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Purpose: This review of federal statutes, regulations, administrative directions, and case law related to special education, disabilities, and school nutrition is designed to provide speech-language pathologists (SLPs) with information essential for determining eligibility children with pediatric feeding disorder (PFD). Despite the absence of mention of dysphagia or PFD in federal statutes and regulations, special education, disability, and school food service requirements provide direction for serving children with health care needs, which include children with dysphagia. The federal requirements, court cases, and policy interpretations are detailed to provide guidance to SLPs and their school teams when working with children with PFDs. Method: Federal statutes and regulations, administrative directions, and case law were reviewed. This review details the application of federal statutes and regulations for children with PFDs. Furthermore, administrative direction and case law identify the importance of attending to the safety of children with dysphagia. Results: As a result of this review, sections of the various federal statutes and regulations that support provision of services to children with PFD are identified. In addition, information from case law and administrative reviews further highlights the importance of attending to the rights and needs of children with PFD. Conclusions: The rights of all children with disabilities are established through statutes, regulations, and case law, and children with PFDs benefit from these rights. These requirements can guide SLPs in working with school teams, so that children with dysphagia can be found eligible for and receive school-based services for dysphagia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to analyze the readability of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Part B procedural safeguard notices written in Spanish, as distributed by each of the 50 states in the United States and the District of Columbia. Results were compared with the 6th–8th grade document readability guideline recommended by experts in health communication. Method: A commercially available readability software program was used to assess document readability using three readability indices: the Gilliam–Peña– Mountain Graph, SOL, and the Fry Readability Adaptation for Spanish Evaluation. Results: All procedural safeguard notices were written at a reading grade level greater than established guidelines. This finding agrees with research that has examined the readability of English-language versions of IDEA Part B procedural safeguard notices. Conclusions: Literacy-related skills and demands may influence the ability of the parent to advocate on behalf of his or her child with a disability within the school setting. Educators and specialists should be sensitive to parent reading preferences and proficiency when reviewing IDEA procedural safeguards notices. Authors of procedural safeguard notices should account for the native language and culture of the intended reader as revisions to, and translations are made of, IDEA procedural safeguards notices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore and describe the features of Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) for a cohort of students with traumatic brain injury (TBI) to help elucidate current special education practices for students with TBI. Method: We obtained permission from administrators of a local school district of 41,000 students in a Midwestern state to review de-identified IEP records of students verified with TBI. We examined demographic information (i.e., cause and age at time of injury), IEP services and intensity, IEP goal categories, and previous verification status. Results: Descriptive results support that intervention services were more intense for students with TBI with greater lengths of time postinjury. Target behaviors within goals were more often related to math and reading than to the cognitive processes that govern these skills, such as attention, memory, and executive functioning. Finally, more than a third of our sample had been verified with a disability and were receiving special education services via an IEP prior to their TBI. Conclusions: This work represents an important first step in understanding the special education services for students with TBI. Future research should explore interventions that are ecologically valid for school-based settings and are developed to address the idiosyncratic deficits of students with TBI, particularly interventions that focus on the underlying cognitive processes experienced by these students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this article is to situate the recent language disorder label debate within a school's perspective. As described in two recent The ASHA Leader articles, there is international momentum to change specific language impairment to developmental language disorder. Proponents of this change cite increased public awareness and research funding as part of the rationale. However, it is unclear whether this label debate is worthwhile or even practical for the school-based speech-language pathologist (SLP). A discussion of the benefits and challenges to a shift in language disorder labels is provided. Conclusions: Although there are important arguments for consistency in labeling childhood language disorder, the reality of a label change in U.S. schools is hard to imagine. School-based services are driven by eligibility through the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, which has its own set of labels. There are myriad reasons why advocating for the developmental language disorder label may not be the best use of SLPs' time, perhaps the most important of which is that school SLPs have other urgent priorities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to analyze the readability of Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Part B procedural safeguard documents, as distributed by each of the 50 U.S. states. Results were compared to the 5th- to 6th-grade readability guideline for documents recommended by experts in health literacy and health communication. Method: A commercially available readability software, Readability Studio (Oleander Software, 2009), was used to assess document readability. Text-based files of each IDEA Part B procedural safeguard document were analyzed using four readability formulas: Flesch-Kincaid (Flesch, 1965), Gunning fog index (Gunning, 1952), Flesch Reading Ease (Flesch, 1948), and Simple Measure of Gobbledygook (McLaughlin, 1969). Results: No procedural safeguard document scored below an 11th-grade reading level. Seventy-four percent of these documents were found to be written at a graduate reading level--meaning these documents are written for a reader who is currently enrolled in a master's degree or higher education program. Conclusion: In an effort to decrease barriers to parent participation in the Individualized Education Planning process, those who administer IDEA Part B procedural safeguards should be sensitive to the potential mismatch between the literacy skills of the parent/guardian and the literacy skills needed to comprehend these documents. Developers of IDEA Part B procedural safeguards should account for estimated literacy skills of the general public as ongoing revisions to these safeguards are made. