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We describe a system being developed for the transformational analysis of complex English sentences. The system is designed to be able to serve as a “front-end” for a variety of applications, such as question-answering, information retrieval, and command systems. It is a two-stage system, with the first stage being the Linguistic String Parser previously developed at New York University. The structure of the system and its relation to contemporary transformational parsers are considered. Several transformations, including those for nominalization, are described in detail, and several sentence analyses produced by the program are presented. more...

Straipsnio tikslas – patikslinti lingvistinio modeliavimo sąvoką, eksplikuoti jos loginius pagrindus ir išnagrinėti kai kuriuos lingvistinės realybės klausimus. Kritikuojama teorijos, kaip konceptualinės sakinių klasės, samprata: teorija turi būti interpretuojama turinio srityje; ši interpretacija, jei kiekviena jos formulė teisinga, vadinama teorijos modeliu. Ontologinis modelis yra pats tiriamasis objektas – natūralioji kalba. Modelio terminas lingvistikoje vartojamas dviem reikšmėmis – kaip teorija ir kaip schema. Lingvistinio modeliavimo sąvoka reiškia eksplicitinę teorijos formuluotę ir pasekminę šios teorijos realizaciją abstrakčiu, arba ontologiniu modeliu. Tais atvejais, kai teorija neformuluojama eksplicitiškai arba panaudojama nesąmoningai, visi schematiniai dariniai yra paprastas empiriškai stebimų kalbos savybių aprašymas ir negali būti priskiriami modeliavimui. Straipsnio pabaigoje pateikiami transformacinių (generatyvinių) taisyklių du tipai. Generatyvinės taisyklės, nieko nesakydamos apie konkretų realizacijos būdą, yra objektyvaus kalbos tyrimo, jos sintaksės ir semantikos instrumentas. more...

Summary A review of the dissemination of information among linguists and the epis-temological basis of the transformational movement leads to the suggestion that the decade from the early 1960’s to the early 1970’s was a decade of private knowledge for persons engaged in the theoretical study of human languages. This decade of private knowledge was not caused directly by Chomsky’s disavowal of empiricism and his espousal of rationalism. Rather, it was caused indirectly by the shift from empiricism to rationalism and the subsequent attempt to base the data for theory building on native speaker intuition. The period of private knowledge in linguistics will probably continue until there is a shift in the epistemological basis of transformational thought. more...

This paper presents a theory which is intended to integrate existing knowledge in the field of leadership behavior. Prominent concepts, theories, and research evidence in the literature are synthesized to form a theoretical framework comprising five models of leadership. Each model specifies the conditions of task technology and subordinate motivation for which a particular style of leadership is congruent, thereby resulting in leadership effectiveness. This framework is generalized to derive three propositions which form a tentative general theory of leadership: (1) leadership effectiveness is positively related to congruence; (2) there is a tendency toward congruence and (3) there is a tendency toward evolution. more...

The article discusses research which focuses on the forces which influence the leaders of complex organizations. Three primary forces are considered. The author claims there is a positive relations... more...

A computer program called POET generated “poems” through a system which incorporated (1) transitional dependencies of words, (2) transformational structures of language, and (3) semantic, or imagery, aspects in the decision about a general theme of a poem. It was assumed that each sentence in a “poem” contains a single “thematic word” as the main subject. Thematic words were selected on the basis of the similarities of words to the major thematic word (which was to be given by the experimenter) in an image space defined according to Osgood’s Semantic Differential Space. The other words in the individual sentences were assumed to be generated on the basis of both transition probabilities of word associations under the given theme and choice probabilities of transformational rules in language habit. more...

The linguistic approach to historical grammar. Most published material on the subject of historical dialects of English takes little interest in syntax. In recent decades, however, a growing number of titles have attempted to approach the syntax of historical dialects from a structuralist viewpoint. Some of the best recent material uses a transformational model. It is the purpose of this paper to illustrate the application of the “Scale-and-Category” model to the Old English verbal group, and thereby to suggest the appropriateness of the Scale-and-Category model for a more complete synchronic description of Old English. The principles of Scale-and-Category grammar were published by Prof. M. A. K. Halliday in 1961. Since then a number of published works have described language on these principles, but the study to which this paper is most directly indebted is Prof. M. Gregory’s yet unpublished description of modern English.The principles of Scale-and-Category grammar were published by Prof. M. A. K. Halliday in 1961. Since then a number of published works have described language on these principles, but the study to which this paper is most directly indebted is Prof. M. Gregory’s yet unpublished description of modern English. more...

