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In our previous study, retinyl palmitate was successfully encapsulated by melt dispersion using waxes as shell materials. Herein, the objective of the present research is to evaluate the shelf life and kinetic release of the developed microcapsules. The study was conducted by measuring actual loading capacity over a period of time using spectroscopic analysis. The transfer percentage of particles from nonwoven facial wipes to skin-like surfaces was also investigated by simulating the rubbing mechanism with a robotic transfer replicator. Although particles stored as powder form under room temperature showed only eight days of shelf-life, particles stored as a dispersion in a refrigerator maintained 60% of the theoretical loading capacity after one month. The kinetic release profile of the particles in ethanol with shaking at 100 rpm and 37±2°C showed an initial burst in the first half an hour, followed by a sustained release. It also showed that 98% of the retinyl palmitate content released within 4 h. Particles incorporated into wet nonwoven wipes gave approximately 22% transfer to skin-like fabric. Thus, the study shows potentials of delivering skincare properties by means of retinyl palmitate capsule loaded textile substrates.

This study integrates the complex research conducted on the sources of brown discolorations that occur on marble statues (fifteenth century) of the Church of Orsanmichele in Florence (Italy). They underwent conservative interventions in the past and the brownish discolorations on their surfaces strongly altered the clear tone of the marble. In this study, Carrara marble model specimens were treated with organic and inorganic substances (non-pasteurised milk; linseed oil; walnut oil; ammonium oxalate; microcrystalline wax; beeswax; milk + linseed oil; and milk + ammonium oxalate + linseed oil) to simulate their effects on the stone. Some of the substances were commonly used in the past (as on the Orsanmichele statues) but most of them are still used in many countries. The treated specimens were exposed to natural and artificial ageing. The main results of the research were (i) the specimens treated with linseed oil, milk + linseed oil, and milk + linseed oil + ammonium oxalate showed a severe change of colour after either artificial or natural ageing; (ii) an extensive polymerisation of the organic substances occurred; (iii) calcium oxalate and several oxidised diacylglycerols (DAGs) and triacylglycerols (TAGs) were the last chemical products of the oxidation processes induced by ageing; (iv) Maillard reaction, producing brownish coloration, likely occurred in specimens containing milk as a result of the interaction between sugars and proteins.

In this study, beeswax is studied as a phase change material (PCM) to store heat due to its high latent heat. The disadvantages of using beeswax were its low thermal conductivity and high melting point. To enhance the thermal conductivity of beeswax, nanoparticles (of Al2O3, ZnO, and FeO) and other phase change materials are used to decrease its melting point. In the present investigation, the melting point of beeswax was lowered by the addition of other organic PCMs like lauric acid, capric acid, and coconut oil. FeO nanoparticles (3 wt%) were found to give the best result for thermal conductivity enhancement of 112% compared to Al2O3 and ZnO with enhancements of 18.78% and 15.56%, respectively, at 5 mass%. Coconut oil was used to decrease the melting of the beeswax as it was the most stable and easily available one resulting in a melting point of 52 °C. An investigation was performed to study the effect of hot fluid flow rates (1 LPM and 2 LPM) and inlet temperatures (60 °C, 70 °C, and 80 °C) on the charging time of beeswax composite. The study showed that 50:50 mass% of beeswax and coconut oil and its composite with 1 mass% of FeO nanoparticle give us the best result out of all the other composites. The charging time of the material was found to be 15 min less than the composite without nanoparticles.

Investment casting (IC) process is one of the oldest and most advanced to manufacture components with excellent surface finish, close dimensional tolerance and complex shape. The property of the final cast part depends upon the property of the wax pattern. The present study investigated the development of wax blend pattern by using various waxes, namely paraffin wax, microcrystalline wax, beeswax, polyethylene wax and carnauba wax. The injection parameters were injection temperature (IT), die temperature (DT), injection flow rate (IFR) and holding time (HT), while output process parameters were surface roughness (SR), needle penetration (NP), linear shrinkage (LS) and volumetric shrinkage (VS). A L27 orthogonal array with grey-fuzzy logic was used to optimize the injection process parameter with multiple output characteristics. The results indicated that the optimized process parameters significantly improved the properties of the wax blend pattern used in the investment casting process.

Graphic abstract Based on aphid wax–honeydew marble and the hydrophobic wax structure of lotus and its derived applications with superareophilic and superhydrophobic properties, edible carnauba wax and beeswax particles were mixed and utilized to mimic lotus wax and wrap liquid, thus forming liquid marbles (LMs). Through the utilization of continuous production system (CPS), wax as an interfacial surfactant, water and solid, air-phase or mixed-phase marble content was produced. The edible liquid marble (ELM) could encapsulate water and food droplets. Edible solid marble (ESM) and edible solid hollow marbles (ESHMs) could be fabricated by applying pectin or syrup. Moreover, through the heating of wax powders with different melting temperatures, stable tablets and hollow capsules could be produced. The wax powder as interfacial surfactant could firmly bind with pectin through hydrogen bonds on ESM. The edible LMs can therefore be applied for residue reduction, corrosion reduction, biohazard prevention and cleaning in the food industry. The other phase LMs could act as novel tools in the pharmaceutical and food industries with the above-mentioned water transport, preservation, sustained releasing and selective releasing abilities. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42242-021-00158-z.

The effects of various physical state lipids (rapeseed oil (RO), shortening (ST), beeswax (BW)), on the physicochemical properties of starch (S) (hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate (HP), oxidized hydroxypropyl starch (OS))/gelatin (G) blown films were studied. S/G-lipid blends showed decreased storage modulus and complex viscosity. The formation of hydrogen bonds was inhibited by the ST and BW, but facilitated by the RO. Compared with BW and ST, RO was more effective to promote the melted and fractured of starch. Lipids addition promoted the compatibility of starch and gelatin. The presence of the lipids significantly improved the surface hydrophobicity, mechanical, water vapor barrier and water resistance properties of S/G films. S/G-RO films exhibited the strongest surface hydrophobicity and tensile strength, while HP/G-BW film showed the strongest water resistance and water vapor barrier properties. These results revealed that the appropriate lipids could be used to produce S/G-lipid films with desirable physicochemical properties.

Despite previous efforts, the fabrication of superhydrophobic substrate via an environment friendly and easy approach remains a great challenge. In this study, a low cost, simple, and green procedure was developed to prepare a superhydrophobic paper surface that is acceptable for the papermaking industry. First, a wax mixture (beeswax & carnauba wax) was emulsified and coated on the filter paper surface. Then, the coated paper was annealed at different temperatures. The further heat-treatment-rendered wax-coated paper hydrophobic or superhydrophobic because submicrometer or micrometer wax structures were present on the paper surface. The water contact angle of the annealed filter paper sample reached 151.5° at 60 °C, and the sliding angle was under 10°. Further, the relationship between surface composition and the hydrophobic properties of the coated paper samples was discussed. The obtained paper samples showed great potential in water/oil separation, as they had an efficiency over 99%. This work proposed a new simple and mild approach to fabricate superhydrophobic filter papers and explored the hydrophobicity and water/oil separation properties.

