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The omnipresence of smartphones has not stopped at the door to the nursery. It is especially important to better understand the impact of parental smartphone use on relationships at the beginning of children's lives. Babies and toddlers are essentially dependent on caregivers' sensitive and responsive behaviors within the context of the development of attachment patterns. Disturbances in parental sensitivity can have a negative impact on attachment-related interactional processes between parents and children and on child outcomes, such as self-regulatory capacity. The goal of this review is to compile existing research on the impact of parental mobile device use through technoference or absorption on parental sensitivity and responsiveness within parent-child interactions in the early years (0-5). We conducted a thorough search of the databases PsycInfo and PubMed, additionally consulting data sources such as Google Scholar and Google. In this review, we included 12 studies with a variety of methodical approaches. The research so far indicates that parental smartphone use may be associated with changes in parental sensitivity and responsiveness. Absorption in the device appears to contribute to this association more strongly than short interruptions of relating per se (technoference). However, to better understand these processes, more in-depth, longitudinal research is needed.La omnipresencia de los teléfonos inteligentes no se ha detenido a la puerta de la guardería. En especial, es importante entender mejor el impacto del uso de teléfonos inteligentes por parte de los padres en sus relaciones al comienzo de las vidas de sus niños. Los bebés y niños pequeñitos son esencialmente dependientes del comportamiento sensible y atento de quienes les cuidan, dentro del contexto del desarrollo de patrones de afectividad. Las interrupciones en la sensibilidad de los padres pueden tener un impacto negativo en los procesos interaccionales relacionados con la afectividad entre padres y niños y en los resultados en el niño tales como la capacidad de autorregularse. El propósito de la presente revisión es compilar la investigación existente acerca del impacto que el uso de aparatos móviles por parte de los padres a través de la tecno-conferencia o absorción tiene sobre la sensibilidad y la atención dentro de las interacciones padres-niños en los primeros años (0-5). Llevamos a cabo una investigación exhaustiva de los bancos de datos PsycInfo y PubMed, consultando adicionalmente las fuentes de datos como el Investigador Google y Google. En esta revisión incluimos 12 estudios con una variedad de acercamientos metodológicos. La investigación hasta ahora indica que el uso de los teléfonos inteligentes por parte de los padres pudiera estar asociado con cambios en la sensibilidad y atención de los padres. La absorción en los aparatos parece contribuir a esta asociación más fuertemente que interrupciones cortas o relacionadas de por sí (tecno-conferencia). Sin embargo, para entender mejor estos procesos, se necesita una más profunda y longitudinal investigación.L'omniprésence des téléphones smartphones ne s'est pas arrêtée à la porte de la chambre du bébé. Il est particulièrement important de mieux comprendre l'impact de l'utilisation parentale des smartphones sur les relations au début de la vie des enfants. Les bébés et les petits enfants sont essentiellement dépendants des comportements sensibles et réactifs des aidants naturels dans le contexte du développement de patterns d'attachement. Des perturbations de la sensibilité parentale peuvent avoir un impact négatif sur les processus interactionnels liés à l'attachement entre les parents et les enfants et sur les résultats de l'enfant, comme par exemple la capacité régulatoire. Le but de ce passage en revue est de compiler les recherches qui existent sur l'impact de l'utilisation parentale des appareils mobiles à travers la technoférence ou l'absorption sur la sensibilité parentale et la réaction au sein des interactions parent-enfant durant les premières années (0-5 ans). Nous avons fait une recherche approfondie des bases de données PsycInfo et PubMed, et également consulté des sources de données telles que Google Scholar et Google. Dans cette revue nous incluons 12 études avec une variété d'approches médicales. Jusqu’à présent les recherches indiquent que l'utilisation parentale du smartphone peut être lié à des changements dans la