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An ultra-high-vacuum compatible X-ray chopper system has been designed, constructed and integrated into the XTIP beamline at the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne National Laboratory. The XTIP beamline can operate at soft X-ray energies from 400 eV to 1900 eV while providing a focused beam down to about 10 µm × 10 µm into the synchrotron X-ray scanning tunneling microscopy (SX-STM) endstation instrument. The X-ray chopper is a critical component for separating topographic information from chemical information in SX-STM through phase-sensitive current detection. Depending on the experimental needs, the modulation frequency can be controlled from 100 Hz to 10 kHz. In addition, the chopper system is fully bakeable and can achieve a base pressure of 10−10 mbar. Facilities for active water cooling have been designed, but passive cooling through copper braids has been shown to be sufficient at standard chopping frequencies. Using an Fe/Al2O3/CoAl(111) sample, the separation of the SX-STM current into a chemical component and a stable feedback signal is demonstrated.

A new beamline, XTIP, has been constructed at the Advanced Photon Source to deliver monochromatic soft X-rays of between 400 and 1900 eV for the emerging synchrotron X-ray scanning tunneling microscopy technique., In recent years, there have been numerous efforts worldwide to develop the synchrotron X-ray scanning tunneling microscopy (SX-STM) technique. Here, the inauguration of XTIP, the world’s first beamline fully dedicated to SX-STM, is reported. The XTIP beamline is located at Sector 4 of the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne National Laboratory. It features an insertion device that can provide left- or right-circular as well as horizontal- and vertical-linear polarization. XTIP delivers monochromatic soft X-rays of between 400 and 1900 eV focused into an environmental enclosure that houses the endstation instrument. This article discusses the beamline system design and its performance.

Impurity contamination in thin-film solar cells remains an uncertain risk due to the little-known impact of impurities on recombination. Building upon previous work, in which we intentionally contaminated lead halide perovskite (LHP) solar cells with iron, we further examine the distribution and charge state of iron-induced defects in LHP films using synchrotron-based X-ray techniques. X-ray absorption measurements suggest that iron-rich regions, which form among iron feedstock concentrations that exceed 100 ppm, most closely resemble the chemistry of Fe2O3. Iron distributed within the bulk may form a mix of Fe2+and Fe3+, the latter of which is not expected to be recombination active, potentially allowing LHPs to incorporate more iron than traditional semiconductors. X-ray beam induced current measurements show little correlation between the presence of iron-rich regions and charge collection, which further suggests low recombination activity at these sites. These results further elucidate the recombination behavior caused by iron incorporation in LHP films, revealing insight into how inhomogeneous incorporation of impurities may mitigate photovoltaic performance degradation., National Science Foundation (U.S.). Materials Research Science and Engineering Centers (Program) (award number DMR-1419807), United States. Department of Energy. Office of Science User Facility (Contract No. DE-AC02-06CH11357), National Science Foundation (U.S.) (NSF EECS Award No. 1541959), Martin Family Society of Fellows for Sustainability, National Science Foundation (U.S.). Graduate Research Fellowship (Grant No. 1122374), National Science Foundation (U.S.). (CA No. EEC-1041895)

There is no doubt about the potential offered by the low-cost fabrication and high efficiency of hybrid organic–inorganic perovskite solar cells. However, the service lifetimes of these devices must be increased from months to years to capitalize on their potential. The archetypal hybrid perovskite for solar cells, methylammonium lead iodide (CH3NH3PbI3, abbreviated MAPI), readily degrades in ambient atmosphere under standard operating conditions. Understanding the origin and effects of this degradation can pave the way to better engineer photovoltaic devices and the perovskite material itself. Herein we present the effects of varying pressure on the electrical performance of MAPI solar cells. Solar cell parameters, especially open circuit voltage, are significantly affected by the total ambient pressure and present an unexpected reversible behavior upon pressure cycling. We complement photoluminescence studies as a function of ambient atmosphere and temperature with first-principles density functional t...