Honey bee queen health is crucial for colony health and productivity, and pesticides have been previously associated with queen loss and premature supersedure. Prior research has investigated the effects of indirect pesticide exposure on queens via workers, as well as direct effects on queens during development. However, as adults, queens are in constant contact with wax as they walk on comb and lay eggs; therefore, direct pesticide contact with adult queens is a relevant but seldom investigated exposure route. Here, we conducted laboratory and field experiments to investigate the impacts of topical pesticide exposure on adult queens. We tested six pesticides commonly found in wax: coumaphos, tau-fluvalinate, atrazine, 2,4-DMPF, chlorpyriphos, chlorothalonil, and a cocktail of all six, each administered at 1, 4, 8, 16, and 32 times the concentrations typically found in wax. We found no effect of any treatment on queen mass, sperm viability, or fat body protein expression. In a field trial testing queen topical exposure of a pesticide cocktail, we found no impact on egg-laying pattern, queen mass, emergence mass of daughter workers, and no proteins in the spermathecal fluid were differentially expressed. These experiments consistently show that pesticides commonly found in wax have no direct impact on queen performance, reproduction, or quality metrics at the doses tested. We suggest that previously reported associations between high levels of pesticide residues in wax and queen failure are most likely driven by indirect effects of worker exposure (either through wax or other hive products) on queen care or queen perception.

Lipophilic sea buckthorn pomace extract isolated by supercritical CO2 (LSBPE) was structurized with different amounts of carnauba wax or beeswax as oleogelators. Oleogels were also made with added water at an LSBPE:water ratio of 70:30. LSBPE was characterized by a favorable ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids (1:3) and reasonable amounts of omega-7 fatty acids (4.45% of total), tocopherols (63.0 mg/100 g) and carotenoids (700.1 mg/100 g). The oleogels were characterized by their structural and rheological properties, and physical and chemical stability during storage. Carnauba wax produced a gel-like structure with a highly condensed network of aggregated crystals, while beeswax oleogels displayed elongated crystals which formed interconnected networks. Carnauba wax gels were harder than beeswax gels with better oil-binding capacity and higher crystallization and melting temperatures. Both oleogels showed good physical and oxidative stability during storage due to the immobilization of oil in the three-dimensional structures, and the presence of strong lipophilic antioxidants in LSBPE, respectively. As the proportion of waxes increased from 5 to 17.5%, the hardness, oil-binding capacity, crystallization, and melting temperatures increased in both gels due to the more developed crystalline associations. Addition of water had no significant effect on the physical and chemical stability of oleogels during storage. Water was distributed as small droplets in the crystalline network of oleogelators. However, hardness and oil-binding capacity decreased as water was added. Rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids and bioactive compounds, LSBPE oleogels offer the opportunity to deliver bioactives while simultaneously acting as fat substitutes.

We developed a novel BW-CS/ZnHA biocomposite utilizing Beeswax-Chitosan and Zinc-hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (ZnHAP). The uniformed mixture of beeswax-chitosan and ZnHAP was freeze-dried to get a porous biocomposite. The fabricated biocomposite was characterized using FTIR, XRD, and SEM. Moreover, the antibacterial, swelling, biodegradations, viability, and cell proliferation capacity of the fabricated biocomposite was assessed. The biocomposite demonstrated upgraded swelling and antibacterial activity. The addition of ZnHAP accomplished the antibacterial activity. Biocompatibility studies were carried out using osteoblast cells and thus we proved the non-toxic nature of the biocomposite. Osteoblast cell adhesion investigations demonstrated that the cells were appended and infiltrated into the inside of the biocomposite. The obtained results encourage the use of these bandages for various types of wounds with infection and exudates.

Prolonged use of tight-fitting PPE, e.g., by COVID-19 healthcare workers leads to skin injuries. An important contributor is the shear exerted on the skin due to static friction at the skin-PPE interface. This study aims to develop an optimised wax-oil lubricant that reduces the friction, or shear, in the skin-PPE contact for up to four hours. Lubricants with different wax-oil combinations were prepared using beeswax, paraffin wax, olive oil, and mineral oil. In-vivo friction measurements involving seven participants were conducted by sliding a polydimethylsiloxane ball against the volar forearms to simulate the skin-PPE interface. The maximum static coefficient of friction was measured immediately and four hours after lubricant application. It was found that the coefficient of friction of wax-oil lubricants is mainly governed by the ratio of wax to oil and the thermal stability and morphology of the wax. To maintain long-term lubricity, it is crucial to consider the absorption of oil into the PPE material. The best performing lubricant is a mixture of 20 wt% beeswax, 40 wt% olive oil, and 40 wt% mineral oil, which compared to unlubricated skin, provides 87% (P = 0.0006) and 59% (P = 0.0015) reduction in instantaneous and 4-hour coefficient of friction, respectively.

A synthetic acaricide, amitraz is widely used to control Varroa destructor. Although it has the potential to kill mites in honey bee colonies, the residue of amitraz and its metabolites in honey pr...

BACKGROUND A national survey on pesticides in recycled beeswax originating from beekeeping has been conducted in Switzerland for almost three decades. It allowed obtaining a good overview of the lipophilic products used for beekeeping within the last 30 years. RESULTS The use of the veterinary drugs containing bromopropylate or tau‐fluvalinate two decades ago led to substantial residues in commercial beeswax. These contaminants are still detectable although in Switzerland the corresponding products have been out of use for many years. The level of coumaphos substantially increased in 2015 up to an annual value of 3.25 mg·kg−1, suggesting that at least a few beekeepers used coumaphos‐containing products. Consequently, an information campaign was launched, and the annual value decreased again. Maximal levels of thymol up to an annual value of 87.5 mg·kg−1 were measured in 2009. Since that time, a steady decrease of thymol residues suggests that beekeepers less frequently use thymol‐containing products. Twenty‐five years ago, 1,4‐dichlorobenzene (PDCB) was widely used for the control of the wax moth, resulting in residues in beeswax up to an annual value of 10.9 mg·kg−1 whereas nowadays, PDCB residues are rarely detected in Swiss beeswax. CONCLUSIONS Our survey illustrates that several beekeeping‐associated pesticides persist in recycled beeswax for many years. Most recent analyses show lower residue levels in Swiss beeswax as compared to previous years. Nowadays Swiss beekeepers mostly use hydrophilic substances for treatment against the Varroa destructor that do not accumulate in beeswax, thus reducing exposure of the honey bees to lipophilic contaminants., A national survey shows that several beekeeping‐associated pesticides remain in recycled beeswax for many years even when the corresponding products are no longer used. © 2021 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

In this paper, multilayer pectin-beeswax/colophony-pectin (P-BC-P) films including different proportions of beeswax/colophony mixtures were prepared in order to reduce the water vapor permeability. FTIR, XRD, DSC, polarized light microscopy (PLM), and water vapor permeation assays were performed. Characterization techniques showed (i) polar interactions between beeswax and colophony at the amorphous phase, (ii) changes in beeswax crystalline phase from sponge-like to needle-like structure, and (iii) formation of a eutectic mixture at BC3 70/30 ratio which guides the epitaxial crystallization of beeswax. Pure pectin films showed low resistance to the water vapor permeation (361 × 10−13 g m m−2 s−1 Pa−1), while multilayer films showed major control over the transport process. P-BC3-P showed one of the lowest water vapor permeability (WVP) values (56 × 10−13 g m m−2 s−1 Pa−1) and the closest WVP value to that of polyethylene films (LDPE 5.8 × 10−13 g m m−2 s−1 Pa−1). This result was attributed to the ordered crystalline structure reached by the epitaxial crystallization of beeswax within the hydrophobic phase.