sensibilité parentale et la réaction. Le fait d’être absorbé par le téléphone semble contribuer à cette association plus fortement que de courtes interruptions à la relation en elle-même (technoférence). Cependant, afin de mieux comprendre ces processus, des recherches plus approfondies et longitudinales sont nécessaires.Smartphones im Kinderzimmer: Smartphone-Nutzung bei Eltern und ihre Sensibilität bzw. Responsivität in der Eltern-Kind-Interaktion während der frühen Kindheit (0-5 Jahre): Ein Scoping-Review Die Omnipräsenz von Smartphones hat an der Tür zum Kinderzimmer keinen Halt gemacht. Die Auswirkungen besser zu verstehen, die die elterliche Smartphone-Nutzung auf die Beziehung zum Kleinkind hat, ist sehr wichtig. Babys und Kleinkinder sind im Kontext der Entwicklung von Bindungsmustern essenziell abhängig von den sensiblen und responsiven Verhaltensweisen ihrer Bezugspersonen. Störungen der elterlichen Sensibilität können sich negativ auf bindungsbezogene Interaktionsprozesse zwischen Eltern und Kindern sowie auf Outcomes, wie z. B. die Fähigkeit zur Selbstregulation, auswirken. Ziel dieses Reviews ist es, bestehende Forschungsergebnisse zu den Auswirkungen elterlicher Nutzung mobiler Geräte in den ersten Jahren ihrer Kinder (0-5) zusammenzustellen. Dabei werden mögliche Effekte von „Technoference“ (die Unterbrechung einer Tätigkeit durch Technik) oder Aufmerksamkeitsabsorption auf die Sensibilität und Responsivität bei der Eltern-Kind-Interaktionen beleuchtet. Wir haben die Datenbanken PsycInfo und PubMed gründlich durchsucht und zusätzlich Datenquellen wie Google Scholar und Google konsultiert. In diese Übersicht wurden 12 Studien mit verschiedenen methodischen Ansätzen einbezogen. Die bisherigen Studien zeigen, dass die Verwendung von Smartphones bei Eltern mit Änderungen in der Sensibilität und Responsivität assoziiert sein könnte. Die Aufmerksamkeitsabsorption zugunsten des Geräts scheint stärker zu dieser Assoziation beizutragen als kurze Beziehungsunterbrechungen (Technoference) per se. Um diese Prozesse besser zu verstehen, sind jedoch eingehendere Längsschnittstudien erforderlich.子ども部屋のスマートフォン:乳幼児期(0～5歳) の親子相互交流時における親 のスマートフォン使用と親の感受性と応答性:スコーピングレビュー スマートフォンの遍在は、“子ども部屋への入り口”で止まってはいない。子ども の人生の始まりにおいて、人間関係に対する親のスマートフォン使用の影響をよ りよく理解しておくことは、特に重要である。乳幼児は基本的に、アタッチメン トパターンの発達の脈絡においては、養育者の繊細で反応のよい行動を必要とし ている。親の感受性の乱れは、親子間のアタッチメント関連の相互作用プロセス と、自己統制能力などの子どもの発達の成果に負の影響をもたらす。本レビュー の目的は、乳幼児期(0-5)における親子相互交流時の親の感受性と応答性に対し、 テクノフェレンスあるいは没頭を通しての親の携帯機器使用の影響について既存 の研究をまとめることである。我々は、データベースのPsycInfoとPubMed、さら にGoogle ScholarやGoogleなどのデータソースを徹底して調査した。このレビュ ーには、様々な系統的アプローチによる12研究がある。本研究は、今までのとこ ろ親のスマートフォン使用は親の感受性と応答性の変化に関連している可能性が あることを示唆している。機器への没頭は、親子関係への短い中断それ自体 (テ クノフェレンス) よりも強くこの関連に寄与しているように思われる。しかしな がら、これらのプロセスをよりよく理解するために、より徹底した縦断研究が必 要である。.摘 要:无所不在的智能手机并没有停在育儿室门口。尤其重要的是, 要更好地了解父母使用智能手机对儿童生命初期人际关系的影响。在依恋模式发展的环境中, 婴儿和幼儿基本上依赖于看护者的敏感和反应行为。父母敏感性的障碍会对父母和儿童之间依恋相关的互动过程以及儿童的成长 (例如自我调节能力) 产生负面影响。这篇综述的目的是汇编关于父母走神或沉迷于使用移动设备对儿童早期 (0-5岁) 亲子互动中父母敏感性和反应能力影响的现有研究。我们对PsycInfo和PubMed数据库进行了彻底的搜索, 另外还查询了Google Scholar和Google等数据源。在这篇综述中, 我们纳入了12项采用各种方法论的研究。迄今为止的研究表明, 父母使用智能手机可能与父母敏感性和反应能力的变化有关。沉迷于设备比关系本身的短暂中断 (走神) 对这种变化有更大的影响。然而, 为了更好地理解这些过程, 需要进行更深入的纵向研究。.الهواتف الذكية في الحضانة: استخدام الوالدين للهواتف الذكية وحساسية الوالدين والاستجابة في إطار التفاعل بين الوالدين والطفل في مرحلة الطفولة المبكرة (صفر - 5 سنوات): استقصاء منهجي لا يقتصر استخدام الهواتف الذكية عند باب الحضانة. ولذلك من المهم بشكل خاص الوصول إلى فهم أفضل لتأثير استخدام الوالدين للهاتف الذكي على العلاقات في بداية حياة الأطفال. يعتمد الأطفال بشكل أساسي على سلوكيات مقدمي الرعاية الحساسة والمتجاوبة في سياق تطور أنماط التعلق. ويمكن أن يكون للاضطرابات في الحساسية الأبوية أثر سلبي على عمليات التفاعل المرتبطة بالتعلق بين الوالدين والأطفال وعلى نتائج الطفل، مثل القدرة على التنظيم الذاتي. والهدف من هذا الاستعراض هو تجميع البحوث القائمة بشأن تأثير استخدام الوالدين للأجهزة المحمولة من خلال على حساسية الوالدين واستجابتهم أثناء التفاعلات بين الوالدين والطفل في السنوات الأولى حتى 5 سنوات. تم البحث الشامل في قواعد بيانات شاملًا عن قاعدتي البيانات PsycInfo و PubMed ، بالإضافة إلى موقع باحث جوجل . في هذا الاستعراض قمنا بتضمين 12 دراسة ذات مناهج بحثية متنوعة. تشير نتائج الأبحاث حتى الآن إلى أن استخدام الهاتف الذكي قد يكون مرتبطًا بالتغيرات في حساسية الوالدين واستجابتهم. كما يبدو أن الانهماك التام مع التليفون (absorption) يساهم في هذا الارتباط بقوة أكبر من التشتت العرضي القصير (تكنوفيرنس) . ومع ذلك، من أجل فهم أفضل لهذه العمليات، هناك حاجة إلى المزيد من الدراسات المتعمقة على المدى الطويل.