In situ and operando measurement techniques combined with nanoscale resolution have proven invaluable in multiple fields of study. We argue that evaluating device performance as well as material behavior by correlative X-ray microscopy with

Statistical and correlative analysis are increasingly important in the design and study of new materials, from semiconductors to metals. Non-destructive measurement techniques, with high spatial resolution, capable of correlating composition and/or structure with device properties, are few and far between. For the case of polycrystalline and inhomogeneous materials, the added challenge is that nanoscale resolution is in general not compatible with the large sampling areas necessary to have a statistical representation of the specimen under study. For the study of grain cores and grain boundaries in polycrystalline solar absorbers this is of particular importance since their dissimilar behavior and variability throughout the samples makes it difficult to draw conclusions and ultimately optimize the material. In this study, we present a nanoscale in-operando approach based on the multimodal utilization of synchrotron nano x-ray fluorescence and x-ray beam induced current collected for grain core and grain boundary areas and correlated pixel-by-pixel in fully operational Cu ( In ( 1 − x ) Ga x ) Se 2 solar cells. We observe that low gallium cells have grain boundaries that over perform compared to the grain cores and high gallium cells have boundaries that under perform. These results demonstrate how nanoscale correlative X-ray microscopy can guide research pathways towards grain engineering low cost, high efficiency solar cells.

Synchrotron X-ray Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (SX-STM) is a novel imaging technique capable of providing real space chemically specific mapping with a potential of reaching atomic resolution. Determination of chemical composition along with ultra-high resolution imaging by SX-STM can be realized through excitation of core electrons by incident X-rays when their energy is tuned to an absorption edge of a particular atom during raster scanning, as is done in the conventional STM experiments. In this work, we provide a brief summary and the current status of SX-STM and discuss its applications for material science. In particular, we discuss instrumentation challenges associated with the SX-STM technique and present early experiments on Cu doped ZrTe3 single crystals.

Lead halide perovskites have emerged as promising absorber materials over the last decade to increase the efficiency of photovoltaics beyond its current limits. However, to further optimize the performance of perovskites more detailed studies need to be performed, which allow for the correlation of film morphology and local electronic properties at the nanoscale. Here, we present a scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) approach to probe the effect of an applied electric field of a methylammonium formamidinium lead triiodide perovskite thin film on the film response by current–voltage spectroscopy, current imaging tunneling spectroscopy, differential conductance mapping, and x-ray absorption spectroscopy by means of synchrotron x-ray STM. We find a strong correlation between the measurement conditions and the obtained current–voltage characteristics when imaging under opposite bias polarities. In particular, we find similarities to already observed poling effects for lead halide perovskites, which result in either a positively or negatively charged interface due to ion and vacancy migration. Our results provide insight into the influence of measurement conditions such as bias polarity on the performance assessment of perovskite thin films by STM.

The efficiency of solar cells with a polycrystalline absorber is typically limited by grain boundaries. Many questions need to be answered such as: which roles do elemental and structural inhomogeneities play with respect to electrical performance? By which mechanisms does degradation occur and how can it be mitigated? The answers to these questions lie at the nanoscale. Ideally, we would measure performance, composition, and structure in-situ and operando all at once. Correlative, synchrotron-based X-ray microscopy offers a step in this direction. Here, we present a novel technique, X-ray beam induced voltage (XBIV) measurements, which complements the set of X-ray microscopy techniques. Combining the penetration depth of visible-light microscopy with the spatial resolution of electron-beam methods, XBIV measurements shine light on recombination and absorber-layer bandgap variations at nanoscale resolution. We give experimental details and discuss the use of lock-in amplification based on first applications of XBIV measurements to $\text{CuIn}_{x} \text{Ga}_{1}-x\text{Se}_{2}$ solar cells.

The combination of the high spatial resolution of scanning tunneling microscopy with the chemical and magnetic contrast provided by synchrotron X-rays has the potential to allow a unique characterization of advanced functional materials. While the scanning probe provides the high spatial resolution, synchrotron X-rays that produce photo-excitations of core electrons add chemical and magnetic contrast. However, in order to realize the method's full potential it is essential to maintain tunneling conditions, even while high brilliance X-rays irradiate the sample surface. Different from conventional scanning tunneling microscopy, X-rays can cause a transition of the tip out of the tunneling regime. Monitoring the reaction of the z-piezo (the element that controls the tip to sample separation) alone is not sufficient, because a continuous tip current is obtained. As a solution, an unambiguous and direct way of fingerprinting such near to far field transitions of the tip that relies on the simultaneous analysis of the X-ray-induced tip and sample current is presented. This result is of considerable importance because it opens the path to the ultimate resolution in X-ray enhanced scanning tunneling microscopy.

