all income levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The major purpose of this paper, therefore, is to develop a more general model of compliance-gaining behavior. Particular emphasis will be placed on those variables which differentiate among individuals with regard to the compliance-gaining techniques they use. In this discussion we shall attempt to specify a preliminary list of interpersonal strategies which will encompass the wide range of compliance-gaining behaviors. Finally we shall illustrate the usefulness of the model by discussing one problem to which it may profitably be applied, the relationship between social class and the generation of school-children defined as "behavior problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Beginning with Ogburn, the place of economic factors within the modem conjugal unit has been minimized. It has been argued that the major dimension of the current nuclear unit is the affective, the emotional, the expressive. The very term "marital adjustment" connotes that external constraints are less vital than the "ability" of the couple to "work out" interpersonal problems. The observers leaped from the data-the decrease of joint economic participation between husbands and wives-to the inference that modern marriage coheres or collapses almost solely on the basis of affective elements. Parsons has recently restated and expanded this position by asserting that "it is of course a commonplace that the [my italics] American family is predominantly … an urban middle-class family … there has emerged a remarkably uniform, basic type of family." For Parsons, this "uniform family" rests chiefly on personality variables which he analyzes in a psychoanalytic context. It may be that except at the most general structural level, Parsons' "uniform family" may be as unfortunate a term as was his "isolated family" of a decade ago. For it is also possible to leap from the data to the alternative hypothesis that economic factors still play a vital role within the conjugal family albeit in a differentiated form. Is it not strange to realize that an inherent feature of modern society is complexity, specialization, and differentiation, and that this can be seen in every part of society-every part, that is, except the conjugal family system? Here we are told that there is "remarkable" homogeneity based on the "indispensable function" of expressive gratifications. It seems just as simple and perhaps more logical to assume the opposite, viz., that increasing societal complexity should be related to a more complex family system. In any event, given the ever increasing complexity of our society, the burden of proof is on those who argue that the conjugal family is going the other way occupations of the last century. Yet while agricultural occupations were supposedly inextricable from the family, the impact of modern occupations is largely ignored and thus unexplored.Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to set forth a conceptual schema which indicates that there is significant differentiation among types of conjugal families, and that this differentiation is based on differing relationships to the occupational structure. First, we will outline the five sets of variables within our schema; second, we will attempt to present a rationale for these particular kinds of variables; and finally, we will try to link them in ways that meaningfully demonstrate differentiation between conjugal families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to report on the relationship found between a variety of content dimensions of the self and the expectations of each of four biographically significant others. The subjects whose self-conceptions are examined are 256 business executives and managers, and the four significant others whose expectations are perceived are wife, boss, a colleague, and father. Before turning to the findings it is necessary to discuss at least three methodological questions: (1) How do we know who is a significant other? (2) How do we measure the self? (8) What forms the link between others and the self? These issues are discussed in order below. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The instrumental-expressive differentiation, employed extensively by Talcott Parsons, has been applied to the field of voluntary associations by several writers. Thus, Lundberg, Komarovsky, and McInery wrote of instrumental, mixed, and leisure associations in an early study, and Rose concerned himself with two types of associations, the social influence group and the expressive group. This means of classifying voluntary associations has appeared recently in at least one introductory sociology textbook. A recent impetus to the use of the instrumental-expressive categorization in this field was the publication by Gordon and Babchuk of a typology of associations utilizing this concept. They define the ideal type of instrumental association as differing from the ideal type of expressive association in the following three ways. (1) The member of the expressive association achieves immediate and continuing gratification from taking part in the organization's activities. The instrumental association member may even find the group's activities distasteful, but he will get satisfaction from the knowledge that they help to accomplish certain long-range goals. In other words, personal gratification is more remote (in terms of time) from participation in the group's activities for the member of the instrumental group than the member of the expressive group. (2) The activities of the instrumental association tend to be externally oriented, whereas those of the expressive association are focused inward. Expressive organizations "perform a function primarily for the individual participants through activities confined and self-contained within the organization itself…. In contrast, the major function and orientation of the instrumental organization are related to activities which take place outside the organization." (3) The activities of members of expressive associations represent ends in themselves, while, for instrumental association members, participation in the group's activities is seen as a means of accomplishing external, long-range goals. The major questions raised in this paper are whether members of instrumental associations differ predictably from members of expressive associations regarding (1) the manner in which persons become members of associations and (2) their involvement in primary group situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a comparative study of the inter-group conflict. The comparative study of cultural behaviors has taken two forms: (1) a description of one or a few other societies, implicitly or explicitly contrasted with what is assumed to be authors' own; (2) a systematic comparison of a limited set of related behaviors in a great range of societies. The present study uses the latter approach. Outstanding previous users of this approach have been those who have worked with the Human Relation Area Files at Yale University, Connecticut. Authors' study differs methodologically from the Yale studies in that practically all of their data come from literate societies, while practically all of the Yale data come from preliterate societies. Most of the literate societies known to the author in whom separable and distinctive minorities are or were living in a majority population were included in the analysis. Sometimes a society changed so much in historical time that it was analyzed as two separate societies.

