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In The Parasite (1980), philosopher Michel Serres invites readers to reflect on hypocrisy in a non-moral sense. Ruminating upon the example of Molière's Tartuffe, Serres takes up the scandalous imposture of the hypocrite and he shows, at the heart of comic pretence, what this essay describes as an underdetermination of identity and individuation. That is, where readers, theatregoers, and participants in public discourse would ground thought upon a principle of determinacy and individuation—for example determinations of the basic wickedness of hypocrites and parasites—philosophical considerations of these figures (and the phenomenon of comic action) explode this principle to suggest an ontological and discursive space of inconsistency and intermediacy. By examining Tartuffe's ingratiating language of piety and the play's surprising figures of grace, this essay shows how discursive systems and social systems are equally devoted to ideals of determinable identity that leave them vulnerable to operators who can discern and exploit the inevitable sites of latent incoherence and inconsistency. The essay concludes by developing Serres's notions of comedy as a play between consistency and inconsistency, individuation and disindividuation, a sad and severed fragmentariness (as with Plato's Aristophanes), but also the generative spawning of a supplemental comic critical consciousness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 'bad feminist' is someone who endorses feminist ideals and values but finds themselves falling short of them. Since bad feminists exhibit an inconsistency between what they say and what they do, this can generate worries about hypocrisy. This article investigates whether and when members of political movements with certain ideals ought to worry they are being hypocritical. It first provides a diagnosis of why worries about hypocrisy seem common in the political arena. I argue that accusations of hypocrisy are apt when one is in insufficiently committed to the values entailed by one's pronouncements. It is particularly hard to assess what constitutes sufficient commitment in politics because many issues are multi-factorial, overdetermined, and involve numerous competing considerations, making it difficult to assess how genuine commitments to values should manifest in behaviour. Since there are many ways that one can act inconsistently with their pronouncements, mere inconsistency is not a signal of hypocrisy, particularly if one is disposed to take on costs to further that movement's ends. I also consider and respond to a number of considerations against calling out hypocrisy, including worries about our accuracy, worries about the effects such accusations have on discourse, and worries about how accusations incentivise particular kinds of behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fuzzy logic has shown to be a suitable framework to handle contradictions in which, unsurprisingly, the notion of inconsistency can be defined in different ways. This paper starts with a short survey of different ways to define the notion of inconsistency in fuzzy logic systems. As a result, we provide a first notion of inconsistency by means of the absence of models. Subsequently, we define two measures of consistency that belong purely to the fuzzy paradigm; in the sense that both measures coincide with the crisp notion of consistency when the set of truth values is {0, 1}. Accordingly, we can state that the two provided measures of consistence are notions of consistence based on degrees, bringing back the spirit of fuzzy logic into the notion of consistency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The acquaintance with significant philosophical doctrines emerging in the West has been a systematic process in the leading Russian-language philosophical journals, collections of articles, monographs and translations. Practically all the most important Western philosophical doctrines have been subjected to scrutiny by Russian philosophers. One of the most vivid Neo-Kantian projects of the early twentieth century, Emil Lask's Logic of Philosophy, has not gone unnoticed either. Reaction to Lask's works were far from being homogeneous. His project received several different evaluations, including the critical ones. The project was criticized for the unsolved ontological potential of philosophy, the dogmatic immobility of logic of philosophy, inconsistency of material–form relation, etc. The article considers the first reviews and critical assessments of Lask's works in Russia as well as the texts of Russian religious philosophers and Russian Neo-Kantians which contain constructive criticism. The range of reviews allows us to reconstruct the reception of Lask's ideas in Russia and provides a significant supplement to the overall picture of the reception of Neo-Kantianism in Russia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between logics with sets of theorems including contradictions ("inconsistent logics") and theories closed under such logics is investigated. It is noted that if we take "theories" to be defined in terms of deductive closure understood in a way somewhat different from the standard, Tarskian, one, inconsistent logics can have consistent theories. That is, we can find some sets of formulas the closure