It is well known that the addition of alkali elements such as Na and K during and after growth of Cu(In, Ga)Se 2 (CIGS) has beneficial effects on the electronic properties of bulk material, improving device performance significantly. While the device level effects have been measured and reported, a direct observations of the localization of Na including its chemical nature are missing, and the impact of Na on elemental and phase segregation during CIGS growth is not fully understood. We investigate these aspects to shine light on the role of Na in CIGS solar cells with the ultimate goal of increasing their conversion efficiency. Utilizing a suite of synchrotron based x-ray characterization techniques, we discuss the challenges and advantages of these techniques for investigating segregation of main constituents of CIGS, Na distribution, chemical bonding of Na, and collection efficiency in CIGS as well as their correlations.

High-speed beam choppers are a crucial part of time-resolved x-ray studies as well as a necessary component to enable elemental contrast in synchrotron x-ray scanning tunneling microscopy (SX-STM). However, many chopper systems are not capable of operation in vacuum, which restricts their application to x-ray studies with high photon energies, where air absorption does not present a significant problem. To overcome this limitation, we present a fully ultra-high vacuum (UHV) compatible chopper system capable of operating at variable chopping frequencies up to 4 kHz. The lightweight aluminum chopper disk is coated with Ti and Au films to provide the required beam attenuation for soft and hard x-rays with photon energies up to about 12 keV. The chopper is used for lock-in detection of x-ray enhanced signals in SX-STM.

The study of a multilayered and multicomponent system by spatially resolved X-ray fluorescence microscopy poses unique challenges in achieving accurate quantification of elemental distributions. This is particularly true for the quantification of materials with high X-ray attenuation coefficients, depth-dependent composition variations and thickness variations. A widely applicable procedure for use after spectrum fitting and quantification is described. This procedure corrects the elemental distribution from the measured fluorescence signal, taking into account attenuation of the incident beam and generated fluorescence from multiple layers, and accounts for sample thickness variations. Deriving from Beer–Lambert's law, formulae are presented in a general integral form and numerically applicable framework. The procedure is applied using experimental data from a solar cell with a Cu(In,Ga)Se2 absorber layer, measured at two separate synchrotron beamlines with varied measurement geometries. This example shows the importance of these corrections in real material systems, which can change the interpretation of the measured distributions dramatically.

We present the latest developments in the characterization of thin-film solar cells based on the combination of elemental mapping from fluorescence measurements using synchrotron x-rays, with beam induced current from electron and x-ray beams. This is a powerful method to directly correlate compositional variations with charge collection efficiency. We compare different approaches for mapping solar cells both in cross-section and in plan view on CIGS and CdTe solar cells. Based on examples from our latest research, we discuss the experimental approaches and highlight the advantages and limitations of each technique. Finally, we present an outlook to experiments that will allow x-ray based characterization to enter new fields of research that were not accessible before.

The oxidation of a CoAl(1 0 0) surface at 300 K was studied by means of Auger electron spectroscopy, high resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), low energy electron diffraction and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). For an exposure ⩽0.3 L, the oxygen atoms are chemisorbed on the CoAl(1 0 0) surface, while for a larger O2 exposure the oxidation of the surface sets in. For an exposure ⩾300 L the surface is entirely covered with amorphous Al2O3 (a-Al2O3) whereas the Co atoms seem to be unaffected. The EEL spectra of a-Al2O3 exhibit Fuchs–Kliewer modes at around 640 and 890 cm−1. The thickness of the a-Al2O3 film is estimated to be 7.1 ± 0.7 A. The STM images show that the oxide grows as large islands which cover the whole surface. The band gap of the ultra-thin a-Al2O3 film on CoAl(1 0 0) is found to be 3.2 eV and thus it is strongly diminished with respect to the bulk value.

The effect of a local external electric field on the barrier potential of a tunneling gap is studied utilizing an emerging technique, synchrotron x-ray scanning tunneling microscopy. Here, we demonstrate that the shape of the potential barrier in the tunneling gap can be altered by a localized external electric field, generated by voltages placed on the metallic outer shield of a nanofabricated coaxial metal-insulator-metal tip, resulting in a controlled linear modulation of the tunneling current. Experiments at hard and soft x-ray synchrotron beamlines reveal that both the chemical contrast and magnetic contrast signals measured by the tip can be drastically enhanced, resulting in improved local detection of chemistry and magnetization at the surface.