The study examined the effect of stearin and paraffin adulteration of the wax foundation on brood survival. In combs formed on a stearin-adulterated wax foundation (10, 30, and 50% stearin, which means: 3.9, 11.7, and 19.5% of stearic acid, respectively), the survival of brood decreased statistically significantly (p ≤ 0.001) compared to the survival rates noted on a pure beeswax foundation. The brood appearance resembled the so-called scattered brood although the queens oviposited normally. The scattered brood was caused by the death of young larvae, most probably due to changes in the properties of royal jelly. Larvae transferred into stearin-adulterated wax cups died as well. The adulteration of the wax foundation with paraffin (10, 30, and 50%) did not reduce the survival of the brood but lowered the mechanical strength of the combs. Adulteration of wax with even a small amount of stearin/stearic acid makes it useless for apiculture.

The development of ready-to-eat foods containing bioactive extracts represents an important step to improve food consumption. This study aimed to develop a yogurt containing an encapsulated bioactive yerba mate extract. For this, the lyophilized extract was protected through encapsulation in solid lipid particles (SLPs) of beeswax. An encapsulation efficiency (EE) greater than 90% was achieved with an extract content higher than 20%. The FTIR spectrum of the capsules’ wall material, indicated that beeswax efficiently encapsulated the yerba mate extract. The extract antioxidant potential was protected for 45 days under cold storage, and the encapsulation maintained the viability of the yogurt lactic acid bacteria. The increase in free fatty acids from seven to 33% during in vitro digestion indicated the capsule rupture during the digestion process. Moreover, the extract encapsulation maintained viable lactic acid bacteria in yogurt. The addition of SLPs did not affect the acceptability of the yogurt or the consumers’ intention to buy the product. However, the score attributed to the product evaluators was surprisingly low and portrayed the consumer's preference for foods with added sugar. This work introduced a natural, ready-to-eat and health-promoting food product containing SLP-protected antioxidant compounds. The addition of compounds encapsulated in foods is promising and can benefit consumers.

Supercritical impregnation may be used to impart specific functional properties into porous substrates such as wood, textiles, or paper. In the current study, food-grade beeswax (BW), carnauba wax (CW) and vegetable wax (VW) were impregnated into paper substrates to improve their hydrophobicity and mechanical strength. The contact angle of impregnated and annealed samples was approximately 110–120° when annealed at 140 °C, and 130° when annealed at 160 °C. SEM analyses revealed that dual micro- and nano-scale roughness was generated in impregnated paper substrates that also underwent annealing. FTIR analysis showed evidence of H-bonding between the waxes and cellulose, but this was more dominant with BW/CW compared with VW due to the different chemical structures of the waxes. Annealed samples showed lower intensity FTIR peaks, tentatively confirming a phase transition of the waxes as a result of the annealing. A reduced tan delta signal up to the secondary alpha transition temperature for paper was observed with BW/CW impregnated samples, indicating the formation of additional chemical bonds between cellulose and wax. Compared with untreated paper substrates, the sharp decrease in storage modulus during degradation occurred at temperatures up to 10 °C higher for wax-impregnated papers, and up to 40 °C lower for baseline papers impregnated and annealed without wax. It is believed that the H-bonds between the waxes and cellulose were able to withstand higher temperatures in the degradation region, thus offsetting the effects of sample preparation.

A mixed edible wax coating on elastic substrates comprising sphere-shaped carnauba wax and flake-shaped beeswax superhydrophobic particles with a two-stage application (before/after stretching) shows durability against abrasion, scratch healing, self-cleaning performance, and sealing ability after stretching.

Nesta investigação, os dados experimentais para a vulcanização da borracha natural (NR) e do copolímero de estireno-butadieno (SBR) com óleos vegetais de amendoim, coco e linhaça, além da cera de abelha, foram validados através da modelagem molecular das principais reações do processo. O método semiempírico AM1 (Austin Model 1) permitiu comprovar que a redução da dureza, associada à solubilidade na matriz elastomérica, é o fator que permite que ácidos graxos insaturados de 12 ou mais átomos de carbono ajam como ativadores em associação com o óxido de zinco. Porém, o impedimento estérico torna o ácido lignocérico, presente na cera de abelha, um ativador de baixo desempenho. Para os ácidos graxos insaturados de 18 carbonos, presentes nos óleos de amendoim e linhaça, as insaturações aumentam a reatividade das espécies geradas na vulcanização. No entanto, tal alteração de natureza produz efeito adverso, pois provavelmente induz reações laterais que comprometem o papel ativador dos óleos.

Bu çalışmada, depolama süresince meyve barlarında gerçekleşen fizikokimyasal değişiklikleri önlemek için peynir altı suyu protein izolatı (PASP) ve vaks (balmumu veya karnauba mumu) bazlı yenilebilir kaplamalar test edilmiştir. Örneklerin kuru madde içeriği (96.16-98.43 g/100 g), renk, sertlik (54.17-258.16 N), toplam fenolik madde içeriği (3097.7-9752.9 mg GAE/kg dm), askorbik asit içeriği (133.4-203.9 mg/kg dm), antioksidan aktivite (DPPH: 3681.1-4538.6 mg/kg dm, FRAP: 2531.5-3057.4 mg/kg dm) ve peroksit değeri (1.85-2.06 meq peroksit / kg yağ) belirlenmiştir. Yenilebilir kompozit kaplama, PASP kaplı numunelere kıyasla daha yüksek kuru madde içeriği ve sertlik sağlamıştır. PASP karnauba mumu ile kaplanmış numunelerin toplam fenolik içeriği en düşük iken, bu örnekler en yüksek askorbik asit içeriği ve antioksidan aktiviteye sahip olmuştur. Depolama süresi boyunca kuru madde içeriği ve peroksit değeri dışında analiz edilen tüm parametrelerde kademeli bir düşüş gözlenmiştir. Genel olarak, meyve barları için PASP ve karnauba mumu bazlı kompozit yenilebilir kaplama önerilmektedir., Composite edible coating of fruit bars using whey protein isolate (WPI) and waxes (beeswax or carnauba wax) was tested in the present study to prevent physicochemical changes during storage in the present study. Dry matter content (96.16-98.43 g/100 g), colour, hardness (54.17-258.16 N), total phenolic content (3097.7-9752.9 mg GAE/kg dm), ascorbic acid content (133.4-203.9 mg/kg dm), antioxidant activity (DPPH: 3681.1-4538.6 mg/kg dm, FRAP: 2531.5-3057.4 mg/kg dm) and peroxide value (1.85-2.06 meq peroxide/kg oil) of samples were determined. Composite edible coating resulted in higher dry matter content and hardness compared to WPI-coated samples. While the total phenolic content of samples coated with WPI+carnauba wax was the lowest, it provided the highest ascorbic acid content and antioxidant activity. A gradual decrease in all analysed parameters except dry matter content and peroxide value was observed throughout the storage period. Overall, edible coating using WPI and carnauba wax composite was suggested for fruit bars.