of which under some inconsistent logic need not contain any contradictions. We prove this in a general setting for a family of relevant connexive logics, extract the essential features of the proof in order to obtain a sufficient condition for the consistency of a theory in arbitrary logics, and finally consider some concrete examples of consistent mathematical theories in Abelian logic. The upshot is that on this way of understanding deductive closure, common to relevant logics, there is a rich and interesting kind of interaction between inconsistent logics and their theories. We argue that this suggests an important avenue for investigation of inconsistent logics, from both a technical and a philosophical perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Moral expressivism suggests that 1) moral sentences lack truth conditions and 2) our purpose in asserting moral sentences is to express non-cognitive attitudes such as desires, approval, or disapproval. Moral expressivism meets a fundamental challenge, known as the Frege-Geach problem. Sentences that express moral judgments can form part of semantically complex sentences. "P" (a moral sentence) contradicts "~P", and "Q" follows logically, by modus ponens, from (1) "P" and (2) "if P, then Q". Geach argued that noncognitivists are committed to denying that moral predicates mean the same thing in embedded contexts as they do in unembedded sentences (atomic sentences). If "P" does not mean the same as the antecedent of (2), the argument would be invalid. The problem is that the above-mentioned argument is obviously valid. Blackburn has argued that the complex sentence expresses a 'higher-order' attitude toward the attitudes expressed by the smaller sentences which make it up. If we accept the premises of a valid argument but deny its conclusion our attitudes clash in the same way that they do if we both believe that P and ~P. Blackburn's metaattitudes approach faces several problems. Someone who endorses the premises but denies the conclusion of the valid argument commits himself to a moral inconsistency, not a logical one. In addition, uttering both 'P' and '~P' seem to be inconsistent but expressivism cannot explain the inconsistency between these two obviously inconsistent sentences. Blackburn's strategy of inventing a new attitude, such as tolerance, is also unable to solve this problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Practical experiments drive important scientific discoveries in biology, but theory‐based research studies also contribute novel—sometimes paradigm‐changing—findings. Here, we appraise the roles of theory‐based approaches focusing on the experiment‐dominated wet‐biology research areas of microbial growth and survival, cell physiology, host–pathogen interactions, and competitive or symbiotic interactions. Additional examples relate to analyses of genome‐sequence data, climate change and planetary health, habitability, and astrobiology. We assess the importance of thought at each step of the research process; the roles of natural philosophy, and inconsistencies in logic and language, as drivers of scientific progress; the value of thought experiments; the use and limitations of artificial intelligence technologies, including their potential for interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research; and other instances when theory is the most‐direct and most‐scientifically robust route to scientific novelty including the development of techniques for practical experimentation or fieldwork. We highlight the intrinsic need for human engagement in scientific innovation, an issue pertinent to the ongoing controversy over papers authored using/authored by artificial intelligence (such as the large language model/chatbot ChatGPT). Other issues discussed are the way in which aspects of language can bias thinking towards the spatial rather than the temporal (and how this biased thinking can lead to skewed scientific terminology); receptivity to research that is non‐mainstream; and the importance of theory‐based science in education and epistemology. Whereas we briefly highlight classic works (those by Oakes Ames, Francis H.C. Crick and James D. Watson, Charles R. Darwin, Albert Einstein, James E. Lovelock, Lynn Margulis, Gilbert Ryle, Erwin R.J.A. Schrödinger, Alan M. Turing, and others), the focus is on microbiology studies that are more‐recent, discussing these in the context of the scientific process and the types of scientific novelty that they represent. These include several studies carried out during the 2020 to 2022 lockdowns of the COVID‐19 pandemic when access to research laboratories was disallowed (or limited). We interviewed the authors of some of the featured microbiology‐related papers and—although we ourselves are involved in laboratory experiments and practical fieldwork—also drew from our own research experiences showing that such studies can not only produce new scientific findings but can also transcend barriers between disciplines, act counter to scientific reductionism, integrate biological data across different timescales and levels of complexity, and circumvent constraints imposed by practical techniques. In relation to urgent research needs, we believe that climate change and other global challenges may require approaches beyond the experiment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aiming