By using synchrotron X-rays as a probe and a nanofabricated smart tip of a tunneling microscope as a detector, we have achieved chemical fingerprinting of individual nickel clusters on a Cu(111) surface at 2 nm lateral resolution, and at the ultimate single-atomic height sensitivity. Moreover, by varying the photon energy, we have succeeded to locally measure photoionization cross sections of just a single Ni nanocluster, which opens new exciting opportunities for chemical imaging of nanoscale materials.

In order to achieve elemental and chemical sensitivity in scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), synchrotron x-rays have been applied to excite core-level electrons during tunneling. The x-ray photo-excitations result in tip currents that are superimposed onto conventional tunneling currents. While carrying important physical information, the varying x-ray induced currents can destabilize the feedback loop causing it to be unable to maintain a constant tunneling current, sometimes even causing the tip to retract fully or crash. In this paper, we report on an easy-to-implement filter circuit that can separate the x-ray induced currents from conventional tunneling currents, thereby allowing simultaneous measurements of topography and chemical contrasts. The filter and the schematic presented here can also be applied to other variants of light-assisted STM such as laser STM.

The Hard X-ray Nanoprobe Beamline is a precision platform for scanning probe and full-field microscopy with 3–30 keV X-rays. A combination of high-stability X-ray optics and precision motion sensing and control enables detailed studies of the internal features of samples with resolutions approaching 30 nm., The Hard X-ray Nanoprobe Beamline (or Nanoprobe Beamline) is an X-ray microscopy facility incorporating diffraction, fluorescence and full-field imaging capabilities designed and operated by the Center for Nanoscale Materials and the Advanced Photon Source at Sector 26 of the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne National Laboratory. This facility was constructed to probe the nanoscale structure of biological, environmental and material sciences samples. The beamline provides intense focused X-rays to the Hard X-ray Nanoprobe (or Nanoprobe) which incorporates Fresnel zone plate optics and a precision laser sensing and control system. The beamline operates over X-ray energies from 3 to 30 keV, enabling studies of most elements in the periodic table, with a particular emphasis on imaging transition metals.

The combination of high-brilliance synchrotron radiation with scanning tunneling microscopy opens the path to high-resolution imaging with chemical, electronic, and magnetic contrast. Here, the design and experimental results of an in-situ synchrotron enhanced x-ray scanning tunneling microscope (SXSTM) system are presented. The system is designed to allow monochromatic synchrotron radiation to enter the chamber, illuminating the sample with x-ray radiation, while an insulator-coated tip (metallic tip apex open for tunneling, electron collection) is scanned over the surface. A unique feature of the SXSTM is the STM mount assembly, designed with a two free-flex pivot, providing an angular degree of freedom for the alignment of the tip and sample with respect to the incoming x-ray beam. The system designed successfully demonstrates the ability to resolve atomic-scale corrugations. In addition, experiments with synchrotron x-ray radiation validate the SXSTM system as an accurate analysis technique for the study of local magnetic and chemical properties on sample surfaces. The SXSTM system's capabilities have the potential to broaden and deepen the general understanding of surface phenomena by adding elemental contrast to the high-resolution of STM.

It is accepted throughout the photovoltaic community that the overall performance of entire modules is regulated by inhomogeneously distributed nanoscale defects inside the wafers. Over the years a variety of techniques have been used to map and characterize precipitates, grain boundaries and dislocations. However, in the race to achieve higher and higher resolutions, while studying industry-relevant material, many of these techniques fall short either due to the inherent resolution limitations of the equipment or because the combination of low defect spatial densities and strong heterogeneity, present a challenge to sample preparation and characterization. In this work, we discuss the future of synchrotron-based nanoprobe techniques for identifying defects in large volumes of commercial solar cell materials. We describe a state-of-the-art X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) nanoprobe beamline to identify the precise nature of performance-limiting defects in commercial mc-Si solar cells. For the first time, XRF with a beam spot size < 100 nm is used to characterize the contamination levels in solar cell materials.