Social interactions provide a crucial context for early learning and cognitive development during infancy. Action prediction-the ability to anticipate an observed action-facilitates successful, coordinated interaction and is an important social-cognitive skill in early development. However, current knowledge about infant action prediction comes largely from screen-based laboratory tasks. We know little about what infants' action prediction skills look like during real-time, free-flowing interactions with a social partner. In the current study, we used head-mounted eyetracking to quantify 9-month-old infants' visual anticipations of their parents' actions during free-flowing parent-child play. Our findings reveal that infants do anticipate their parents' actions during dynamic interactions at rates significantly higher than would be expected by chance. In addition, the frequency with which they do so is associated with child-led joint attention and hand-eye coordination. These findings are the first to reveal infants' action prediction behaviors in a more naturalistic context than prior screen-based studies, and they support the idea that action prediction is inherently linked to motor development and plays an important role in infants' social-cognitive development. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9HrmcicfiqE.

Play is critical for children's learning, but there is significant disagreement over whether and how parents should guide children's play. The objective of the current study was to examine how parent-child interaction affected children's engagement and problem-solving behaviors when challenged with similar tasks. Parents and 4- to 7-year-old children in the U.S. (N = 111 dyads) played together at an interactive electric circuit exhibit in a children's museum. We examined how parents and children set and accomplished goals while playing with the exhibit materials. Children then participated in a set of challenges that involved completing increasingly difficult circuits. Children whose parents set goals for their interactions showed less engagement with the challenge task (choosing to attempt fewer challenges), and children whose parents were more active in completing the circuits while families played with the exhibit subsequently completed fewer challenges on their own. We discuss these results in light of broader findings on the role of parent-child interaction in museum settings.

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have more emotional difficulties than typically developing (TD) children. Of all the factors that impact children's emotional development, parents, and the way they interact with their children, are of crucial importance. The present study compared the amount of parent-child interactions among 35 dyads of parents and their children with ASD and 41 dyads of parents and their TD children, aged between 3 and 13 years, during a frustration-eliciting situation. We further examined whether children's alexithymia is linked to parent-child interactions and whether parent-child interactions are linked to children's emotional difficulties. We found that parents of children with ASD interacted significantly less with their children than parents of TD children. This reduced interaction was better explained by children's alexithymia than by children's ASD diagnosis. Finally, parent-child interaction mediated the relationship between children's ASD diagnosis and children's emotion regulation ability, as well as some aspects of children's emotional reactivity but only if not accounting for children's alexithymia levels. Our results demonstrate the determinant role children's alexithymia plays on parent-child interactions and on how these interactions are linked to children's difficulties in emotion regulation and emotional reactivity. Results are discussed in light of how parent-child interactions and the emotional ability of children with ASD can be improved by targeting children's alexithymia. Autism Res 2019, 12: 458-468 © 2019 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. LAY SUMMARY: In the present research, we found that parents of children with autism interact less with their children compared to parents of typically developing children. We also found that this decreased interaction is linked to children's difficulties to recognize, describe, and distinguish emotions, a triad of difficulties known as alexithymia. Furthermore, parents' interaction with their children explains emotional reactivity and emotion regulation problems in children with autism. However, if we take into consideration children's alexithymia, then parents' interaction with their children is not related to their children's emotional difficulties in reactivity and regulation. Therefore, to improve the interaction between parents and their children with autism, and the emotional development of these children, we recommend interventions that teach children with autism how to recognize, describe, and distinguish emotions in themselves and others.