Transformational plasticity associated with the monoclinic-to-cubic phase transition at 730°C in Bi2O3 was observed and characterized. This phenomenon is explained in terms of Greenwood and Johnson's model of internal stress-induced deformation, proceeding, in this instance, by a time-dependent, grain-size-sensitive creep mechanism, probably grain-boundary sliding. Criteria are proposed for choosing other prospective transformationally plastic ceramics; they are met by Bi2WO6, which also exhibits extensive transformation plasticity. more...

(1912). LEADERSHIP THROUGH THE ORGANIZATION. Religious Education: Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 203-208.

This time is recognized as a crisis period for both our democracy and the Christan Church. The nation now emerging from a war of gigantic proportions faces difficult adjustments both here and abroad. Professor Kenneth Scott Latourette of Yale University, in the Nobel Lectures delivered at Harvard University, 1940, stated then that the Church faced the most crucial time it had known since the Moham more...

Accepted theory and conventional wisdom concerning leadership have a lot in common. Both seem to be saying that the success of a leader depends on the leader, the led, and the unique situation. This formulation—abstract and majestically useless—is the best that can be gleaned from over 100 years of research on "leadership". There are many issues involved in the distribution of power: psychological, practical, and moral. One of the most challenging tasks for the new leadership is creating an environment that would increase tolerance for ambiguity. It will also be challenging to create an environment where one can make a virtue out of contingency, rather than one that induces hesitancy and its reckless counterpart, expedience. The "social territory" encompasses the complex and dynamic interaction of individuals, roles, groups, organizational and cultural systems. Organizations are legal, political, technical, and economic systems. The author here focuses on the social system. The most appropriate metaphor to characterize adaptive leadership is an "agricultural" model. more...

Consistent with typical behavior in times of perceived crisis, commentary concerning the current unrest within American colleges and universities is turning increasingly to the topic of leadership. Some groups are highly critical of formal administrative leadership even to the point of questioning its traditional legitimacy. Others, including many professors, are engaging in the self-illusory practice of scapegoating incumbent officials, thereby providing simplistic but anxiety-reducing explanations for any and all internal disorders or problems. Still others, increasing in numbers in direct proportion to the escalation of campus crises, are crying out for law and order leadership to return higher education to normalcy. Another level of leadership concern is reflected by the on-going debate as to what group or groups should exert leadership for higher education. Some suggest that the prerogative of leadership has shifted historically from the trustees to the faculty, then to the administration, and now is in the process of shifting to student groups (1). Others claim the universities belong to the students and faculty; while still others regard institutions of higher education as creatures of the state, thus concluding that they should be controlled primarily by the electorate through their chosen representatives. The presence of such a widespread concern about university leadership and the diversity of viewpoints about and expectations for its legitimacy, performance, and source has stimulated a plethora of printed reactions. Most reactions are long on criticism of current leadership and short on functional proposals for improving it. Those offering proposals typically stress idealized views of what would be "better" behavior on the part of individual leaders and ignore the situational variables within which the better behavior must be acted out. All in all, the current litera more...

Given the present state of transformational grammar theory, it is virtually impossible to provide convincing support for, or (and this, of course, is more serious) evidence against, any single hypothesis. Between 1957 and 1965, revisions of the theory and new hypotheses were generally proposed one or two at a time and tested within the otherwise widely accepted theoretical framework (the ‘paradigm’: Kuhn 1962). However, in recent years just about everything but the need for transformations to pair more abstract objects with actual and/or potential linguistic objects has been called into question or affected somehow by new hypotheses. Consequently, linguists must realize that any evidence they attempt to marshal for or against a particular hypothesis can be refuted or circumvented by at least one combination of other apparently unrelated popular hypotheses (abetted by the excessive power of transformational rules: Peters 1970). more...