The combination of synchrotron x-rays with scanning tunneling microscopy provides a promising new path towards the imaging of nanoscale structures with chemical, electronic, and magnetic contrast. While a scanning probe provides the high spatial resolution measuring x-ray magnetic circular dichroism allows the direct quantification of magnetic moments. This capability has the potential to broaden and deepen the general understanding of nanomagnetism.

The combination of synchrotron radiation with scanning tunneling microscopy provides a promising new concept for chemical imaging of nanoscale structures. It employs detection of local x‐ray absorption, which directly yields chemical, electronic, and magnetic sensitivity. The study of the tip current in the far field (800 nm tip/sample separation) shows that insulator‐coated tips have to be considered in order to reduce the background from stray photoelectron. A picture of the different channels contributing to the x‐ray enhanced STM process is proposed. If during electron tunneling the sample is illuminated with monochromatic x‐rays, characteristic absorption will arise, and core electrons are excited, which might modulate the conventional tunnel current and facilitate chemical imaging at the nanoscale.

The hard X-ray nanoprobe at the Advanced Photon Source provides characterizing of composition and structure of nanoscale materials and devices with high spatial-resolution using x-ray fluorescence, diffraction and Bragg coherent diffraction, and full-field transmission imaging.

Hard x-ray microscopy with nanometer resolution will open frontiers in the study of materials and devices, environmental sciences, and life sciences by utilizing the unique characterization capabilities of x-rays. Here we report two-dimensional nanofocusing by multilayer Laue lenses (MLLs), a type of diffractive optics that is in principle capable of focusing x-rays to 1 nm. We demonstrate focusing to a 25 × 27 nm(2) FWHM spot with an efficiency of 2% at a photon energy of 12 keV, and to a 25 × 40 nm(2) FWHM spot with an efficiency of 17% at a photon energy of 19.5 keV.

The Hard X-ray Nanoprobe Beamline is one of the featured instruments of the new Center for Nanoscale Materials at Argonne National Laboratory [1]. Located at sector 26 of the Advanced Photon Source, the Nanoprobe will explore nanoscale objects with an initial spatial resolution of 30 nanometers, using x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, transmission imaging, diffraction, and scattering. X-ray fluorescence measurements will provide element-specific imaging of individual nanoparticles inside of samples. Transmission imaging and precisely controlled sample positioning will display detailed three dimensional mappings of thick specimens and devices. X-ray diffraction and scattering capabilities will examine strain states and ordering in nanoscale systems. We are developing a nanotomography program to characterize samples using the unique capabilities of the Nanoprobe.

Detection of x-ray-enhanced electrons emitted by synchrotron radiation with the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope has the potential to open a path to high-resolution microscopy with chemical sensitivity. Nonresonant photoejected electrons typically yield a current background of a few hundred picoamperes at a bare tip. Coating the tip with an insulating boron nitride film can effectively reduce this background. In this configuration, we have quantitatively studied the bias dependent photoelectron collection for tip/sample separations of 400–1600nm, where quantum mechanical tunneling does not contribute.

The Advanced Photon Source is developing a suite of new X-ray beamlines to study materials and devices across many length scales and under real conditions. One of the flagship beamlines of the APS upgrade is the In Situ Nanoprobe (ISN) beamline, which will provide in situ and operando characterization of advanced energy materials and devices under varying temperatures, gas ambients, and applied fields, at previously unavailable spatial resolution and throughput. Examples of materials systems include inorganic and organic photovoltaic systems, advanced battery systems, fuel cell components, nanoelectronic devices, advanced building materials and other scientifically and technologically relevant systems. To characterize these systems at very high spatial resolution and trace sensitivity, the ISN will use both nanofocusing mirrors and diffractive optics to achieve spots sizes as small as 20 nm. Nanofocusing mirrors in Kirkpatrick–Baez geometry will provide several orders of magnitude increase in photon flux at a spatial resolution of 50 nm. Diffractive optics such as zone plates and/or multilayer Laue lenses will provide a highest spatial resolution of 20 nm. Coherent diffraction methods will be used to study even small specimen features with sub-10 nm relevant length scale. A high-throughput data acquisition system will be employed to significantly increase operations efficiency and usability of the instrument. The ISN will provide full spectroscopy capabilities to study the chemical state of most materials in the periodic table, and enable X-ray fluorescence tomography. In situ electrical characterization will enable operando studies of energy and electronic devices such as photovoltaic systems and batteries. We describe the optical concept for the ISN beamline, the technical design, and the approach for enabling a broad variety of in situ studies. We furthermore discuss the application of hard X-ray microscopy to study defects in multi-crystalline solar cells, one of the lines of inquiries for which the ISN is being developed.