Most honey bee (Apis mellifera Linnaeus, 1758) (Hymenoptera: Apidae) colonies in the United States have been exposed to the beekeeper-applied miticides amitraz, coumaphos, and tau-fluvalinate. Colonies are also often exposed to agrochemicals, which bees encounter on foraging trips. These and other lipophilic pesticides bind to the beeswax matrix of comb, exposing developing bees. We explored whether queen-rearing beeswax containing pesticides affects the reproductive health of mated queens. We predicted that queens reared in pesticide-free beeswax would have higher mating frequencies and sperm viability of stored sperm compared with queens reared in wax containing pesticides. Mating frequency and sperm viability are two traditional measurements associated with queen reproductive health. To test these hypotheses, we reared queens in beeswax-coated cups that were pesticide free or contained field-relevant concentrations of 1) amitraz, 2) a combination of tau-fluvalinate and coumaphos, or 3) a combination of the agrochemicals chlorothalonil and chlorpyrifos. We then collected queens once they mated to determine sperm viability, using a dual fluorescent cell counter, and mating frequency, genotyping immature worker offspring at eight polymorphic microsatellite loci. Sperm viability did not differ between control queens and those reared in pesticide-laden wax. However, queens exposed to amitraz during development exhibited higher mating frequency than queens reared in pesticide-free beeswax or beeswax containing the other pesticide combinations. Our results suggest that miticide exposure during development affects queen mating frequency but not sperm viability, at least in newly mated queens. This finding, which has practical implications for commercial queen rearing and overall colony health, calls for further study.

Cassava starch has received research focus due to its low cost, and excellent film-forming ability. However, cassava starch films with relatively strong hydrophilicity greatly limits its application in industries. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop native cassava starch-based films incorporated with beeswax and ethanolic propolis extract (EPE), to improve the barrier and antimicrobial properties of cassava starch. The films were characterized in terms of physical properties including thickness, moisture content, solubility (water, acidic and alkaline), color, microstructure (FTIR), and water vapor permeability (WVP). The film-forming solutions composed of cassava starch (2-4%w/v), beeswax (0.5–0.9%w/w), and ethanolic propolis extract (1–4%v/v) were prepared according to a three-factor Box-Behnken response surface experimental design. Antifungal activity of films with 4.0 mL of EPE was assessed against Aspergillus niger. The results showed that higher concentrations of beeswax produced films with the lowest WVP and moisture content values. An increase in EPE content reduced the lightness, producing opaque and yellow-colored films. EPE showed antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger. In conclusion, it could be said that cassava starch-based films incorporated with beeswax and propolis have the potential to be used food packaging applications, and coatings for fresh and minimally processed products, mainly in non-acidic fruits and vegetables.

This study reports a novel application of four emulsions based on thyme essential oil-beeswax matrix with beneficial antimicrobial and induced well-being effects (e.g., aromatherapeutic patches and socks, decorative pillows) that can be used in textile materials manufacturing (e.g. bandages, dressings, patches). These emulsions were properly prepared by varying the beeswax (2–4% w/v) and essential oil (2–4% v/v) concentrations, and characterized based on several physical–chemical quality indicators (pH, density, acidity and peroxide indexes, total polyphenols, flavonoids and fatty acids). The stability of emulsions and creaming index were highlighted by optical microscopy. The release of thyme essential oil incorporated in beeswax matrix was estimated through UV/Visible spectrophotometry. The bioactive compounds (total polyphenols and flavonoids) from emulsions, applied on cotton support, are the principal responsible constituents for textile antibacterial activity, which was evaluated against two bacteria (E. coli and St. aureus). The diameter of inhibition zone referring to each bacterial strain growth ranges from 31.0 to 43.2 mm for E. coli bacteria and from 33.2 to 53.2 mm for St. aureus bacteria (due to biological active compounds release, depending on the diffusion degree). Comfort performances (hygroscopicity and vapor permeability) of the treated cotton support have also been evaluated. The obtained results recommend these bioactive emulsions with antibacterial action in textile materials production.

An attempt was made to develop coconut shell-based eco-friendly packaging material for the packaging of set-type dahi. Beeswax was used to improve the moisture barrier properties of coconut shell (CS). UV treatment for 60 min showed complete disinfection of the coconut shell surface. The top open side of the coconut shell was sealed with aluminium foil using pectin solution as adhesive. Set-type dahi was prepared and packaged in beeswax coated CS (BCCS) and evaluated for physico-chemical, textural, sensorial and microbiological quality changes for a period of 21 days at 6 ± 1 °C. The rate of increase in acidity was found slower in BCCS as compared to dahi packaged in polypropylene cups (control). There was no whey separation, consequently water-holding capacity and firmness of product were better in dahi packaged in BCCS. The sensorial analysis revealed better body and texture properties for dahi packaged in BCCS. However, the flavour score of dahi packaged in BCCS decreased comparatively after 12 days due to the absorption of coconut flavor by the product. These findings demonstrated the potential of coconut shell based eco-friendly packaging material for packaging set-type dahi and thereby aim to reduce the use of non-biodegradable plastics.

A crucial property of fibrous packaging paper for food is water resistance, while strength properties are also important. To improve these properties, several bio-coating solutions were applied as coatings on paper made of pineapple leaf pulp. The effects of beeswax, chitosan, shellac, alginate/gellan gum and beeswax–chitosan (1% chitosan+4%glycerol+30%beeswax) solutions on pineapple leaf pulp paper were assessed in relation to making biodegradable paper plates. The cooking time (120–180 min) of chemical pulping and the dose of pulp by moist weight (200, 250, and 300 g) to a paper frame (40 × 40 cm2) were also studied on making the paper samples. The papers were tested for their physical and mechanical properties. The optimal cooking time and dose of pulp by moist weight found were 180 min and 300 g of pulp per frame, respectively. The bio-coatings increased average grammage and thickness of paper, but gave density reduction from that of uncoated paper. Coating paper with beeswax–chitosan solution gave the longest absorbency time, followed in rank order by alginate/gellan gum, chitosan, beeswax and shellac. The maximum 5.9 kN/m2 tensile strength was found for paper coated with beeswax–chitosan solution before hot pressing. On comparing papers bio-coated before or after hot pressing, no difference was found in the degradable time with NaAlg/gellan coating, while such difference was observed with beeswax-chitosan coating. The results suggest beeswax–chitosan solution as the best among the alternatives tested, for coating paper to make biodegradable plates.

Residues of acaricide, flumethrin were detected from honey and beeswax using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) technique. Forty samples of honey were collected before flumethrin treatment and 30, 60, and 90 days after application from five Apis mellifera colonies; one sample from the central frame containing brood and honey, while the other from the frame filled with honey from peripheral side of each colony at every sampling interval. Honey samples were taken by uncapping the cells with knife and extracting the honey with a syringe of 12 mL capacity. Twenty samples of beeswax (one sample from peripheral frames of each colony) were collected from five selected beehives. Two solvents n-hexane and dichloromethane (4:6, v/v) were used for making extracts of honey and beeswax samples, respectively which were further concentrated by rotary evaporation. All the samples were purified and detected at a wavelength of 267 nm. From the HPLC residual analysis, all the honey samples were found free of acaricide flumethrin; as it could not be detected from any of the 40 samples. However, all the beeswax samples were positive for flumethrin residues. The highest level of flumethrin (0.0759 mg/kg) was detected from the samples of beeswax samples taken from the bee colonies after 30 days of flumethrin application. Despite of the fact that flumethrin residues were detected from all the test beeswax samples, however no one was noticed to exceed the tolerance levels established by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and European Commission guidelines. Present method of flumethrin detection through HPLC also proved to be a promising alternative of Gas Chromatography with high sensitivity and can be used as an appropriate method to determine flumethrin residues from honey and beeswax. Keywords: Flumethrin residues, Apis mellifera, Wax, Honey, HPLC