The quality of the interparental relationship is recognized as an important influence on child and adolescent psychopathology. Historically, clinically oriented research on this topic has focused on the impacts of parental divorce and domestic violence as primary interparental relationship influences on child outcomes, to the relative neglect of dimensional or qualitative features of the couple/interparental relationship for youth (child and adolescent) psychopathology. Recent research has highlighted that children are affected by attributes of interparental conflict, specifically how parents express and manage conflicts in their relationship, across a continuum of expressed severity and negativity - ranging from silence to violence. Furthermore, new evidence highlights that children's emotional, behavioral, social, academic outcomes, and future interpersonal relationships are adversely affected by conflict between parents/carers whether adults are living together or not (i.e. married or separated), or where children are or are not genetically related to their rearing parents (e.g. adoption). We review evidence and present an integrated theoretical model, highlighting how children are affected by interparental conflict and what this evidence base means for effective intervention and prevention program development, as well as the development of possible cost-benefit models. Additionally, we review policy implications of this research and highlight some very recent examples of UK-based policy focusing on addressing the interparental relationship and its impact on youth psychopathology.

BACKGROUND Theoretically, insecure attachment and negative parental behaviors are risk factors for childhood anxiety. However, few empirical studies have examined their relative contribution including differences between mothers and fathers. To date, only one study has examined a mediational model including these factors, albeit in a nonclinical sample. METHOD This study ameliorates this limitation by investigating direct and indirect relations between maternal and paternal attachment and behaviors, and clinical anxiety in children (mean age 9.6 years). The study recruited 54 families. Anxiety symptoms were measured by the Spielberger State-trait Inventory for Children, attachment relationships by the Security Scale, and parental behaviors using the Rearing Behavior Questionnaire. RESULTS Neither insecure attachment relationship with mother nor maternal negative behavior was a significant predictor of anxiety in children. However, insecure attachment to father accounted for a significant proportion of variance in anxiety, and also fully mediated the relationship between paternal rejection and anxiety. CONCLUSIONS Our findings highlight the importance of assessing the relative contribution of risk factors and the importance of including fathers when investigating the development and maintenance of childhood anxiety.

Parent-child coregulation is thought to be an important precursor for children’s developing self-regulation, but we know little about how individual parent factors shape parent-child physiological coregulation. We examined whether maternal baseline respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), teaching, and disengagement were associated with stronger or weaker coregulation of RSA between mothers and their 3-year-old children (N = 47), modeled across 18 min of observed dyadic interaction using multilevel coupled autoregressive models. Whereas greater maternal teaching was associated with stronger coregulation in mother and child RSA over time, maternal disengagement was related to weaker coregulation, specifically more divergent parent and child RSA at higher levels of maternal disengagement. Coregulation of mother-child RSA was also weaker when mothers’ baseline RSA was higher. Findings contribute to the emerging knowledge base on real-time patterns of parent-child physiological coregulation in early childhood and suggest that mothers’ physiology and behavioral engagement with the child play an important role in mother-child physiological coregulation patterns.

Background: This study evaluated whether clinical and economic outcomes from CBT for child anxiety disorders in the context of maternal anxiety disorders are improved by adding treatment focused on (i) maternal anxiety disorders, or (ii) mother-child interactions. Methods: 211 children (7 – 12 years, 85% White British, 52% female) with a primary anxiety disorder, whose mothers also had a current anxiety disorder, were randomised to receive (i) child-focused CBT with non-specific control interventions (CCBT+Con), (ii) CCBT with CBT for the maternal anxiety disorder (CCBT+MCBT), or (iii) CCBT with an intervention targeting the mother-child interaction (CCBT+MCI). A cost-utility analysis from a societal perspective was conducted using mother/child combined Quality Adjusted Life Years (QALYs). [Trial registration: https://doi.org/10.1186/ISRCTN19762288]. Results: MCBT was associated with immediate reductions in maternal anxiety compared to the non-specific control; however, after children had also received CCBT, maternal outcomes in the CCBT+MCI and CCBT+Con arms improved and CCBT+MCBT was no longer superior. Neither CCBT+MCBT nor CCBT+MCI conferred a benefit over CCBT+Con in terms of child anxiety disorder diagnoses post-treatment [primary outcome] (adj RR: 1.22 (95% CI 0.88, 1.67), p = .23; adj RR: 1.21 (95% CI 0.88, 1.65), p = .24 respectively) or global improvement ratings (adj RR 1.25 (95% CI 0.99, 1.57), p = .06; adj RR 1.18 (95% CI 0.93, 1.50), p = .17) or six and 12 months later. No significant differences between the groups were found on the main economic outcome measures (child/mother combined QALY mean difference: CCBT+MCBT vs CCBT+Con: -0.04 (95% CI -0.12, 0.04), p = 0.29; CCBT+MCI vs CCBT+Con: 0.02 (95% CI -0.05, -0.09), p = 0.54). CCBT+MCI was associated with non-significantly higher costs than CCBT (mean difference: £154 (95% CI -£1239, £1547), p = 0.83) but, when taking into account sampling uncertainty, it may be cost-effective compared with CCBT alone. Conclusions: Good outcomes were achieved for children and their mothers across treatment arms. There was no evidence of significant clinical benefit from supplementing CCBT with either CBT for the maternal anxiety disorder or treatment focussed on mother-child interactions, but the addition of MCI (and not MCBT) may be cost-effective. Keywords: Child; anxiety; mother; parent-child interaction; CBT.