This article presents a reprint of the paper "L'informatique etlepouvoir: Pouvoir dans l'entreprise et pouvoir de l'entreprise," that was published in the May 1972 issue of the periodical "Informatique et Gestion." A brief recall of the most recent concepts on the functioning of organizations will allow the potential implications of informatics for the distribution of power in a company to be better understood and will clarify the reactions of the cadres in this regard. Specialists on business administration and sociologists specializing in organizations have conducted studies in the United States and in Western Europe that have led to a company no longer being considered as a supra-individual entity, having an existence and a behavior independent of that of its members and capable to this extent of being explained and governed by referring to purely formal models. They have likewise demonstrated that a company can no longer be conceived of only as the network of interpersonal relationships--irrational and charged with affectivity--to which the theoreticians of human relations thought it could be reduced. Instead, an organization can more realistically be considered the resultant of strategic games carried out as a function of multiple, divergent, and indeed contradictory goals by the organizational actors and as a function of their adherence to a minimum of common norms.

In considering the organization as an aspect of technological development, the existential conditions of an organizational structure are placed of necessity within a system of changes ranging from those of the task contents, which affect an individual worker, to complex integrations, which affect whole industries and are carried across national boundaries. The purpose of this paper is to present an articulate framework for the study of the effects of technological progress which considers the organizational changes within an integrated system of other changes. The framework is restricted in that it traces the effects of technological changes up to the gross organizational level of technology. The framework for the study of production organizations presented here concerned the relationship of the production context to the task and interpersonal relations in industry. Key concepts of the socio-technical approach were explicated and a model of work relations outlined. An empirical study given as an illustration of the approach had shown that a change from batch to flow production resulted in a change in the criteria of workers relations.

The article presents information on factoring and weighing approaches to status scores and clique identification. Three very different techniques for devising indices or popularity or centrality have, with small variation, one basic solution for symmetric social structure. The resulting popularity or centrality scores have the advantage that they can be interpreted in all three different ways and the isolation of the essential identity of the techniques will be shown that this solution gives the clique structure at a glance. The solution described in this paper only works for symmetric structures. Some social structures are naturally symmetric or can reasonably be made so. For example, talking to one another, spending time together, dating and other behavioral relations are naturally symmetric. Friendship could be defined to include only reciprocal choices. An index of centrality in a commuication structure might be desired as a clue to how fast information will spread from an individual or to how much power an individual has because of his key position in the communication network.

The article discusses the resource theory of family power as it applies to two types of decisions, one pertaining to the household and the other pertaining to the farm. The theory holds that the relative power of husband and wife is determined by their comparative participation in systems external to the family. According to the resource theory, it is the relative educational level of husband and wife which is important in decision-making. It is suggested that the education of the wife is not significantly associated with her involvement in either farm or household decisions. However, there is a tendency for wife's education to be negatively associated with her involvement in farm resource decisions and to be positively associated with her involvement in food and entertainment decisions. Wife's education gives her more influence relative to her husband in the home but not in the farm. Husband's education, on the other hand, has a significant negative association with wife's involvement, hence, a positive association with his involvement in farm resource decisions. It also has a slightly positive association with wife's influence in the food and entertainment decisions.

In an attempt to compare certain tests which have been employed at one time or another to measure emotional maturity in adults, the Willoughby E M Scale, the McNemar-Landis modification of this test, the Pressey Interest-Attitude Test and the Landis questionary were given to from 79 to 110 college sophomores. The Landis questionary was found to possess a split-half reliability of approximately .85 (stepped up to .92). The intercorrelations were all insignificant with the exception of that between the original and the modified Willoughby (found to be .46). The only conclusion that seemingly can be drawn from these data is that the tests are not measuring one common variable. A discussion of just what they are measuring is not within the scope of this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comments on a study conducted by Michael Lipton regarding the logic of interdisciplinary studies. Main cause of the observed multiplexity of inter-personal relationships; Conditions conducive to successful prediction in social science analysis; Reasons for the prevalence of multiplex relationships in least developed countries.

The article presents a research model on the area of evolutionary sexual behavior in marriage. It serves the purpose of providing a ground for systematic classification of studies on alternative sexual life style, fostering further inquiry, and offering marriage partners an influential way of understanding their relationship. An organize analysis of the subject in terms of the model is examined, along with discussions on the sexual life styles of pair-bonded couples such as free love, swinging, communal living and group marriage.

The article discusses the relationship between the physical distance between interactants and their psychological distance. Basically, most of the studies have shown that physical proximity is related to such psychological factors as felt similarity, comfort, and acceptance although contradictory results have also been obtained. The extent to which similar attitudes produce greater physical proximity is an unsettled issue, complicated by procedural aspects of relevant experiments. Two additional points may contribute to limiting the generalizability of spatial distance studies. The first is that, with rare exception , the experiments are conducted with the readily available college student. The second point is that in spite of the often-cited differences in the use of personal space by different cultures, there is an apparent absence of experimental work using ethnic variables. One recent exception is the field study of proxemic behavior of young school children which found significant differences in interaction distances of middle-class white children who stood farther apart from each other than lower-class black and Puerto Rican children .