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study aimed to determine if African American students were disproportionately represented between the years of 2004 and 2014 in the primary disability category of Speech or Language Impairment (S/LI) under the 2004 reauthorized Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act. Method: S/LI enrollment data from the Office of Special Education Programs and general enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics were analyzed to compare the risk of primary S/LI category enrollment of African American students to that of all other students. Risk ratios with 99% confidence intervals were calculated for each state across the 10 years studied. Results: An average of 75% of states disproportionately represented African American students in the S/LI category each year; on average, 62% underrepresented African American students, and 14% overrepresented them. A post hoc analysis of the relationship between African American student representation and population densities revealed that states with high African American population densities almost exclusively underrepresented African American students and states with low densities tended toward a proportionate representation. Conclusions: African American students were largely underrepresented in the category of S/LI in the years studied. These findings, alongside historic and chronic overrepresentation in other categories of special education, are discussed in the context of the fragmented harm theory (Payne, 1984; Voulgarides, 2018; Voulgarides, Zwerger, & Noguera, 2013) and the disability rights and critical race theory (Annamma, Connor, & Ferri, 2013). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

School districts throughout the country are addressing swallowing and feeding disorders as part of the special education services they provide; however, there continues to be many districts that do not. Historically, these services were considered to be medical and not the responsibility of school districts. Speech language pathologists (SLPs) who work in the school setting have been instrumental in advocating for these services and as a result, more districts are establishing procedures. Swallowing and feeding services are part of a school district's obligation to provide a free and appropriate education (FAPE) to students with disabilities, according to the Individual with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). This article will focus on the importance of the SLP in this process, including establishing safe feeding plans, writing goals and providing therapeutic services to improve swallowing and feeding skills, and the documentation of these services throughout the procedure of identifying and treating students with swallowing and feeding disorders in the school setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The aim of this tutorial is to support speechlanguage pathologists' (SLPs') application of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) in assessment and treatment practices with children with language impairment. Method: This tutorial reviews the framework of the ICF, describes the implications of the ICF for SLPs, distinguishes between students' capacity to perform a skill in a structured context and the actual performance of that skill in naturalistic contexts, and provides a case study of an elementary school child to demonstrate how the principles of the ICF can guide assessment and intervention. Implications: The Scope of Practice and Preferred Practice documents for the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association identify the ICF as the framework for practice in speech-language pathology. This tutorial will facilitate clinicians' ability to identify personal and environmental factors that influence students' skill capacity and skill performance, assess students' capacity and performance, and develop impairmentbased and socially based language goals linked to Common Core State Standards that build students' language capacity and their communicative performance in naturalistic contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Post-school outcomes for individuals with disabilities have been persistently poor. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (2014) found only 18% of individuals with disabilities were active in the labor force, and Newman et al. (2011) found only 41% have completed a post-secondary education program. Research in secondary transition has identified 64 practices that are effective with and 16 predictors that improve the post-school outcomes for this population. Many of these are compatible with the services speech-language pathologists (SLPs) provide. This article reviews the evidence-based practices and predictors relevant to SLPs by defining, describing, and providing examples of how to use them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is critically important that speech-language pathologists understand the difference between educational identification of a speech-language impairment under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the procedures used for a clinical determination of speech or language impairment. The authors review variations in terminology, federal and state regulations, and state, local, and professional guidance. Federal evaluation requirements and examples of differing state requirements are provided along with evidence-based recommendations for comprehensive assessment of students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of an individualized, systematic language intervention on the personal narratives of children with autism. Method: A single-subject, multiple-baseline design across participants and behaviors was used to examine the effect of the intervention on language features of