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Human beings have always coveted beautiful objects, but the desire to look good is reaching new heights worldwide. Although the pursuit of beauty appears universal, industry evidence suggests that it is particularly strong in Asia. This research examines the effect of culture on the pursuit of beauty. Three studies provide converging evidence that interdependent self-construal increases the likelihood of using appearance-enhancing products. Study 1 operationalizes culture through nationality and self-construal and shows that Easterners (more interdependent) are more likely to use appearance-enhancing products than Westerners (less interdependent). This use is driven by interdependents’ tendency to conform to societal norms, which in turn leads to heightened self-discrepancy (Study 2). The use of appearance-enhancing tools helps minimize this discrepancy. Study 3 shows that strength of norms moderates the impact of interdependence on the use of appearance-enhancing tools. When norms are loosely defined and adherence is not strictly enforced, interdependents’ appearance enhancement tendency is reduced. This research offers actionable insights into the pursuit of beauty, marketing of beauty brands, policy making, and consumer well-being.

We examine how brand-switching varies across cultures, depending on the drivers of a prior unsatisfactory consumption experience. We draw from the literature on regret, norm theory and cross-cultural psychology to predict that Westerners are more likely to switch brands when the unsatisfactory consumption experience is a consequence of their inaction relative to the inaction of a group to which they belong. In contrast, it is predicted that Easterners are more likely to switch brands when the unsatisfactory consumption experience is a consequence of inaction on the part of the group to which they belong relative to their own inaction. We discuss the relevance of our research for marketing theory, the need to account for cultural differences in consumer segments, and the implications for organizations targeting culturally distinct market segments, both domestically and internationally.

Background This study aimed to investigate the association between cord blood cotinine levels and birth outcome, and to determine whether fetal metabolic gene polymorphisms of glutathione-S-transferase (GST) modulate the effect of environmental tobacco smoke exposure during pregnancy. Methods This study included 328 maternal and neonatal pairs. Maternal and cord blood cotinine levels were measured using high performance liquid chromatography. The GST T1 ( GSTT1 ) and GST M1 ( GSTM1 ) polymorphisms were examined using the polymerase chain reaction method. The birth outcomes included birth weight, length, and head circumference, and the risks of having low birth weight and being small for gestational age (SGA). Results Cord cotinine level had a dose-dependent impact on the reduction of birth weight, length, and head circumference in newborns. Elevation of cord blood cotinine concentration increased the rate of SGA and low birth weight. The neonates who had GSTT1 or GSTM1 polymorphism were associated with an increased risk of being SGA. A combination of the GSTT1 and GSTM1 null genotype exacerbated the effect of maternal environmental tobacco smoke exposure on SGA more than the presence of either genotype alone (odds ratio=8.90, 95% confidence interval=1.00–79.5). Conclusion Cord blood cotinine adversely affects birth outcomes. GSTT1 and GSTM1 null genotype may modify the effect of cord blood cotinine on birth outcomes.

In recent years, the Government of the Hong Kong SAR has allocated considerably more attention and resources to pre-primary education. This chapter considers how these changes at the policy and pedagogy levels are shaping the learning experiences of young children in Hong Kong. It will focus on the impact of the following four broad policy changes initiated in the last decade: the implementation of the Guide to the Pre-primary curriculum; the adoption of the biliterate and trilingual language policy; the enactment of a new quality assurance process; and the introduction of the Pre-primary Education Voucher Scheme (PEVS). It was assumed that the implementation of these policies would enhance the preschool and home learning experiences of young children. However, after one decade of implementation of these measures, studies have shown that: (1) preschool teachers still encounter difficulties in implementing child-centred teaching approaches and are likely to continue to adopt teacher-directed instruction or product-oriented pedagogy; (2) there are problems associated with the implementation of the trilingual language policy; (3) there are still wide variations in preschool quality despite the new quality assurance processes; and (4) the PEVS has resulted in some middle-families using the extra disposable income to enrol their children in additional academic classes rather than more play-based extra-curricular activities. Against the background of these research findings, this chapter argues that the changing role of the State, teacher characteristics and traditional Chinese beliefs should be adequately considered for an understanding of the early learning experiences of young Chinese learners in Hong Kong. Preschool education in Hong Kong has not necessarily become more child-centred as teachers have difficulties implementing developmentally appropriate teaching. On the other hand, the government has allocated more resources in enhancing the quality of early childhood education through supporting professional development of teachers. In terms of home-based learning, the influence of traditional Chinese beliefs about academic achievement is predominant and parents continue to prioritize academic learning. Thus Chinese parental beliefs and practices moderate the efforts of the state to promote holistic early development and learning.