at the problem that DoS vulnerabilities of smart contracts may cause resource exhaustion in auction refund transactions, this paper studied and designed an optimization scheme for DoS vulnerabilities of smart contracts in auction refund transactions. Firstly, it constructed a smart contract that might have DoS vulnerabilities, and then used the method of increasing mapping and pushing the stack out to complete vulnerability optimization. Finally, it ran the optimized smart contract through formal verification to detect whether there was logic errors or inconsistencies. The experimental results show that the smart contract optimized by this algorithm can avoid the denial of service caused by resource exhaustion. Compared with the smart contract with vulnerabilities, the equivalent memory usage of the optimized smart contract reduces about 62. 8%, and the running time is shortened. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this research, we developed a hybrid recommender system based on description/dialetheic logic, which provides an innovative architecture for the recommendation based on ambiguous reasoning. In addition, our approach allows enriching the knowledge during the reasoning using the linked data paradigm. Thus, the architecture allows the integration of linked data, in order to be exploited by the recommender. On the other hand, the reasoning mechanisms of dialetheic logic allow handling situations of contradiction or inconsistency, to determine the information to offer to users. According to the reviewed literature, our proposal is the first that implements a dialetheic engine in a Recommender System. In general, there are a lot of works about the utilization of linked open data (LOD) to improve the Recommender Systems, for example, to enrich the information to recommend or to solve the cold start problem. However, there are no proposals to deal with the problems of ambiguity, incoherence or incompleteness of the information in these environments extended with LOD. In this way, this paper proposes a hybrid reasoning engine that uses the linked data paradigm for the knowledge extraction, and dialetheic logic for the management of inconsistency/ambiguity information, in order to obtain recommendations. Particularly, the information extracted with Linked Data is processed with the Dialetheic Logic reasoner to solve ambiguous cases. Thus, each recommendation is enriched with related content extracted from the linked data sources, which has been disambiguated. The results are very promising since our hybrid reasoning mechanism allows obtaining more precise recommendations, considering the different classical states of ambiguity in dialetheic logic (contingent statements about the future, failure of a presupposition, vagueness, counterfactual reasoning), according to various metrics of quality used to evaluate the recommendations achieved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reflects on the perspectives of exchange and rational choice theories in sociology as intellectual explanations. The essay is divided in three parts: one historical, one theoretical, and one epistemological. The first establishes some prominent features of the situation surrounding the emergence of these approaches, which helps us understand their historical and ideological matrix. The second examines their conceptual and methodological elements and their core theoretical positions, identifying some of their inconsistencies and virtues. In the third, the author identifies some of their underlying epistemological premises and the place they occupy in the history of enduring ideas, with the goal of better understanding their limitations and reach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a system as comprehensive as the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas which is bound to appear to contain inconsistencies. Topics include examines four apparent inconsistencies, concluding that at least three of them are real with varying prospects for being repaired in ways that would preserve the more important elements of Aquinas's system and considered terms of their connections with his account of God's nature, the four problems sort themselves out into two pairs.

The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is a popular Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) method. The workability of AHP made it suitable for solving complicated and elusive decision problems that subsequently led to its widespread applications in highly diverse fields. However, AHP has also received criticisms on various fronts, one of which is the rank reversal problem. When a replica of an existing alternative is introduced in the Multi-Criteria Decision (MCD) setting, it sometimes causes rank order reversal among alternatives. However, the addition of a replica of an alternative in the MCD setting is not limited to the rank reversal problem, but it also affects the inconsistency measure computed for the decision-maker (DM). An empirical study was conducted using AHP to measure the changes in the inconsistency of the DM on a well-defined and familiar MCD problem. The results indicate that when a replica is added to a pair-wise comparison matrix, the inconsistency of the DM reduces. It is found that there are two sources of inconstancy in a pair-wise