Preschool children's vocabulary mainly develops verbal through interaction. Therefore, the technology-enhanced storytelling (TES) activity Jeffy's Journey is developed to support parent–child interaction and vocabulary in preschool children. TES entails shared verbal storytelling supported by a story structure and real-time visual, auditory and textual prompts on a tablet computer. In this exploratory study, we investigated how TES influenced parent–child interaction and vocabulary. An experimental pretest-intervention-posttest design was followed with 44 3-year-old children and their parents in the experimental group and 27 peers in the control group. Results revealed that TES stimulated active child involvement and generated parent–child interaction, yet a great variety in TES characteristics both in time spent and usage of prompts was found among participants. Dyads that spent more time on story phases showed more and higher quality parent–child interaction. The usage of prompts was associated with improved parent–child interaction quality. Finally, an effect of TES was evidenced on children's productive vocabulary knowledge. To conclude, this study demonstrates that TES can be considered as a promising context for fostering parent–child interaction and children's vocabulary development.

While separate pieces of research found parents offer toddlers cues to express that they are (1) joking and (2) pretending, and that toddlers and preschoolers understand intentions to (1) joke and (2) pretend, it is not yet clear whether parents and toddlers consider joking and pretending to be distinct concepts. This is important as distinguishing these two forms of non-literal acts could open a gateway to understanding the complexities of the non-literal world, as well as the complexities of intentions in general. Two studies found parents offer explicit cues to help 16- to 24-month-olds distinguish pretending and joking. Across an action play study (n = 25) and a verbal play study (n = 40) parents showed more disbelief and less belief through their actions and language when joking versus pretending. Similarly, toddlers showed less belief through their actions, and older toddlers showed less belief through their language. Toddlers' disbelief could be accounted for by their response to parents' language and actions. Thus, these studies reveal a mechanism by which toddlers learn to distinguish joking and pretending. Parents offer explicit cues to distinguish these intentions, and toddlers use these cues to guide their own behaviors, which in turn allows toddlers to distinguish these intentional contexts.

The present study investigated the relationship between complexity of pretend play, initiation of pretense activities, and mental state utterances used during play. Children 3 to 4 years of age were videotaped while engaging in pretend play with a parent. The videotapes were coded according to mental state utterances (i.e. desire, emotion, cognitive, and modulations of assertion), and pretend play complexity (i.e. interaction with parent, object use, theme, and role transformation). Children who initiated the pretend activities exhibited more complex play behaviours than those whose parents initiated the activities. Children's increased use of cognitive mental state terms was related to increased pretend play complexity, while parents' increased use of cognitive terms was related to decreased levels of complexity. The results provide support for using a guided participation approach to interacting with preschool children to enhance independence and complexity in play. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The coordination of physiological processes between parents and infants is thought to support behaviors critical for infant adaptation, but we know little about parent-child physiological coregulation during the preschool years. The present study examined whether time-varying changes in parent and child respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) exhibited coregulation (across-person dynamics) accounting for individual differences in parent and child RSA, and whether there were differences in these parasympathetic processes by children's externalizing problems. Mother-child dyads (N = 47; Child age M = 3½ years) engaged in three laboratory tasks (free play, clean up, puzzle task) for 18 min, during which RSA data were collected. Multilevel coupled autoregressive models revealed that mothers and preschoolers showed positive coregulation of RSA such that changes in mother RSA predicted changes in the same direction in child RSA and vice versa, controlling for the stability of within-person RSA over time and individual differences in overall mean RSA. However, when children's externalizing behaviors were higher, coregulation was negative such that changes in real-time mother and child RSA showed divergence rather than positive concordance. Results suggest that mothers and preschoolers do coregulate RSA during real-time interactions, but that children's higher externalizing behavior problems are related to disruptions in these processes. 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. © Dev Psychobiol

Background: Consistent with evidence from high-income countries (HICs), we previously showed that, in an informal peri-urban settlement in a low-middle income country, training parents in book sharing with their infants benefitted infant language and attention (Vally, Murray, Tomlinson, & Cooper,). Here, we investigated whether these benefits were explained by improvements in carer–infant interactions in both book-sharing and non-book-sharing contexts. We also explored whether infant socioemotional development benefitted from book sharing. Methods: We conducted a randomized controlled trial in Khayelitsha, South Africa. Carers of 14–16-month-old infants were randomized to 8weeks’ training in book sharing (n=49) or a wait-list control group (n=42). In addition to the cognitive measures reported previously, independent assessments were made at base line and follow-up of carer–infant interactions during book sharing and toy play. Assessments were also made, at follow-up only, of infant prosocial behaviour in a ‘help task’, and of infant imitation of doll characters’ nonsocial actions and an interpersonal interaction. Eighty-two carer–infant pairs (90%) were assessed at follow-up. (Trial registration ISRCTN39953901). Results: Carers who received the training showed significant improvements in book-sharing interactions (sensitivity, elaborations, reciprocity), and, to a smaller extent, in toy-play interactions (sensitivity). Infants in the intervention group showed a significantly higher rate of prosocial behaviour, and tended to show more frequent imitation of the interpersonal interaction. Improvements in carer behaviour during book sharing, but not during toy play, mediated intervention effects on all infant cognitive outcomes, and tended to mediate intervention effects on infant interpersonal imitation. Conclusions: Training in book sharing, a simple, inexpensive intervention that has been shown to benefit infant cognitive development in a low-middle income country, also shows promise for improving infant socioemotional outcomes in this context. Benefits are mediated by improvements in carer–infant interactions, particularly in book-sharing contexts.