The article presents a research to assess the construct validity of the two leadership dimensions, which are Job-centered and Employee-centered, as well as assess the measure of group climate frequently used by professor of social psychology Klaus Fiedler and his associates. Three sources of rating these behaviors were used--leaders, observers, and members--and three constructs were evaluated--task-related behavior, interpersonal behavior, and group atmosphere. The major purpose of this study was to examine the reliabilities, and relative construct validities of certain measures used in current research on leadership. The results presented indicate that the variables under consideration had relatively low reliabilities and an almost complete lack of relative construct validity. There is also evidence that the member and observer ratings of the same stimulus were more similar to each other than they were to the ratings made by the leader. It is apparent that different methods of observation produced different ratings at least for American subjects in the setting described.

The article presents a paper on the learning of congruent and noncongruent social structures. The task of learning a social structure requires the subjects to learn the interpersonal relations existing between a set of people using a type of paired-associates paradigm. In the present experiment, subjects were assigned the task of learning the existing relation or either "influences" or "likes" in a group of four people whose transitive structures had either the mathematical properties of asymmetry and completeness or symmetry and incomplete transitivity. Through findings, it appears that the learning of social structures is a function of expectations or social schemas learned through prior social interaction. Further, it appears that when the cues provided by the formal organization of a group are in keeping with the informal or existing structure of the groups as reflected in the interaction between members, then the learning of the social structure and the process of adjusting one's role expectations and role behaviors should he relatively easy.

Independent pairs of Very Best Friends, Friends, and Enemies were identified on a college campus and were administered the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule and rating scales to determine whether there is similarity or complementarity in such relationships. A few statistically significant positive correlations were found for all groups for the PPS data, and a considerably greater number of significant correlations for the rating scale data, with agreements in perception of the relationships characteristically found for the first two groups and disagreements for the enemy group. These data were interpreted as less than compelling evidence for general tendencies toward either similarity or complementarity in friendships, and some speculations regarding Riesman's other-directed individual were offered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the perception of feeling among members of small groups. Recent approaches to the problem of perception of characteristics, actions, feelings and attitudes of persons with few exceptions have been empirical, highly operational, often guided by rather simple hypotheses and with emphasis upon accuracy. An analysis of what aspects of social objects have important consequences and relevance for the question of interpersonal or social perception is needed. The most basic systematic relationship affecting a member's accuracy is that the persons perceived as choosing one are usually among those chosen by one. This contingency between feeling perceived and feeling held vis-a-vis a certain person is very strong, the overlap exceeding 80 percent. Several personal qualities of the person making the choice, such as expansiveness, self-confidence, popularity, and responsiveness all play a part, but the main determinant of choice transparency is reciprocation. That is, when a member's choice is reciprocated it is more transparent than his nonreciprocated choices.

An item analysis of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory in two different high school senior classes using the Levinson-Sanford anti-Semitism scale as a criterion yielded 32 items, each of which significantly differentiated the criterion subsamples in both classes. These items were strongly suggestive of certain personality trends on the part of both the more and the less prejudiced students. The 32 items were also considered as a scale, which appeared to be sufficiently reliable and valid to be used as a measuring instrument in its own right. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on a theory of social dynamics. In a "class" theory, the characteristics of behavior common to different individuals of a class are abstracted. If the behavior of another individual shows these characteristics, it is included in the class, and the behavior is then regarded as explained. All concepts like instinct, purpose, libido as used in contemporary social psychology are entelechy concepts rather than vector concepts. Sociological analyses which use statistical tabulations without attempting statistical correlations are primarily structural. At the present time, even when correlations are attempted they are usually so low that one cannot adequately speak of functional analysis. Causation in a theory of field dynamics is always simultaneous, however, from the underlying genotype to the existent phenotype. For every change in the phenomenology of experience there is a change in the structure of the underlying dynamic field. The article concludes that social groups do show the properties of structured fields and are amenable to treatment by the concepts of the logic of dynamics. At the present time there is a rather general agreement among social psychologists that groups represent "organic wholes." There is, however, considerable variance in opinion regarding the properties of organic wholes.

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The article presents an acquaintanceship questionnaire which was originally intended to search for characteristic qualitative patterns of acquaintanceship, the hypothetical assumption being that personality traits in part determine, and in part are determined by, the social contacts in occupational, religious, fraternal, recreational, and other circles of social interaction. It soon developed, however, that the solution to this problem, which the authors still regard as highly important to the progress of social psychology, lay far beyond the available facilities. Hence the results with which this article is concerned are those based on raw quantitative scores, that is, the total number of acquaintances. The material of the questionnaire consists of a standard list of 191 commonly used designations of types of persons, embracing those by occupation, religion, recreational interest, nationality and race, fraternal affiliation, academic classification, and certain other designations, miscellaneous but familiar.