preference matrix. One is intransitivity and another is the limitation of the 1–9 ratio scale. It is found that an inconsistency up to 50% is purely because of limitations of the ratio scale and higher inconsistencies are purely because of intransitivity in preferences defined by the DM. Therefore, the DMs should review and revise their preferences when their inconsistency exceeds 50%. This 50% threshold is also useful in deciding whether to apply a prediction algorithm to identify near consistent matrices. If the inconsistency of a matrix is above 50%, the prediction algorithms used to improve the consistency cannot be applied on the original inconsistent matrix because the source of inconsistency is intransitivity which means that the DM either does not have complete information about the problem or has not attended to the problem carefully. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The problem of collective choice is the problem of combining several individual experts' opinions about the order of preference of objects (alternatives) being compared into a single "group" preference. The complexity of collective choice consists in the necessity of processing the ratings of the compared alternatives set by different experts in their own private scales. This article presents the author's original algorithm for processing expert preferences in the problem of collective choice, based on the notion of the total "error" of the experts and measuring their contribution to the collective measure of their consistency. The presentation of the material includes the necessary theoretical part consisting of basic definitions and rules, the statement of the problem and the method itself based on the majority rule, but in the group order of objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is customary to expect from a logical system that it can be algebraizable, in the sense that an algebraic companion of the deductive machinery can always be found. Since the inception of da Costa's paraconsistent calculi, algebraic equivalents for such systems have been sought. It is known, however, that these systems are not self-extensional (i.e., they do not satisfy the replacement property). More than this, they are not algebraizable in the sense of Blok–Pigozzi. The same negative results hold for several systems of the hierarchy of paraconsistent logics known as Logics of Formal Inconsistency (LFIs). Because of this, several systems belonging to this class of logics are only characterizable by semantics of a non-deterministic nature. This paper offers a solution for two open problems in the domain of paraconsistency, in particular connected to algebraization of LFIs, by extending with rules several LFIs weaker than $C_1$ , thus obtaining the replacement property (that is, such LFIs turn out to be self-extensional). Moreover, these logics become algebraizable in the standard Lindenbaum–Tarski's sense by a suitable variety of Boolean algebras extended with additional operations. The weakest LFI satisfying replacement presented here is called RmbC, which is obtained from the basic LFI called mbC. Some axiomatic extensions of RmbC are also studied. In addition, a neighborhood semantics is defined for such systems. It is shown that RmbC can be defined within the minimal bimodal non-normal logic $\mathbf {E} {\oplus } \mathbf {E}$ defined by the fusion of the non-normal modal logic E with itself. Finally, the framework is extended to first-order languages. RQmbC, the quantified extension of RmbC, is shown to be sound and complete w.r.t. the proposed algebraic semantics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Achieving a widely accepted definition of human intelligence has been challenging, a situation mirrored by the diverse definitions of artificial intelligence in computer science. By critically examining published definitions, highlighting both consistencies and inconsistencies, this paper proposes a refined nomenclature that harmonizes conceptualizations across the two disciplines. Abstract and operational definitions for human and artificial intelligence are proposed that emphasize maximal capacity for completing novel goals successfully through respective perceptual-cognitive and computational processes. Additionally, support for considering intelligence, both human and artificial, as consistent with a multidimensional model of capabilities is provided. The implications of current practices in artificial intelligence training and testing are also described, as they can be expected to lead to artificial achievement or expertise rather than artificial intelligence. Paralleling psychometrics, 'AI metrics' is suggested as a needed computer science discipline that acknowledges the importance of test reliability and validity, as well as standardized measurement procedures in artificial system evaluations. Drawing parallels with human general intelligence, artificial general intelligence (AGI) is described as a reflection of the shared variance in artificial system performances. We conclude that current evidence more greatly supports the observation of artificial achievement and expertise over artificial intelligence. However, interdisciplinary collaborations, based on common understandings of the nature of intelligence, as well as sound measurement practices, could facilitate scientific innovations