This study investigates spontaneous pretend play during a parent-child free play observation, and deferred imitation observed in an experimental setting in speaking and non-speaking children with autism in comparison to children with typical development. Both groups of children with autism showed a reduced level of deferred imitation compared to the typically developing group, but only the non-speaking children with autism spent significantly less time in pretend play compared to children with typical development. Deferred imitation was related to parents' verbal interaction in both groups. An analysis of the parent-child interaction revealed that parents of children with autism used less synchronized comments compared to parents of typically developing children. Parents of the speaking group with autism used more synchronized than unsynchronized comments, while parents of the non-speaking group used the same amount of synchronized and unsynchronized comments. These findings are discussed in terms of how the developmental level affects behavior and interaction in autism.

Individual differences in personality play a major role for functioning in a multitude of important life domains, including one's interpersonal relationships. The present study examined the effects of parental personality and child temperament traits on dyadic parent-child interaction during early childhood. Participants were a community sample of 145 mothers, 145 fathers, and their 3- to 6-year-old children. Child traits were assessed using standardized laboratory paradigms, parents reported on their own traits, and parent-child interaction was assessed observationally. Parental positive emotionality, negative emotionality, and constraint subtraits were related to parental responsiveness; the number and type of parental bids and the quality of parental responsiveness were also a function of child positive emotionality and effortful control subtraits and, for mothers, child negative emotionality subtraits. Child traits were related to their own interaction behaviors; children higher on positive emotionality subtraits made more social bids, and children higher on effortful control subtraits made more influence attempts and fewer negative bids; child positive emotionality and effortful control subtraits were associated with higher quality child responsiveness. Findings speak to coherence in personality constructs across the life span, with comparable traits measured in adults and early childhood-aged children demonstrating remarkably consistent effects on dyadic interaction behavior.

The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the effects of (a) parent–child interaction and (b) home environment on the early development of empathy in toddlers. A total of 176 Japanese families (both young children and their parents) were enrolled in this study. Laboratory assessment of children's empathy development and caregiver's rearing competence was made during a controlled observation of parent–child interaction. The results of this study suggest that of all the factors examined, the degree of parent–child interaction, the stability of long-term parenting practices, parental attitude, and mother's mental health status were correlated with development of empathy in children. These findings provide new indicators for the development of individualized intervention methods for use in clinical practice.

Myriad studies support a relation between parental beliefs and behaviours. This study adds to the literature by focusing on the specific relationship between parental goals and their communication with toddlers. Do parents with different goals talk about different topics with their children? Parents' goals for their 30-month olds were gathered using semi-structured interviews with 47 primary caregivers, whereas the topics of conversations that took place during interactions were investigated via coding videotapes of observations in the home. Parents' short- and long-term goals spanned several areas, including educational, social–emotional, developmental and pragmatic goals. Parental utterances most frequently focused on pragmatic issues, followed by play and academic topics. Parents who mentioned long-term educational goals devoted more of their talk to academic topics and less to pragmatic topics, controlling for socio-economic status. Thus, parental goals differ and these differences relate to the conversations parents engage in with their children. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This study investigated the hypothesis that background television affects interactions between parents and very young children. Fifty-one 12-, 24-, and 36-month-old children, each accompanied by 1 parent, were observed for 1 hr of free play in a laboratory space resembling a family room. For half of the hour, an adult-directed television program played in the background on a monaural television set. During the other half hour, the television was not on. Both the quantity and quality of parent-child interaction decreased in the presence of background television. These findings suggest one way in which early, chronic exposure to television may have a negative impact on development.

Background Recent estimates concerning the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) suggest that at least one in 200 children is affected. This group of children and families have important service needs. The involvement of parents in implementing intervention strategies designed to help their autistic children has long been accepted as helpful. The potential benefits are increased skills and reduced stress for parents as well as children. Methods This research review focused on interventions for children aged 1‐6 years, and was carried out using systematic methodology: a comprehensive search of psychological, educational and biomedical databases, as well as bibliographies and reference lists of key articles, contact with experts in the field, and hand search of key journals. Only studies which involved a concurrent element of control were included. Results The review found very few studies that had adequate research design from which to draw conclusions about the effectiveness of parent-implemented early intervention. Both randomized and controlled studies tended to suggest that parent training leads to improved child communicative behaviour, increased maternal knowledge of autism, enhanced maternal communication style and parent child interaction, and reduced maternal depression. Conclusion It seems that parent training can successfully contribute to intervention for young children with ASD. However, the review highlights the need for improved research in this area.