This research examines cross-cultural differences in brand dilution effects and the moderating role of motivation and extension typicality. Drawing from recent findings that indicate that culture affects the way people treat conflicting information, this research predicts that Easterners and Westerners react differently to failures by a brand extension. In contrast to previous findings that have suggested that failure in a typical extension leads to less brand dilution for Westerners when they are highly motivated (than when they are less motivated), this study argues that Easterners exhibit greater brand dilution when they are less motivated (than when they are highly motivated). The opposite pattern of results should emerge when the extension is atypical. Three studies provide support for these predictions and the underlying processes.

In a genetic screen for active zone defective mutants inCaenorhabditis elegans, we isolated a loss-of-function allele ofunc-7, a gene encoding an innexin/pannexin family gap junction protein. Innexin UNC-7 regulates the size and distribution of active zones atC. elegansneuromuscular junctions. Loss-of-function mutations in another innexin, UNC-9, cause similar active zone defects asunc-7mutants. In addition to presumptive gap junction localizations, both UNC-7 and UNC-9 are also localized perisynaptically throughout development and required in presynaptic neurons to regulate active zone differentiation. Our mosaic analyses, electron microscopy, as well as expression studies suggest a novel and likely nonjunctional role of specific innexins in active zone differentiation in addition to gap junction formations.

This research examines the impact of field dependency on the way people structure brand information in memory. The authors propose that a person's level of field dependency is an important determinant of the way information is stored in memory. Specifically, the authors argue that field independents are more likely to extract and integrate episodic information to form overall brand beliefs, while field dependents tend to store more detailed, episodic information in memory and are less likely to generalize information across product categories. The authors further propose that this effect is moderated by level of expertise and that such differences have important implications for how people evaluate marketing communications. The results from five studies support their propositions.

This paper characterizes early mathematics instruction in Hong Kong. The teaching of addition in three pre‐primary and three lower primary schools was observed and nine teachers were interviewed about their beliefs about early mathematics teaching. A child‐centered, play‐based approach was evident but teachers emphasized discipline, diligence and academic success. Observations also revealed practices reflective of both constructivist and instructivist pedagogies. Results from interviews suggest that teachers' traditional cultural beliefs about instruction were challenged by western ideologies introduced in continuing professional development courses and by notions promulgated by the educational reforms. Both consistencies and inconsistencies between teachers' beliefs and practices were identified. Implications of the findings are discussed. *This article is based on research conducted by the first author, in partial fulfillment of a Ph.D. degree, under the supervision of the second author. Portions of the...

CD8 + cells from healthy, asymptomatic HIV-1-infected individuals can inhibit HIV-1 replication in naturally or acutely infected CD4 + cells in the absence of cell killing. This CD8 + cell noncytotoxic anti-HIV response (CNAR) is mediated by a soluble CD8 + cell antiviral factor (CAF). CNAR/CAF inhibits HIV-1 replication by blocking viral RNA transcription. HIV transcription is regulated by a variety of cis -acting DNA sequence elements within the proviral long terminal repeat (LTR). We hypothesized that one of the HIV-1 LTR proviral DNA sequence elements that binds host cell transcriptional factors is involved in this antiviral activity. To assess this possibility, we constructed full-length infectious HIV-1 molecular clones with mutations in the LTR elements NFAT, AP-1, IL-2 homology region, and the downstream ISRE. We also tested full-length infectious molecular clones that had deletions of either the NF-κB or Sp1 sites of the LTR or lacked functional Tat and TAR elements. Viruses generated from these molecular clones were used to acutely infect CD4 + cells that subsequently were either co-cultured with CD8 + cells from individuals that exhibited strong CNAR or cultured with CAF-containing fluids. The replication of all of the mutant HIV-1 viruses tested was substantially reduced in the presence of CNAR/CAF. These findings suggest that other regions in the viral LTR or other host cell processes are involved in the transcriptional block elicited by CNAR/CAF.

Chapter 1: History of Culture and Consumer Behavior and Future Research Directions Sharon Ng and Angela Y. Lee Part I: Worldview, Knowledge Structure, and Emotion Chapter 2: Cultural Worldview and Cognition Virginia S. Y. Kwan, Yexin J. Li, Andrew E. White, and Ryan P. Jacobson Chapter 3: Cultural Differences in Procedural Knowledge and Their Impact on Consumer Behavior Robert S. Wyer, Jr. Chapter 4: Consumer Behavior, Culture, and Emotion Jeanne L. Tsai, Louise Chim, and Tamara Sims Chapter 5: Categories of Cultural Variations Sharon Shavitt and Minkyung Koo Part II: Attitudes, Persuasion, and Response Biases Chapter 6: Culture and Persuasion Nidhi Agrawal Chapter 7: The Effects of Self-Construal Fit on Motivation, Attitudes, and Charitable Giving Angela Y. Lee and Tonya Williams Bradford Chapter 8: Response Biases in Cross-Cultural Measurement Hans Baumgartner and Bert Weijters Part III: Branding and Brand Relationships Chapter 9: Culture, Emotions, and Nation Equity Cathy Yi Chen, Durairaj Maheswaran, Jie Wei, and Prashant Saxena Chapter 10: Globalization and Exclusionary Responses to Foreign Brands Dongmei Li, Robert Kreuzbauer, and Chi-yue Chiu Chapter 11: Culture and Branding Sharon Ng, Rohini Ahluwalia, and Michael J. Houston Chapter 12: Culture and Brand Relationships Zeynep Gurhan-Canli and Gulen Sarial-Abi Chapter 13: Culture and Brand Iconicity Carlos J. Torelli and Shirley Y. Y. Cheng Part IV: Culture and Consumption Chapter 14: Culture and Materialism Russell Belk Chapter 15: Culture, Self-Regulation, and Impulsive Consumption Akshay Rao