Consumer demand for cosmetics is growing, causing a need to develop new systems to release active ingredients. Among these, nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) have certain advantages regarding penetration of active compounds in the skin. The study reported here aimed to develop an NLC system for controlled release of vitamin E, a substance that has antioxidant and photoprotective properties. The NLCs containing vitamin E (NLC-VE) were prepared by the melting-emulsionsolidification method, using beeswax as the solid lipid, medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs), coconut oil or avocado oil as liquid lipids and three different nonionic surfactants. The composition of the system was defined by studying the effect of various experimental factors on the size distribution, average diameter and physical stability of the nanoparticles. The optimization of these characteristics, achieved by a Box-Behnken statistical design, showed that 8% w/w of the nonionic surfactant Tween 80, 24% ultrasound amplitude and processing time of 2 minutes and 16 seconds generated nanoparticles with homogeneous size (PDI = 0.11±0.02), average diameter of 180±20 nm and physical stability of 12 weeks. The NLC-VE systems prepared under the optimal conditions, containing Tween 80, beeswax and MCTs, were formulated as viscous suspensions by adding Pluronic F-127, a poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide) block copolymer, at a concentration of 10% w/w. The colloidal nanosuspension obtained had a viscosity of 222 mPa·s and released 70% of the active substance in 6 hours, indicating it is a promising candidate for controlled release of vitamin E.

Made available in DSpace on 2022-04-29T08:30:48Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2022-01-30 BACKGROUND: Sunscald is a physiological disorder that occurs in many horticultural products when exposed to excessive solar radiation and high temperatures. Traditionally, sunscald is controlled using physical barriers that reflect radiation, however this practice is not always efficient. A possible alternative would be the use of chemical barriers, such as mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs), which protect aquatic organisms against ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Thus, this study aimed to develop a lipid-based emulsion containing MAAs for using in the preharvest of horticultural products. RESULTS: Emulsions were developed using 10% (w/v) of corn oil (CO) and soybean oil (SO), carnauba wax (CW), and beeswax (BW) as lipid bases (LBs). The emulsion containing CW and ammonium hydroxide was the most stable, resembling commercial wax. Therefore, this formulation was used as the basis for the incorporation of the commercial product Helioguard™ 365, a source of MAA, in concentrations of 0%, 1%, 2%, and 4% (v/v). The MAA incorporation resulted in little modifications in the stability of the emulsion, providing an increase in the absorbance with peaks in the UV-B ranging from 280 to 300 nm. CONCLUSION: The lipid-base emulsion containing MAAs could be used as a chemical barrier to control sunscald in horticultural products. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry. Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias (FCAV) Campus de Jaboticabal Departamento de Ciências da Produção Agrícola Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias (FCAV) Campus de Jaboticabal Departamento de Biologia Aplicada à Agropecuária Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas (FCF) Campus de Araraquara Departamento de Fármacos e Medicamentos Rodovia Araraquara Jaú Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias (FCAV) Campus de Jaboticabal Departamento de Zootecnia Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias (FCAV) Campus de Jaboticabal Departamento de Ciências da Produção Agrícola Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias (FCAV) Campus de Jaboticabal Departamento de Biologia Aplicada à Agropecuária Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas (FCF) Campus de Araraquara Departamento de Fármacos e Medicamentos Rodovia Araraquara Jaú Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias (FCAV) Campus de Jaboticabal Departamento de Zootecnia Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP)

El estudio de la aplicación de recubrimientos sobre la pera es muy escaso, por ese motivo la investigación tuvo como objetivo “Evaluar el efecto que tiene la cera de abeja y cera de carnauba sobre la vida útil postcosecha de pera (Packham´s triumph)”, la evaluación se llevó acabo en la Universidad Privada de Tacna, laboratorio de análisis de productos agroindustriales. Para ello se empleó cera de carnauba y cera abeja. Mediante experimentos previos se formuló tratamientos con cera de abeja (TCA), con cera de carnauba (TCC) y un tratamiento mezcla (TM, “cera de abeja y cera de carnauba”) donde resultó que el recubrimiento con mayor estabilidad fue mezcla de 40 % cera de abeja y 60 % cera de carnauba, para efectos de análisis se identificó los parámetros necesarios a medir, como son los sólidos solubles totales (SST), la acidez titulable, el pH, el peso, el color, el CO2 y la Firmeza. Se concluye que el tratamiento mezcla (TM, “cera de abeja 40 % y cera de carnauba60 %”) tuvo mejores resultados, aumentado la vida útil en cinco y seis días adicionales, los datos obtenido a los 17 días de estudio fueron, sólidos solubles totales (11,3 °brix), la acidez titulable (0,0415 %), el pH (4,98), el peso (13,48 %), el color (café verdoso), el CO2 (27352.59 mg. CO2/Kg.h) y la Firmeza (2,54 N).

Chitosan-based films showed good gel formation capability and gas permeability (CO2 and O2). However, the high permeability of water vapor limits the application of chitosan as a single coating material. Additionally, single chitosan film was also brittle, so the addition of lipid and metal nanoparticles were chosen to solve this problem. This research aimed to determine the effect of the addition of beeswax emulsion and zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) on the physical and mechanical properties of chitosan based films. The film was prepared by dissolving ZnO-NPs (0, 1 and 2% by weight of chitosan) into 100 mL of distilled water followed by the addition 1 g of chitosan and or, addition of beeswax emulsion (0 and 5% by the volume of solution). The result showed that the addition of beeswax emulsion ZnO-NPs into chitosan based film significantly decreased WVTR value from 24.03 to 10.38 g/m2 hours and the tensile strength value from 8.30 to 6.92 Mpa. The addition of beeswax emulsion and ZnO-NPs also changed the physical properties of chitosan-based film significantly; in terms appearance, color and thickness. Mean-while, the film elongation percentage changed significantly in the range of 30.36 to 50.09 % when ZnO-NPs was added into chitosan-based film solution. Overall, the addition of beeswax and ZnO-NPs showed improvement of the physical and mechanical properties of chitosan-based films so that better packaging of fresh food products can be developed.

Using beeswax as wrapping matrix, two types of release-controlled TM (thiamethoxam)/BK(beeswax-kaolin) microcapsules were prepared by adsorbing TM on kaolin and then encapsulated with beeswax, or directly wrapping TM with beeswax. The structure and morphology of the TM/BK microcapsules were characterized. The effects of different preparation methods, the particle size, pH conditions and different additives on the release property of the TM/BK microcapsules were investigated in water and soil column to compare the advantages of the two approaches. Finally, the insecticidal effect of the TM/BK microcapsules against sugarcane borer and rice planthopper was tested. The results show that the TM/BK microcapsules have a better sustained-release in both water and soil, and the release rate is different under different pH conditions. In addition, the releasing time of the TM/BK microcapsules can be modified by different preparation methods and combination of different additives. In the field applications, the insecticidal activity of the TM/BK microcapsules was better than that of non-sustained control group. Especially in the rice field test, 45 days after the application, the control group lost the activity against rice planthopper because of drug loss, whereas the TM/BK microcapsule group still retained about 90% of the insecticidal activity. The results suggest that the microcapsules have better agricultural application for insect control.