Objective: To evaluate whether the mother–child interactions of hyperactive preschool children and their typically developing peers differentially vary as a function of situational demands, and whether groupwise differences exist with respect to disciplinary practices and family lifestyles (e.g. level of parental investment, strategies for responding to child-initiated provocation). Methods: Parenting practices were assessed via videotaped parent–child interactions and self-report methods in mother–child dyads of 21 hyperactive preschoolers and 48 age-matched control dyads. Results: Hyperactive preschoolers were significantly more non-compliant during parent–child interactions. Mothers of hyperactive preschoolers exhibited more negative behaviour and less encouragement with heightened situational demands. Although few significant differences were reported regarding disciplinary practices, parents of hyperactive preschoolers reported greater levels of anger and child rearing difficulty, and perceived their children as more bothersome. Conclusions: Parents of hyperactive preschoolers may profit from interventions that are sensitive to the impact of situational changes on their behaviour and which address possible attributional biases regarding the source of parent–child discord. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

ISSUES AND PURPOSE . The goal of this pilot study was to understand attention behaviors in extremely low-birth-weight (ELBW) children within the context of parent-child interactions and their relation to the child's independent performance. DESIGN AND METHODS . Parent-child and child-alone puzzle matching tasks, demographics, and IQ were measured in a sample of 15 4-year-olds who weighed ≤1,000 g at birth and were free from major disability. RESULTS . A self-regulated and efficient strategy during the parent-child puzzle was related to using an efficient strategy when working alone. Attention regulation during the parent-child puzzle was related to accuracy in the child-alone task. Parents appeared to be regulating attention appropriately. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS . Understanding the mechanisms of attention regulation in ELBW children could lead to specific interventions to support parents in strengthening their children's self-regulatory functioning.

During the first years of life, children come to understand and talk about a self separate from others. This study examined self- and other-reference and communicative intents expressed by children and parents in dyadic interaction at 14, 20 and 32 months. Research questions included whether children's early use of self- and other-reference pronouns occurred for expression of particular communicative intents, how use changed with age, and whether parent and child pragmatic expressions of self and other were similar. Results showed that children's early explicit reference to self tended to take the form of I rather than me/my/mine, and was used primarily in making statements about their intended actions, in making requests or proposals to their parents and in stating propositions about the world around them. Children during this developmental period were only beginning to refer to the present other with the pronoun you and these instances occurred primarily in making requests or proposals. Despite age-related increases in pronominal forms and intents, a small set of intents continued to provide the context for most self- and other-reference pronouns. In the communicative contexts in which they explicitly refer to self and other, children did not appear to exclusively mirror those which were observed in parental speech.

The purpose of the study was to examine mother–child interactions at 1 year of life within three contexts: feeding, attachment behaviors, and maternal vocal joint attention (play), between groups of depressed or non-depressed mothers, and to examine the relationship between these three contexts and the child’s mental developmental index (MDI). Half of the 36 mother–infant dyads had depressed mothers. There were no significant differences in the feeding interactions, attachment, or joint attention found between the depressed and non-depressed groups. Securely attached children had a higher MDI score than insecurely attached children, however, the correlation between feeding interaction score and MDI was not significant. Maternal vocal joint attention was significantly correlated with the MDI for non-depressed mothers but not for depressed mothers. These results are not consistent with the prior literature, and the discussion focused on possible explanation for these findings.

Objective The aim was to examine the relationship between parentxhild interaction in middle childhood and adult depression in a group of women (n=54) who were studied prospectively. Method The sample was drawn from a longitudinal study of family functioning and children's difficulties in an inner London borough. Statistical methods, implemented in SUDAAN, accounted for the initial multistage sampling. Results The results suggested that indicators of lack of positive parent-child interaction based on maternal reports when the child was 10 years of age were significantly associated with depression some 20 years later. No parallel association was found between overtly negative aspects of parenting and depression. Conclusion There was some evidence of a link between parent-child interaction in middle childhood and adult depression, although the mechanism for this remains unclear.

An important quest/on for clinicians and researchers wanting to carry out direct observations of parent-child interaction is whether the findings are representative of families' typical, everyday behaviour. This review asks whether observational findings are affected by (a) the presence of the observer, (b) the type of task imposed by the observer (e.g. directing parent and child to play rather than observing spontaneous interaction), (c) the location of the observations (e.g. clinic or laboratory rather than home). The review suggests that the presence of an observer does not necessarily distort the nature of interactions. However, parent-child interactions seen in structured or artificial settings may not be representative of those normally taking place at home.