This research examines whether various forms of brand associations—overall brand beliefs (e.g., Sony is high quality) versus exemplars of the brand (e.g., Sony TV)—are differentially accessible for individuals with independent self-views and those with an interdependent self-view. Since independents emphasize the “traitedness” of behavior and tend to focus on attributes of objects, brand beliefs are relatively more accessible than exemplars to them. Conversely, since interdependents focus more on the role of contextual factors and the interrelatedness of events, exemplars are relatively more accessible to them than brand beliefs. Further, examination of the implications of this difference on brand attitudes and brand extension evaluations occurs.

Marketing a destination requires an understanding of vacationer perception. The gap analysis provided by normal pre- and post-visit surveys represents a good starting point in evaluating how the visitor feels about the destination, but yields only part of the story. This paper suggests that two additional gaps should be evaluated: the gap between the general public and the purchaser, and that which exists between one-time and repeat visitors. Using Bintan Resorts, Indonesia, a relatively new self-contained resort development near Singapore, this paper provides a tool for evaluating these gaps, and at the same time provides an interesting view of Bintan, a destination that has set its sights upon becoming the “Hawaii of the Orient” (Yeow, [Singapore] The Straits Times , 17 September 1993, Money Section 47).

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a neurotoxicant and may have an adverse impact on child behavior. However, this impact was found to be inconsistent in fish-eating populations. Although the positive effects of the nutrients provided by a fish diet may overcome the effect of MeHg, the possibility of genetic variants influencing an individual’s response to MeHg has also been discussed. The role of the Apolipoprotein E (APOE) epsilon 4 allele (e4) on MeHg related neurotoxicity is still unclear. In the present study, we investigated the role of APOE variants in the relationship between cord blood mercury (Hg) and child behavior. A total of 166 subjects were recruited at delivery, and their cord blood was collected for laboratory analyses of Hg and the APOE genotype. The Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) was administered to the subjects when they reached the age of two years. An increase in cord blood Hg concentrations in APOE e4 carriers was consistently associated with an increased score for all CBCL syndromes. After controlling for potential confounding factors, the group of e4 carriers with an elevated cord blood Hg concentration had significantly higher scores in the syndrome categories of general internalizing, emotionally reactive, and anxiety/depression as well as CBCL total scores. Furthermore, general externalizing and aggressive syndromes were borderline significantly higher in this group. In conclusion, we suggest that APOE may modify the toxicity of MeHg. APOE e4 carriers may be more vulnerable to the effects of MeHg on child behavior at the age of two years.

The benefit of the nutritious elements in fish is insufficient for explaining the controversial finding regarding prenatal mercury (Hg) exposure and neurodevelopment; the varying frequency of susceptible genes among these populations may shed light on these observations. However, limited studies have been reported on the association between genetic susceptibility of prenatal Hg exposure and child development. Apolipoprotein E (APOE, protein; Apoe, gene) is a major protein transporter expressed in the brain. The Apoe epsilon 4 (e4) allele is associated with poor neural repair function and is a risk factor associated with Alzheimer disease. We conducted a prospective cohort study in 2004 and 2005. In this study, 168 subjects were recruited at delivery and followed up at two years of age, and genetic polymorphisms of Apoe were included to assess genetic susceptibility and to determine the relationship between Hg concentrations in cord blood and neurodevelopment. The results showed that adverse effects on neurodevelopment were consistently associated with prenatal Hg exposure in all subtests of Comprehensive Developmental Inventory for Infants and Toddlers (CDIIT) among e4 carriers as assessed by both simple linear and multiple linear regression models. After controlling for confounding factors, statistical significance was found in the subtests of cognition tests (β=-8.47, 95% confidence interval (CI)=-16.10 to -0.84), social tests (β=-11.02, 95% CI=-20.85 to -1.19) and the whole test of CDIIT (β=-10.45, 95% CI=-17.36 to -3.54) in a multiple linear regression model. Additionally, the interaction effect between gene polymorphisms of Apoe and Hg levels was significant in the whole test CDIIT and subtests of cognition, language and fine motor tests. In conclusion, Apoe modifies the adverse effects of cord blood Hg on neurodevelopment at the age of two years.