Nowadays, a major part of the stored surface water resources is wasted by evaporation. By implementing low-cost methods to prevent water evaporation, it is possible to return this part of water to the agricultural, industrial, and drinking cycles. The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of polystyrene (compressed foam), pieces of wood, and synthetic beeswax cover with different surface coverage of 60%, 70%, and 80% in the standard Colorado Sunken evaporation pan on the evaporation rate. The materials used in this research are accessible, natural, and affordable in terms of practical applications. Then, the parameters of minimum and maximum temperature, maximum and minimum relative humidity, sunny hours, pressure, and wind speed were obtained from Semnan Synoptic Station near the test site. Due to limited studies in simulation of evaporation reduction through intelligent methods, the evaporation values of polystyrene, pieces of wood, and synthetic beeswax covers were simulated and estimated by using artificial intelligence methods of M5 model tree, Artificial Neural Network, and Least-Square Support Vector Machine. Results indicated that compressed foam, pieces of wood, and synthetic beeswax covers, each with 60%, 70%, and 80% coverage could reduce the evaporation rate by 43%, 54%, and 65%, 10%, 19%, and 26%, and 8%, 18%, and 25%, respectively. From a statistical point of view, the meteorological data received from Semnan Synoptic Station had significant correlations with evaporation rate from station pan, Colorado pan, and pans containing polystyrene, pieces of wood, and synthetic beeswax covers. The temperature and relative humidity parameters are factors affecting the evaporation rate in Semnan station. After evaluating the simulation accuracy based on the parameters of the root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and determination coefficient (R2), the best estimation was obtained by the LSSVM method with R2= 99%. From an economic viewpoint, the compressed polystyrene sheet and synthetic beeswax imposed $1 and 8 cents per m2 in Iran. Moreover, the discarded pieces of wood that are used in the present study are inexpensive. Regarding the cost and performance of the material in reducing evaporation, it is recommended to use polystyrene material, followed by pieces of wood and beeswax.

An egg-coating material was developed to extend the shelf-life and freshness of eggs by blending cassava starch (CS) with gelling agents and waxes. The effects of the properties of this egg coating on egg quality were investigated. Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), beeswax, and paraffin wax were used. CS blended with low-molecular-weight paraffin (Paraffin(L)) and CMC coating material displayed a tensile strength of 4 MPa, 34% elongation at break, 0.0039 g day−1 m−2 water vapor permeability, and a water contact angle of 89° at 3 min. Eggs coated with CS/CMC/Paraffin(L) solutions had a Haugh unit value of 72 (AA grade) and exhibited a weight loss of 2.4% in 4 weeks. CMC improved the compatibility of CS and Paraffin(L). This improvement and the hydrophobicity of Paraffin(L) provided suitable mechanical and water-resistance properties to the coating material that helped to maintain the quality of the coated AA-grade eggs with low weight loss for 4 weeks.

In recent years, bees’ products (nectar, honey, beeswax, pollen) have been considered as potential biomonitors of air pollution. The efficacy of these matrices, especially honey, in environmental biomonitoring has been demonstrated in many studies to be due to its medicinal properties. A multiresidue method based on liquid–liquid extraction using ethyl acetate, followed by an analysis using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry for the analysis of pesticides, was developed in this paper. Afterwards, the method was validated, and results showed that the intraday and interday relative standard deviation was below 5%, and the recoveries obtained generally ranged from 68% to 104%. Furthermore, the method showed high precision and sensitivity for all target compounds, with detection and quantification limits lower than 3 and 9 ng g−1, respectively. Residues from a range of pesticides were detected in each of the samples collected. Pesticide contamination was highest in samples collected from the Akkar and Koura area, which are both well known for their agricultural production. In contrast, samples obtained from Bcharre showed the lowest pesticide contamination. Finally, analysis of real honey samples collected from Lebanon shows the potentiality of honey as a biomonitor for assessing air pollution.

Unmodified or modified nanofibrilated cellulose (NFC) can be employed to produce films by means of controlled drying processes to form compact three-dimensional networks, giving rise to low permeable and high strength films, with the potential to compete with synthetic polymers in packaging applications. However, due to the high hydrophilicity these films have applications limited to conditions of relative humidity below 60%. Above this value, water acts as a plasticizer, drastically reducing mechanical and barrier properties. The present work describes four strategies for obtaining hydrophobic and low permeable films to water vapor and oxygen. Three strategies involve chemical modification through the use of blocked isocyanates, being 1) superficial modification of the NFC film by dipping in solution; 2) obtaining films from a composition containing an aqueous suspension of NFC and an aqueous emulsion of a blocked (poly) isocyanate; 3) synthesis of a blocked polyethylene glycol diisocyanate and its use for the production of a composite where the matrix is formed by the PEG chains covalently bonded to the NFC reinforcement. For the three chemical modification strategies, the films were produced by casting and subjected to a thermal treatment to de-block the isocyanate. In strategy 4) a physical modification was proposed in which the films were formed by casting of a mixture containing an emulsion of beeswax and a suspension of NFC. Each strategy gave rise to a scientific paper that is presented individually. The set of published and not yet published papers makes up the present thesis. The physical properties (density and porosity), mechanical, morphological, thermal, water absorption, contact angle with water and water vapor and oxygen permeation were evaluated. In addition to the papers, a comparative discussion between the strategies is presented. In general, the proposed chemical and physical modifications were responsible for hydrophobization, increased water resistance and gas barrier properties, demonstrating the potential of the proposed strategies for the manufacture of high performance films in packaging whose raw material is from renewable source. A celulose nanofibrilada (NFC) não modificada ou modificada pode ser empregada para a fabricação de filmes por meio de processos de secagem controlados para formar redes tridimensionais compactas, dando origem a filmes de elevada resistência mecânica e pouco permeáveis, com potencial para a substituição de polímeros sintéticos em aplicações em embalagens. Contudo, devido a elevada hidrofilicidade esses filmes têm aplicações limitadas à condições de umidade relativa abaixo de 60%. Acima desse valor a água atua como plastificante, reduzindo drasticamente as propriedades mecânicas e de barreira. O presente trabalho descreve quatro estratégias para obtenção de filmes de NFC hidrofóbicos e de baixa permeação a vapor de água e oxigênio. Três estratégias envolvem a modificação química por meio do uso de isocianatos bloqueados sendo 1) modificação superficial do filme de NFC por mergulho em solução; 2) obtenção de filmes a partir de uma composição contendo uma suspensão aquosa de NFC e uma emulsão aquosa de um (poli)isocianato bloqueado; 3) síntese de um di-isocianato bloqueado de polietileno glicol e sua utilização para a produção um compósitos onde a matriz é formada pelas cadeias de PEG ligadas covalentemente ao reforço de NFC. Para as três estratégias de modificação química os filmes foram produzidos por secagem (casting) e submetidos a um tratamento térmico de desbloqueio do isocianato. Na estratégia 4) foi proposta uma modificação física na qual os filmes foram formados a partir da secagem de uma mistura contendo uma emulsão de cera de abelha e uma suspensão de NFC. Cada estratégia deu origem a um artigo científico que é apresentado individualmente. O conjunto dos artigos publicados compõe a presente tese. Foram avaliadas as propriedades físicas (densidade e porosidade), mecânicas, morfológicas, térmicas, de absorção de água, de ângulo de contato e de permeação a vapor de água e ao oxigênio. Além dos artigos, uma discussão comparativa entre as estratégias é apresentada. De modo geral, as modificações químicas e física propostas foram responsáveis pela hidrofobização, aumento da resistência à agua e das propriedades de barreira a gases, demonstrando o potencial das estratégias propostas para a fabricação de filmes de alto desempenho em embalagens cuja matéria prima seja de fonte renovável.