personal narratives. Three 6- to 8-year-old boys with autism participated in 12 individual intervention sessions that targeted 2-3 story grammar elements (e.g., problem, plan) and 3-4 linguistic complexity elements (e.g., causal subordination, adverbs) selected from each participant's baseline performance. Intervention involved repeated retellings of customized model narratives and the generation of personal narratives with a systematic reduction of visual and verbal scaffolding. Independent personal narratives generated at the end of each baseline, intervention, and maintenance session were analyzed for presence and sophistication of targeted features. Results: Graphical and statistical results showed immediate improvement in targeted language features as a function of intervention. There was mixed evidence of maintenance 2 and 7 weeks after intervention. Conclusion: Children with autism can benefit from an individualized, systematic intervention targeting specific narrative language features. Greater intensity of intervention may be needed to gain enduring effects for some language features. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we discuss the Spelling Sensitivity System (SSS), an accuracy metric based on the level of linguistic knowledge evidenced by student spellings. The procedure can be used by SLPs to baseline and monitor their students' progress associated with word-level literacy instruction. The SSS has the relative speed of a binary scoring system yet incorporates facets of the multilinguistic theory of spelling development. Use of the SSS system to represent baseline performance and monitor progress of the clinical case is illustrated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study documented evidence-based practice (EBP) patterns as reported by speech-language pathologists (SLPs) employed in public schools during 2010-2011. Method: Using an online survey, practioners reported their EBP training experiences, resources available in their workplaces, and the frequency with which they engage in specific EBP activities, as well as their resource needs and future training format preferences. Results: A total of 2,762 SLPs in 28 states participated in the online survey, 85% of whom reported holding the Certificate of Clinical Competence in Speech-Language Pathology credential. Results revealed that one quarter of survey respondents had no formal training in EBP, 11% of SLPs worked in school districts with official EBP procedural guidelines, and 91% had no scheduled time to support EBP activities. The majority of SLPs posed and researched 0 to 2 EBP questions per year and read 0 to 4 American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) journal articles per year on either assessment or intervention topics. Conclusion: Use of ASHA online resources and engagement in EBP activities were documented to be low. However, results also revealed that school-based SLPs have high interest in additional training and resources to support scientifically based practices. Suggestions for enhancing EBP support in public schools and augmenting knowledge transfer are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A letter to the editor is presented in response to the article "Using Norm-Referenced Tests to Determine Severity of Language Impairment in Children: Disconnect Between U.S. Policy Makers and Test Developers" by T. Spaulding, M. Szulga and C. Figueria in a 2012 issue.

With the demands of paperwork in the field of speech-language pathology, school professionals are looking to technology to become more efficient. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2004) requires that experts collect data for a variety of purposes, while the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) and Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) provide protection of privacy and confidentiality. Speech-language pathologists are considering mobile- and tablet-based applications (apps) for data collection and management because these devices are portable, affordable, and available. In this article, I will explore considerations and resources for app selection related to data collection and management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study investigated the narrative language performance of 3 types of readers who had been identified as being at risk through code-based response-to-intervention (RTI) procedures. Method: In a retrospective group comparison, 32 at-risk 1st-grade readers were identified: children who resolved without intervention (early resolvers, n = 11), children who met criterion following 4 weeks of intervention (good responders, n = 8), and children who failed to meet criterion following 4 weeks of intervention (poor responders, n = 13). A narrative retell and a norm-referenced language test were obtained before intervention. Results: There were no significant differences between the 3 learner types on the language test. However, the narratives of the good responders were significantly higher than the narratives of the other 2 groups on total number of words, number of different words, and number of communication units. The narratives of early resolvers and good responders differed significantly on the productivity index, number of coordinating conjunctions, and number of episodic elements. There were no other significant differences. Conclusion: Types of learners distinguished by a code-based RTI model showed differences in their narrative language. First graders who responded well to code-based reading intervention retold stories that contained more language and better story grammar than first graders who did not respond well to intervention. These results indicate the need to evaluate narrative language performance within RTI, especially for early resolvers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) and reading professionals provide educational services to children who are at risk for reading difficulties, although these professions do not necessarily coordinate efforts. To date, there is limited evidence regarding the proportion of children who receive services from both professionals. The current study reports the prevalence and overlap of speech-language and reading services provided to kindergartners and first graders in Virginia. Method: This study analyzed a population-level database of reading screening scores from 74,730 kindergartners and 75,088 first graders. Information regarding the speech-language services received by these children was obtained. Prevalence rates of speech-language impairment, reading risk, and comorbidity were calculated. The distribution