In this paper, the authors argue that auctions are not only affected by their information cues but also contrasting, peripheral information cues from adjacent auction listings. The authors examine the effects of time urgency and persuasion intent on the processing of this contrasting peripheral information. Using two controlled experiments and an empirical field study, the authors show that time urgency experienced by bidders in online auctions results in increased heuristic processing of contrasting information from adjacent auction listings. The authors also found that bidders will discount contrasting peripheral information if they perceive salient persuasion intents in advertising presented by the auctioneers. The resulting contrast effects ultimately lead to changes in willingness to pay. The following is an extended abstract. The full version of the paper can be obtained from any of the authors.

Introduction CD8+ lymphocytes can suppress HIV replication without killing the infected cells. This CD8+ cell noncytotoxic anti-HIV response (CNAR) is associated with a beneficial clinical course. Materials and Methods In this longitudinal study of 16 participants in the Options Project at UCSF, we measured the ability of CD8+ lymphocytes to suppress HIV replication in CD4+ cells during primary HIV infection, early antiretroviral therapy, and after treatment. Results and Discussion CD8+ lymphocytes from subjects with untreated primary HIV-1 infection strongly suppressed HIV replication. Initiation of antiretroviral therapy during primary HIV-1 infection caused a marked decline in this CNAR. CD8+ cells from these subjects regained anti-HIV activity when early therapy was discontinued. The timing of the appearance of CD8+ cell anti-HIV activity directly correlated with the emergence of detectable virus levels. Maximal CNAR activity coincided with a decay in the kinetics of HIV replication. In addition, peak viral loads during treatment interruptionwerelowerthanpre-treatmentviruslevels(median reduction=0.8 logs, p=0.005) and CD4+ T cell counts were maintained for a 24-week period of follow-up. Conclusion These results suggest that CNAR plays an important role in suppressing HIV replication in the setting of antiretroviral treatment interruption in HIV-infected individuals.

Voltage-gated cation channels regulate neuronal excitability through selective ion flux. NALCN, a member of a protein family that is structurally related to the α1 subunits of voltage-gated sodium/calcium channels, was recently shown to regulate the resting membrane potentials by mediating sodium leak and the firing of mouse neurons. We identified a role for the Caenorhabditis elegans NALCN homologues NCA-1 and NCA-2 in the propagation of neuronal activity from cell bodies to synapses. Loss of NCA activities leads to reduced synaptic transmission at neuromuscular junctions and frequent halting in locomotion. In vivo calcium imaging experiments further indicate that while calcium influx in the cell bodies of egg-laying motorneurons is unaffected by altered NCA activity, synaptic calcium transients are significantly reduced in nca loss-of-function mutants and increased in nca gain-of-function mutants. NCA-1 localizes along axons and is enriched at nonsynaptic regions. Its localization and function depend on UNC-79, and UNC-80, a novel conserved protein that is also enriched at nonsynaptic regions. We propose that NCA-1 and UNC-80 regulate neuronal activity at least in part by transmitting depolarization signals to synapses in C. elegans neurons., Author Summary Neurons communicate to their targets through synapses that are activated by the electrical signals conveyed along neuronal processes. The tightly regulated ion flux across the cell membrane drives the generation of these electrical signals; it is therefore important to identify ion channels that regulate the excitability of neurons. In the C. elegans nervous system, we reveal that a putative channel complex, consisting of ion-conducting, pore-forming proteins called NCAs and two auxiliary components called UNC-79 and UNC-80, regulates neuronal function. We first show that an increase or decrease of the activity of this channel causes physiological changes that indicate corresponding alterations in neuronal activity. We then demonstrate by in vivo calcium imaging that the NCA channel, localizing along axons, specifically regulates excitation of synapses. We speculate that this channel participates in the propagation of electric signals that activate synapses., A putative cation channel NCA/UNC-79/UNC-80 modulates the propagation of excitation signals along axons in C. elegans neurons. Components conserved throughout evolution, these channel complexes may play similar roles in other nervous systems.

The rate of HIV-1 disease progression is influenced by several factors that include pathogen and host genetic variations and the quality of antiviral immune responses. The CD8+ cell non-cytotoxic antiviral response (CNAR) substantially suppresses HIV replication in CD4+ cells and is positively associated with an asymptomatic clinical state. Traditionally, the measurement of CNAR has required several culture procedures and costly reagents. Here we report the development and validation of a screening assay for detection of CNAR that accurately identifies individuals benefiting from this response. Use of the CNAR screening assay should facilitate the evaluation of this important immune parameter in studies of HIV pathogenesis, resistance to infection, and vaccine development.