Thymol has been considered as an organic varroacide with less toxicity than synthetic chemicals such as amitraz, coumaphos or tau-fluvalinate. The present study evaluates the presence, persistence and distribution of thymol during a five-month sampling period; before, during and after the application of thymol treatment in field conditions. Moreover, its impact on the development of bee brood was also studied at different development stages which consist of larvae, prepupae, pupae and adult honeybee. Samples of beebread (processed pollen), honey, beeswax, adult bees, pupae, prepupae and larvae were analysed by gas chromatography coupled to time of flight mass spectrometry for an accurate identification. Adult bees were the samples with the highest concentration level of thymol during treatment application (Thymovar® strips, 30 gr of thymol per hive) by the beekeeper, however they showed 69% of thymol dissipation three months after treatment. Regarding the bee brood, concentrations of thymol decreased significantly (89-97% of disappearance) in a period of three months, though about 42 µg/kg of thymol persisted in larvae. Thymol was found to accumulate in honey and beeswax at a level of 882 μg/kg and 1305 μg/kg respectively, in the studied period. As the main issue of thymol residues in honey is related to the modification of organoleptic properties, more than toxicology, the levels found in this study indicate that the taste of honey may be affected during and up to three months after the treatment application. In addition, we did not find adverse effects on the evolution of the colonies due to the applied treatment.

The effect of the application of chitosan–Aloe vera coatings emulsified with beeswax (0, 0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2%) during storage of Mangifera indica L. (cv Anwar Ratol) was investigated. Particle size of emulsions was reduced significantly with an increase in beeswax concentration. Water vapor permeability of the coatings was reduced by 43.7% with an increase in concentration of beeswax to 2%. The coated mangoes (at all concentrations of beeswax) exhibited reduced weight loss, delayed firmness loss, minimized pH change, maintained the total soluble solid contents, and retained free radical scavenging activity and total phenolic contents when stored at 18 °C and 75 ± 5% R.H. The best results were produced with a formulation containing 2.0% beeswax. Antimicrobial properties of chitosan and Aloe vera coatings were also improved with an increase in beeswax concentration and remarkably reduced the disease incidence in mangoes. In conclusion, beeswax-emulsified chitosan–Aloe vera coatings can be effectively used to increase the shelf life and marketable period of mangoes.

While many studies have examined residue levels in beeswax, little is known about the levels that pose a risk for honey bee development. In an in vitro study, we aimed to assess the toxicity of pesticides in wax for worker larvae using coumaphos as a model substance. First, we reared larvae in beeswax with the aim to correlate the larval toxicity to the corresponding levels of coumaphos in beeswax. In a second step, we tested to which extent coumaphos migrates from the beeswax into the larval diet and if such dietary levels are toxic to larvae. We observed dose-related toxicity when larvae were exposed to coumaphos concentrations in beeswax from 30 to 100 mg/kg. The lethal concentration in 50% of the individuals (LC50) was calculated to be 55.9 mg/kg, while the no observed effect concentration (NOEC) for exposure of larvae to coumaphos in wax was 20 mg/kg. Additional test series without larvae allowed to assess the migration of coumaphos from the beeswax into the diet. The resulting dietary coumaphos concentrations were four to five times lower than the initial concentrations in wax. In accordance, the LC50 for chronic exposure of larvae to coumaphos in the diet was 12.5 mg/kg, which was 4.5 times lower than the LC50 obtained for wax exposure. Finally, a coumaphos level of 20 mg/kg in wax led to a dietary concentration of 3.9 mg/kg that was close to the NOEC of 3 mg/kg obtained in the diet. In conclusion, both experimental approaches suggest that coumaphos concentrations of up to 20 mg/kg in wax are non-lethal.

In this study, we developed an in-package colorimetric paper to monitor the ripeness of kiwifruit by detecting the release of aldehydes. Strongly hydrophobic composite films were prepared using chitosan as the matrix and beeswax as an additive. A piece of cellulose paper containing methyl red and bromocresol violet as color indicators was heat-sealed between two hydrophobic films to protect the indicators from the effects of fruit respiration and transpiration. The nucleophilic addition reaction between aldehydes and OH− (Cannizzaro reaction) changes the pH in the paper and triggers a color change in the indicators. As the kiwifruit ripens, the colorimetric paper changes from bluish-purple to dark red and then gradually to red. A mobile phone application was further used to measure the RGB values and link them to kiwifruit ripeness. This intelligent paper can be used for the accurate and convenient monitoring of produce in real time.

Cassava starch has acquired many attentions owing to its ability to be developed as thermoplastic cassava starch (TPCS) where it can be obtained in low cost, making it to be one of alternatives to substitute petroleum-based plastic. An attempt was made to investigate the thermal, mechanical and moisture absorption properties of thermoplastic cassava starch blending with beeswax (TPCS-BW) fabricated using hot moulding compression method in the range of beeswax loading from 0, 2.5, 5 to 10 wt%. Addition of beeswax has significantly reduced tensile strength, elongation and flexural strength while improving tensile modulus and flexural modulus until 5 wt% beeswax. Incorporation of 10 wt% beeswax has successfully produced the lowest value of moisture absorption and water solubility among the bio-composite which might be attributed to the beeswax's hydrophobic properties in improving water barrier of the TPCS-BW bio-composite. Furthermore, the addition of beeswax resulted in the appearance of irregular and rough fractured surface. Meanwhile, fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy presented that incorporation of beeswax in the mixture has considerably improve hydrogen bonding of blends indicating good interaction between starch and beeswax. Hence, beeswax with an appropriate loading value able to improve the functional properties of TPCS-BW bio-composite.

Environmental consciousness as well as individual”™s demand for ready to eat food, recently, has changed the trends in food packaging leading to the development of biodegradable and edible packaging. Emulsified edible films have better transparency, superior mechanical properties and provide barriers to water and other atmospheric gases. Edible films if not consumed, biodegrad chemically. In present study, edible films were, initially, prepared using Chitosan and Aloe vera at different concentrations. Films were then subjected to physical and mechanical testing. Films with 20% Aloe vera had low thickness as compared to films with no Aloe vera. These films also had superior mechanical properties and lower water vapor permeability. Films with 20% Aloe vera were, then, selected and beeswax was dispersed in Chitosan-Aloe vera solution at concentration upto 2.0% followed by film preparation through casting technique. Thickness and water vapor permeability were observed to be improved with increase in concentration of beeswax. Tensile strength of edible films was also improved 1.3 times when concentration of beeswax increased from 0.5 to 2.0%. Percentage elongation decreased with increase in beeswax concentration in the emulsified films. No change in particle size was observed with change in concentration of beeswax. Emulsions were also stable at room temperatures. Decrease in transparency of emulsified edible films was observed with increase in beeswax content in the emulsified films. In addition, cost analysis of the films proved them reasonable to be used as an alternate of synthetic packaging materials.