Oral narratives are important developmental attainments for young children, and they provide them with a new mode for organizing personal experience. Narratives are not only individual constructions, however; they are also shaped and transformed b y parent–child transactions. In this study the relations between mother– and father–child co-constructions of a narrative involving emotional themes and the emotional organization of children's narratives obtained using the MacArthur Sto ry-Stem Battery (MSSB) were investigated. The results showed associations between both mother– and father–child co-constructions and children's MSSB narratives. In addition, the findings highlighted the dyadic aspects of co-constructions and t he importance of taking into consideration children's co-constructions with both parents.

In the last decade, research has established the competence and sensitivity of fathers with their young children. In the field of child language, the significance of father's input has also been recognised. In fact, some researchers suggest that parents in the Western world play complementary rather than redundant roles. The present investigation which is longitudinal in design compares a father and mother in conversation with their language-impaired child; it documents the differences and similarities across the parents. Interestingly, on the part of the language-impaired child, most of the differences were influenced by differences in parental strategy. The implications of these findings which highlight the interactive nature of parent-child conversation are discussed.

The purpose of this study was to examine the possible relationship between consumer debt and several aspects of parent-child interaction, namely time spent by parents with their child(ren). affectionate interaction between parents and children and disciplinary parent-child interaction. A small, positive relationship was found between consumer debt and disciplinary parent-child interaction. No meaningful relationship was found between consumer debt and parental time spent with child(ren) or affectionate parental-child interaction. Age and number of children are more reliable correlates of parent-child interaction than is amount of household consumer debt.

BACKGROUND: Through play children exercise their emerging mental abilities, and for their part, when in collaborative play, caregivers often adjust their behaviours to assist their children's progress. In this study, we focused on comparisons between play of Down Syndrome (DS) children with their two parents as well as on comparisons between the two parents' play behaviours. METHOD: Altogether 40 parent-child dyads participated: 20 children with DS (M age = 36.14 months) with their mothers and separately with their fathers. We coded participants' play behaviours during child solitary and mother-child and father-child collaborative sessions. RESULTS: Although children increased exploratory play from solitary to collaborative sessions with both parents, symbolic play increased only during joint play with fathers. Fathers displayed less symbolic and more exploratory activity compared to mothers. Mothers and fathers alike were attuned to their children, although fathers showed a higher degree of attunement. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that maternal and paternal contributions to DS child play skills are positive but different. During collaborative play children received specific and nonoverlapping scaffolding from their two parents, and fathers' contributions were unique.

Major meta-analyses of trials of individual child psychotherapy, cognitive-behaviour therapy for children and family therapy have all yielded effect sizes of about 0.7 indicating that the average treated case, fares better than approximately 76% of untreated cases after therapy. The results of these meta-analyses are important because they justify the use of psychological interventions for treating children’s psychological problems. Broad band meta-analyses have yielded an unequivocally positive answer to the big question–Does child psychotherapy work? In contrast, tightly focused narrative reviews and small meta-analyses which examine the effectiveness of specific interventions with specific problems have addressed the narrower question–What works for whom with children and adolescents? The present paper addresses this question with particular reference to a number of the more common conduct and emotional problems which occur during childhood and adolescence.

Parent education in the 1980's must address such issues as the prosumer movement, cost efficiency, prevention rather than remediation, program availability, and evaluation. Parent-Child Interactions, a model designed to instruct parents to teach their preschool children basic cognitive and perceptual skills, is responsive to these current issues and concerns. The model is explained and studies testing it are reported.

Children with home behavior problems frequently are treated via training their parents to become behavior therapists for their own children. One well-established approach has been to use didactic group training. Another approach involves parent training in specific parent-child interaction patterns through the use of modeling, in vivo practice, and immediate feedback. In this study, the effectiveness of these two methods was compared via multiple outcome measures, which included both direct therapist observation and parent report. Twenty-nine children between the ages of 4 and 9 were divided into didactic group-treatment, individual mother-child interaction training, and controls. After five training sessions, therapist observation revealed improvement in the facilitative behavior of the mothers who received individual, in-vivo instruction, as well as improvement in the children's behavior. No significant changes were observed in the group treatment or control conditions. Specific home management behaviors were improved in all three groups according to mothers' reports. The individually trained mothers expressed significantly more satisfaction with the program. It is suggested that direct observation of mother-child behavior, with immediate feedback, reinforcement, and further practice, may be related to the superiority of the individual training method.

A method of home observations of mother-child interaction is described. Its development is outlined in terms of the relevant conceptual and methodological issues, and the concomitant tactical decisions involved in development are discussed. The scheme focuses on parental responsivity, affect, social communication and social control, and a novel combination of time-interval and event-sequential recording is used to discriminate parental functioning in these areas. The measures have been shown to have a satisfactorily high level of reliability, and preliminary analysis indicates construct validity.