The journal of physical chemistry / C 124(33), 17949 - 17956 (2020). doi:10.1021/acs.jpcc.0c04645, Synchrotron micro- and nanoprobe beamlines have demonstrated great potential to advance photovoltaic devices. Most importantly, their small X-ray spot size has enabled the direct correlation of electrical performance with elemental composition at subgrain resolution for a variety of polycrystalline solar cells. Whereas the bulk of most inorganic semiconductors is stable under the high X-ray flux of focused X-ray beams, semiconductors with organic components are prone to a variety of degradation mechanisms. This is particularly critical to evaluate for the emerging organometal halide perovskite solar cells. Here, we investigate the effects of hard X-rays on the nanoscale performance and elemental distribution of these solar cells. We show that their composition does not change during common operando and in situ measurements at synchrotron nanoprobes. However, we found a significant X-ray-induced electronic degradation of solar cells with methylammonium lead iodide absorbers. Time- and dose-dependent measurements unveiled two characteristic degradation time constants on the order of 12 and 200 s that are independent of the X-ray flux. On the basis of heat and dose simulations, we attribute the fast decay to the dose-driven creation of recombination centers, while the slow decay is compatible with the observation of compositional changes. Finally, we detail how degradation-induced measurement artifacts can be outrun and showcase the high correlation of the X-ray-beam-induced current with the iodine and lead distribution., Published by Soc., Washington, DC

Unveiling the correlation between elemental composition, Fermi-level splitting, and charge collection in perovskite solar cells (PSCs) when exposed to different environments is crucial to understanding the origin of defects. This will enable defect engineering to achieve high-performance and long-lasting PSCs. In this paper, we measured, for the first time, the spatial distribution and charge-collection efficiency at the nanoscale by synchrotron-based X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and X-ray beam-induced current (XBIC) with subgrain resolution, and we observe a correlation between Pb/I ratio and charge-collection efficiency. In contrast with other thin-film solar cells, PSCs are highly sensitive to ambient conditions (atmosphere and illumination). As the XRF and XBIC measurements were conducted in vacuum under an X-ray source illumination, the impact of measurement conditions on the cells needs to be taken into account. Furthermore, necessary conditions for quantification of XRF/XBIC measurements, such as film homogeneity, are not fulfilled in the case of PSCs. Therefore, we will discuss fundamentals of XRF/XBIC measurements of PSCs that will enable reliable, quantitative, high-resolution measurements of elemental distribution and charge collection.

The Advanced Photon Source is currently developing a suite of new hard x-ray beamlines, aimed primarily at the study of materials and devices under real conditions. One of the flagship beamlines of the APS Upgrade is the In-Situ Nanoprobe beamline (ISN beamline), which will provide in-situ and operando characterization of advanced energy materials and devices under change of temperature and gases, under applied fields, in 3D. The ISN beamline is designed to deliver spatially coherent x-rays with photon energies between 4 keV and 30 keV to the ISN instrument. As an x-ray source, a revolver-type undulator with two interchangeable magnetic structures, optimized to provide high brilliance throughout the range of photon energies of 4 keV – 30 keV, will be used. The ISN instrument will provide a smallest hard x-ray spot of 20 nm using diffractive optics, with sensitivity to sub-10 nm sample structures using coherent diffraction. Using nanofocusing mirrors in Kirkpatrick-Baez geometry, the ISN will also provide a focus of 50 nm with a flux of 8·1011 Photons/s at a photon energy of 10 keV, several orders of magnitude larger than what is currently available. This will allow imaging of trace amounts of most elements in the periodic table, with a sensitivity to well below 100 atoms for most metals in thin samples. It will also enable nanospectroscopic studies of the chemical state of most materials relevant to energy science. The ISN beamline will be primarily used to study inorganic and organic photovoltaic systems, advanced batteries and fuel cells, nanoelectronics devices, and materials and systems diesigned to reduce the environmental impact of combustion.