In this research, the capability of different oleogelators (beeswax, rice bran wax and sunflower wax, stearic acid, octadecanol, γ-oryzanol+β-sitosterol mixture and ethylcellulose) to structure sunflower oil was studied at 10% (w/w) concentration. The physical, thermal, and rheological properties of sunflower oil oleogels were determined during storage at 20 °C. Results highlighted that different structured systems can be obtained by changing the oleogelator type dissolved in sunflower oil. The network formed by γ-oryzanol and β-sitosterol mixture resulted in the strongest oleogel. Among waxes, beeswax crystal network exhibited the best structuring performances in comparison to sunflower and rice wax sample. Other oleogels containing monoglyceride, octadecanol and stearic acid formed weaker sunflower oil gels but with high capacity to retain oil. Unexpectedly, samples containing ethylcellulose did not result in a gelled structure. During storage, sunflower oil oleogels showed changes in rheological properties (i.e., monoglyceride and sunflower wax oleogels) and oil binding capacity (i.e, rice wax, octadecanol and stearic acid oleogels). These findings could be useful for the selection of the best performing sunflower oil oleogelator depending on the specific intended application.

Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) belong to youngest lipid-based nanocarrier class and they have gained increasing attention over the last ten years. NLCs are composed of a mixture of solid and liquid lipids, which solubilizes the active pharmaceutical ingredient, stabilized by a surfactant. The miscibility of the lipid excipients and structural changes (polymorphism) play an important role in the stability of the formulation and are not easily predicted in the early pharmaceutical development. Even when the excipients are macroscopically miscible, microscopic heterogeneities can result in phase separation during storage, which is only detected after several months of stability studies. In this sense, this work aimed to evaluate the miscibility and the presence of polymorphism in lipid mixtures containing synthetic (cetyl palmitate, Capryol 90®, Dhaykol 6040 LW®, Precirol ATO5® and myristyl myristate) and natural (beeswax, cocoa and shea butters, copaiba, sweet almond, sesame and coconut oils) excipients using Raman mapping and multivariate curve resolution – alternating least squares (MCR-ALS) method. The results were correlated to the macroscopic stability of the formulations. Chemical maps constructed for each excipient allowed the direct comparison among formulations, using standard deviation of the histograms and the Distributional Homogeneity Index (DHI). Lipid mixtures of cetyl palmitate/Capryol®; cetyl palmitate/Dhaykol®; myristyl myristate/Dhaykol® and myristyl myristate/coconut oil presented a single histogram distribution and were stable. The sample with Precirol®/Capryol® was not stable, although the histogram distribution was narrower than the samples with cetyl palmitate, indicating that miscibility was not the factor responsible for the instability. Structural changes before and after melting were identified for cocoa butter and shea butter, but not in the beeswax. Beeswax + copaiba oil sample was very homogenous, without polymorphism and stable over 6 months. Shea butter was also homogeneous and, in spite of the polymorphism, was stable. Formulations with cocoa butter presented a wider histogram distribution and were unstable. This paper showed that, besides the miscibility evaluation, Raman imaging could also identify the polymorphism of the lipids, two major issues in lipid-based formulation development that could help guide the developer understand the stability of the NLC formulations.

The spotted lanternfly, Lycorma delicatula, is an introduced plant hopper that causes significant damage to host plants in the United States. Because of its affinity for tree of heaven, Ailanthus altissima, control efforts have focused on the use of the systemic insecticide, dinotefuran, in designated trap trees. There is concern about exposure to this pesticide by non-target species, especially honey bees, Apis mellifera, via lanternfly honeydew. Therefore, honey bee colonies were established in areas of high densities of trap trees and samples of honey, bees, and beeswax were collected in May, July, and October of 2017 for analysis. Samples were extracted by the QuEChERS method and analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry to determine the presence and quantity of dinotefuran. Additionally, honeydew from lanternflies was analyzed for dinotefuran and informal observations of trap tree visitors were made. None of the worker bee, wax, or honey samples indicated detectable levels of dinotefuran; however, honeydew samples collected did contain dinotefuran above the detection limit with amounts ranging from 3 to 100 ng per sample. The lack of dinotefuran in honey bee products matches the general absence of honey bees at trap trees in informal observations.

Carvacrol (Car) and astaxanthin (Asta) are widely used in the food industry as antimicrobial and antioxidant agents. This study investigated simultaneous entrapment of them in beeswax solid lipid nanoparticles (BW.SLNs) in order to increase their biological activities. Constituents of optimized formulation (lecithin (7.31 mg), tween 80 (0.81% v/v), beeswax (25.04 mg), Asta (500 μg) and Car (5 mg)) were determined by response surface methodology. Car/Asta loaded BW.SLNs (Car/Asta-BW.SLNs) were prepared with size and zeta potential of 58.8 nm and −36 mV, respectively. High entrapment efficacy (EE) for Asta (94.6 ± 0.72%) and Car (88.5 ± 1.9%) was achieved. In-vitro release study showed that Car was released into the buffer solution two times more than Asta. Entrapped Car and Asta were more stable under acidic and alkaline conditions. Also, 98.2 and 91.37% of entrapped molecules were intact in BW.SLNs under high oxidative condition. Car/Asta-BW.SLNs (1.5 mg/mL) showed efficiency to remove 92.87 and 84.25% and kill 94.81 and 83.26% of total Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus biofilms cells. In conclusion, simultaneous entrapment of Car and Asta by BW.SLNs is reported for the first time and Car/Asta-BW.SLNs can be applied as an efficient nano-system with dual antioxidant and anti-biofilm functions.

Chickens with high populations of various microorganisms arrive at processing facilities. Salmonella species are one of the important foodborne pathogens commonly found in poultry products. Various intervention strategies are implemented during poultry processing to reduce microorganisms in the products, including pre-scald bird brushes, multi-stage scalding, antimicrobial applications, etc. In this study, the effects of adding sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) to chlorine (Cl) and peracetic acid (PAA) against Salmonella were investigated. In addition, the efficacy of wax coating the skin to reduce Salmonella attachment was studied. Skin samples were collected following the 4 different methods of (1) euthanized-dry hand-de-feathered carcasses, (2) carcasses rinsed in tap water and mechanically de-feathered, (3) carcasses soft scalded and mechanically de-feathered, and (4) from carcasses hard scalded and mechanically de-feathered. It was shown that 0.5% SDS was able to reduce Salmonella both loosely (34, 28, 42, and 13%, respectively) and firmly (29, 39, 32, and 53%, respectively) attached in the 0.005% Cl-treated samples, but did not increase antimicrobial efficacy of 0.2% PAA. Moreover, carnauba wax coating significantly (P ≤ 0.05) reduced Salmonella attachment on all 4 types of chicken skins, 1.57, 0.71, 0.74, and 0.84 log cfu/sample on dry hand de-feathered, tap water rinsed, soft-scalded and hard-scalded chicken skins, respectively. Beeswax coating did not affect Salmonella attachment regardless of types of chicken skins. Overall, the addition of SDS improved antimicrobial activity of Cl, but not for PAA. Moreover, carnauba wax coating was an effective intervention to reduce Salmonella on chicken skin.

To enhance the oxidative stability of organogels made from canola oil, 40 ppm sesamol was added to beeswax-based organogels stored under ultraviolet (UV) light irradiation and 60 or 100 °C thermal oxidation conditions. To study the practical application of organogels as animal fat substitutes, beef tallow was mixed with organogels and their oxidative stability was determined under oxidative stress conditions. Without sesamol addition, the organogels and beef tallow with organogel oxidized rapidly under UV irradiation and thermal oxidation. The addition of 40-ppm sesamol decreased the consumption of headspace oxygen and the formation of primary and secondary oxidation products significantly (P