of children receiving speech-language services across categories of reading competence was examined. Results: Findings indicated that ∼6% of the children received speech-language services and 11.1 % of the kindergartners and 13.7% of the first graders received reading services. One-quarter of the children receiving speech-language services also received reading services. Furthermore, children receiving speech-language services received reading services at twice the rate of children who were not receiving speech-language services in both kindergarten (23.1% vs. 9.1%) and first grade (25.2% vs. 11.3%). Clinical Implications: This study provides empirical support for improving coordination between SLPs and reading professionals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This article is a condensation of the recent American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) document entitled Roles and Responsibilities of Speech-Language Pathologists in Early Intervention: Guidelines (ASHA, 2008). The article presents information on recommended and evidence-based practices related to the screening, evaluation, and assessment of infants and toddlers with, or at risk for, communication deficits. It is intended to be used by clinicians to enhance their practices. Method: The Guidelines document was developed using the available research evidence, expert clinical perspectives, and, when possible, family perspectives related to the screening, evaluation, and assessment process. The current article includes key definitions and an overview of recommended practices in screening, evaluation, assessment, and results interpretation. Implications: The article provides important and timely information for professionals and families related to the screening, evaluation, and assessment of infants and toddlers with, or at risk for, communication deficits. Speech-language pathologists, other professionals, and family members can use the information to implement recommended and evidence-based practices when screening, evaluating, and assessing young children for communication deficits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This article focuses on using currently available data to assist speech-language pathologists (SLPs) in making decisions regarding a child's eligibility and considerations for recommended "dosage" of early intervention (El) services. Method: Literature describing the characteristics of infants and toddlers who are likely recipients of El services was reviewed. Results: Current literature provides information that can be used to inform clinical decisions for infants and toddlers with established medical conditions, as well as those with risk factors, for oral language, communication, and subsequent literacy disabilities. This information is summarized. Conclusion: Extant literature suggests that El makes a critical difference in the developmental course of communication as well as in other learning domains for children with a variety of established conditions. The literature also provides guidance to SLPs who must evaluate and weigh risk factors for children with less clear eligibility for services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This article describes guiding principles in early intervention (El) and demonstrates how speech-language pathologists (SLPs) can apply these principles to best serve infants and toddlers with communication and related problems and their families. Method: Four principles guide the implementation of speech-language pathology services. El services are services that are (a) family centered and culturally and linguistically responsive; (b) developmentally supportive, promoting children's participation in their natural environments; (c) comprehensive, coordinated, and team based; and (d) based on the highest quality evidence available. Actual clinical scenarios are presented to illustrate each principle. Results: The four principles provide a framework for the wide range of roles and responsibilities assumed by SLPs in El: (a) screening/evaluation/assessment, (b) goal setting and intervention, (c) consultation with and education for team members, (d) service coordination, (e) transition planning, and (f) advocacy. Conclusion: It is critical that families of infants and toddlers who are at risk for, or who have been diagnosed with, communication disorders receive all necessary services and supports. El services should be tailored to the individual and the changing needs, preferences, and priorities of each family. The earlier services are provided, the more likely is the child's chance to develop effective communication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: We reflect on Alan Kamhi's (2011) prologue on balancing certainty and uncertainty as it pertains to school-based practice. Method: In schools, rational thinking depends on effective team processes, much like professional learning communities. We consider the conditions that are required for rational thinking and how rational team dialogue confronts uncertainties. We provide suggestions for how this dialogue can be used throughout the individualized education program (IEP) process to lead to more positive experiences for all team members as well as improved student outcomes. Conclusion: Rational thinking in school-based practice may be manifest by closer adherence to the tenants of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEIA), ultimately resulting in increased rational thought and improved student outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To report on data from the current survey about academic and clinical education in augmentative and alternative communication (AAC), as well as to compare these findings with earlier surveys in an attempt to identify any changes being made as programs in the United States implement the new certification standards of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association in the area of speech-language pathology. Method: A survey was sent to all speechlanguage pathology training programs in the United States via e-mail directed to program directors or faculty teaching in AAC. Results: A total of 168 surveys were returned, for a return rate of 57.93%. Seventy-three percent of the respondents had a separate course in AAC, and 80% indicated AAC content was infused in other courses. Conclusions: Academic preparation in AAC, while varying across academic programs, has in general increased over the past decade. Data also suggested a continuing critical need for more academic and clinical preparation in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]