The planned development of a socialist economy determines the reality of the task of "elaborating in the new five-year period the scientific principles underlying the protection and transformation of nature for the purpose of improving the environment surrounding man and making better use of natural resources." (1) As noted in a decree of the USSR Supreme Soviet dated September 20, 1972, the concern for nature conservation and for making better use of natural resources is a key government target. (2) Such great attention to the problem of the environment stems from the fact that in the process of the revolution in science and technology, the scale of the transformational activity of people has grown immeasurably and for the first time in history has become comparable with the scale of activity of the natural forces on our planet: with geological, chemical, and biological processes. more...

standing of leadership has been to describe and identify leadership in terms of the personal traits of the leader. This approach seems to imply that leadership is some kind of rare gift possessed by a small group of people and that this small group of people is able to control a larger group who is not gifted. Biographical and historical studies of famous people frequently attempt to discover traits that distinguish leaders from nonleaders. Analyses of this kind come up with numerous lists of traits which have more...

The kind of governance and administration introduced in British West Africa in the 19th century was dubbed 'indirect rule'. It entailed the direct link of the colonial administration in London and the seat of government of a colony with the traditional rulers of the native states within the colony. Each native state was virtually self-supporting; it organized its own administration, collected revenue and initiated its own development plan. This was the system inherited by Oklemekuku Azzu Mate Kole when he became the paramount chief and Konor of the Manya Krobo state in the Gold Coast (Ghana) in June 1939. In this paper we propose to demonstrate how the paramount chief's upbringing and education molded him into a charismatic, transformational leader who used both formal and informal education to develop a hitherto rural state into a progressive one which became a model for other native states in the Gold Coast to emulate. Unfortunately the shift of political orientation and management by the new national government in 1951 led to the collapse of the vibrant and progressive rural economy. Meanwhile Oklemekuku Azzu Mate Kole's continued performance at the Legislative Assembly till 1954 and his service on relevant boards between 1966 and 1972 helped in attaining re-direction in various national issues to the benefit of all. Le type de gouvernance et d'administration introduit au 19eme siecle en Afrique occidentale britannique a ete surnomme "administration indirecte". Il supposait un appui de l'administration coloniale a Londres et le siege du gouvernement d'une colonie aux chefs traditionnels des etats indigenes au sein de la colonie. Chaque etat indigene etait pratiquement autonome : il organisait sa propre administration, recuperait des recettes et elaborait sa propre strategie de developpement. Ce fut le systeme herite par Oklemekuku Azzu Mate Kole quand il est devenu le chef supreme et par Konor de l'etat Manya Krobo dans la "Cote d'Or" en juin 1939. Dans cet article, nous proposons de demontrer comment l'education et la maniere dont le chef supreme a ete eleve ont fait de lui un dirigeant charismatique et porteur de changement qui s'est servi a la fois de son education formelle et informelle pour developper un etat jusque-la rural en un etat progressif qui est devenu un modele a imiter pour d'autres etats indigenes. Malheureusement, le changement de perspective politique et de gestion mene par le nouveau gouvernement national en 1951 a conduit a l'effondrement du caractere progressiste et dynamique de l'economie rurale. Entre-temps, le rendement continu d'Oklemekuku Azzu Mate Kole a l'Assemblee legislative jusqu'a 1954 et son service au sein d'importants comites entre 1966 et 1972 ont contribue a la reorientation et restructuration de diverses questions nationales pour le benefice de tous. more...

Is the cause of language deficiency in some children to be found in inadequate acquisition of linguistic rules or is poor functioning due to deficit on some psychological dimension ? A group of children in schools for the educationally subnormal were tested on a short term memory (STM) task. Materials were unstructured strings of words and twenty-four eight-word sentences manifesting different transformational rules. Seven levels of performance on unstructured strings (STM) were identified and the degree of facilitation provided by sentence structure of any kind was related to these levels. The most significant result was the differential effect of sentence types at different levels of STM. It was concluded that STM limitations may well account for some language deficiencies. Recent linguistic work suggests an explanation in terms of the different amounts of computation involved in the internal organisation of sentences of the same length. Subjects will fail to process such sentences as make demands on STM beyond their capacity. more...

(1927). Leadership in Educational Research. The Journal of Educational Research: Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 239-245.

The purpose of this study was to assess the performance of Ss who were given instruction in transformational geometry as compared with Ss who received minimal introductory instruction on transformational geometry terminology and concepts. The criterion measures were geometry achievement and spatial ability. 63 second- and third-grade Ss were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. The experimental Ss received a 12 lesson treatment and the control Ss a 1 lesson treatment concerning rigid motion and congruence concepts. Results indicated that after instruction the experimental Ss performed significantly better than the control Ss on the achievement test, but not on the space test. The results imply that children can learn transformational geometry skills, but the evidence also suggests they have difficulty in applying these skills to a more general task. more...

We investigate the effects of placing various restrictions on the base component of a transformational grammar as defined by Chomsky (1965) . It is shown that by utilizing the so-called filter function of transformations the descriptive power of transformational grammars can be preserved unreduced even when their base components are subjected to drastic restrictions. more...

The.procedure included the assembly of measurements of 485 grad uates of a large military school on fifteen variables, including lead ership. Measurement of each group was spread over a four-year per iod; five class groups contributed to the total number. Side studies of various types were employed to ascertain the reliability and validity of the leadership criterion as well as that of the other variables. While the experimental design was rigid in the fact that instruments of meas urement were not under the writer's control, it was considered that this fact, plus the strict objectivity of data, precluded the introduction of personal bias or subjective judgment. The fifteen variables were as follows more...

The Development of generative phonology to deal with the phonological component of transformational grammars has in recent years led to many fruitful insights in the analysis and description of synchronic states of languages. It was inevitable, however, that generativists should eventually turn their attention to historical linguistics and seek to re-interpret the olderlawsof sound change in terms of modernrules, recognizing specifically the effects of the addition of new rules, the extension of rules by the removal of constraints, and the deletion or re-ordering of rules (King 1969: 39-63). more...

A paradign for the analysis of leadership is presented. The model stresses the fact that the group and individual variable commonly examined in leadership studies may be viewed in five ways: as results of the leader's behavior; as concomitants, determiners, or conditioners of the leader's behavior; and as criteria for evaluation. Ten major questions about leadership are stated in the paradigm, and their application to research is illustrated. more...

Relationships between leadership behavior for first- and second-level managers and several measures of employee performance and satisfaction were investigated in a state school for the mentally retarded. Four leadership dimensions and a modified fifth dimension, all from the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire-Form XII were used. Three of these measures were highly intercorrelated and were combined into a “Considerate Influence” dimension. This dimension was significantly related to a number of employee criteria at the first managerial level and about one-fifth as many criteria at the second level. The other two leadership dimensions had very few significant relationships. Second-level leadership in combination with first-level leadership in a number of cases significantly increased relationships for Considerate Influence beyond separate treatment of first- and second-level leadership, while such was not generally true for the other leadership dimensions. more...

Psychologists and transformational linguists have both criticized the oral approach or the audio-lingual habit theory for the teaching of foreign languages. They have pointed out the deficiencies of this method from several different points of view. Some of these criticisms have been justified because the theory of foreign language learning on which this method has been based has certain deficiencies. In other cases, some of the criticisms have been unjustified because they have stemmed from a misunderstanding of this mode of teaching foreign languages. Insofar as the criticisms are justified, suggestions are made for the improvement of foreign language teaching. Insofar as the criticisms are not justified, a rebuttal is attempted. In either case, the contention is supported that many language teachers involved with the audio-lingual approach anticipated a number of the objections to it by not being too doctrinaire. more...

The purpose of this article is to initiate a discussion of the 'parts of speech' within the framework of generative grammar.1 The present writer has long been of the opinion that the traditional, 'notional' theory of the 'parts of speech' merits a rather more sympathetic consideration than it has received from most linguists in recent years and feels, with Chomsky (I965: Ii8), that 'although modern work has, indeed, shown a great diversity in the surface structures of languages . . ., the deep structures for which universality is claimed may be quite distinct from the surface structures of sentences as they actually appear', and that 'the findings of modern linguistics are thus not inconsistent with the hypotheses of universal grammarians'. The distinction that is drawn by Chomsky between 'deep' and 'surface' structure was implicit in traditional grammatical theory and has been reasserted by a number of modern scholars (cf. also Hockett, I958: Lamb, I964; Halliday, I966: 57; etc.). This distinction will be taken for granted throughout the paper.It will also be taken for granted that any satisfactory general theory of syntactic structure must be 'transformational'. (in the sense of Chomsky, I957; etc.). Towards the end of the paper, however, it will be suggested, on the basis of the arguments presented below, that current theories of transformational grammar stand in need of radical revision; in particular, that the rules of the base component should operate upon two different kinds of elements, 'constituents' (bracketed categories) and 'features' (for the most part, the traditional 'secondary grammatical more...