that help bridge the gap between artificial and human-like intelligence. • Proposes unified definitions for human and artificial intelligence. • Distinguishes between artificial achievement/expertise and artificial intelligence. • Advocates for AI metrics to ensure good quality AI system evaluations. • Describes artificial general intelligence (AGI) mirroring human general intelligence. • Evidence currently favours presence of artificial achievement over intelligence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inconsistency is a core problem in fields such as AI and data-intensive systems. In this work, we address the problem of measuring inconsistency in declarative process specifications, with an emphasis on linear temporal logic (LTL). As we will show, existing inconsistency measures for classical logic cannot provide a meaningful assessment of inconsistency in LTL in general, as they cannot adequately handle the temporal operators. We therefore propose a novel paraconsistent semantics for LTL over fixed traces (LTL ff) as a framework for time-sensitive inconsistency measurement. We develop and implement novel approaches for (element-based) inconsistency measurement, and propose a novel semantics for reasoning in LTL ff in the presence of preference relations between formulas. We implement our approach for inconsistency measurement with Answer Set Programming and evaluate our results with real-life data sets from the Business Process Intelligence Challenge. • We present an approach for measuring inconsistency in declarative process specifications. • We use Linear Temporal Logic on fixed traces (LTL ff) and a paraconsistent semantics. • We develop a series of "time-sensitive" inconsistency measures, also for pin-pointing issues. • We extend the framework with a preference relation over LTL ff constraints. • We develop and show-case algorithmic approaches for our approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Moral conflicts are the situations which emerge as a response to deal with conflicting obligations or duties. An interesting case arises when an agent thinks that two obligations A and B are equally important, but yet fails to choose one obligation over the other. Despite the fact that the systematic study and the resolution of moral conflicts finds prominence in our linguistic discourse, standard deontic logic when used to represent moral conflicts, implies the impossibility of moral conflicts. This presents a conundrum for appropriate logic to address these moral conflicts. We frequently believe that there is a close connection between tolerating inconsistencies and conflicting moral obligations. In paraconsistent logics, we tolerate inconsistencies by treating them to be both true and false. In this paper, we analyze Graham Priest's paraconsistent logic LP, and extend our examination to the deontic extension of LP known as DLP. We illustrate our work, with a classic example from the famous Indian epic Mahabharata, where the protagonist Arjuna faces a moral conflict in the battlefield of Kurukshetra. The paper aims to avoid deontic explosion and allows to accommodate Arjuna's moral conflict in paraconsistent deontic logics. Our analysis is expected to provide novel tools towards the logical representation of moral conflicts and to shed some light on the context-sensitive paraconsistent deontic logic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Classical and intuitionistic logic both validate Ex Contradictione Quodlibet (ECQ), according to which any proposition whatsoever follows from a contradiction. Many philosophers have found ECQ counter-intuitive, but criticisms of the principle have almost universally been directed from a position of support for relevance or other orthodox paraconsistent logics, according to which some, but not necessarily all, propositions follow from a contradiction. This paper draws attention to the historically significant view that nothing whatsoever follows from a contradiction – Ex Contradictione Nihil (ECN). It addresses the key arguments – model-theoretic, proof-theoretic, meaning theoretic and holist – deployed by proponents of ECQ against their standard opponents, and shows that each can be defeated from a position of support for ECN. In the course of answering these arguments, some understanding is developed of possible motivations for ECN and a solid case is built that ECN deserves further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Qualitative comparative analysis is increasingly popular as a methodological option in the evaluator's toolkit. However, evaluators who are willing to apply it face inconsistent suggestions regarding the choice of the 'solution term'. These inconsistent suggestions reflect a current broad debate among proponents of two approaches to qualitative comparative analysis. The first approach focuses on substantial interpretability and the second on redundancy-free results. We offer three questions to guide the choice of a solution term in the context of impact multi-method evaluation research. They are related to the intended use of the findings, goals of the analysis and regularity theory of causality. Finally, we showcase guidelines through three potential applications of qualitative comparative analysis. The guiding questions would almost always lead to choosing the substantial interpretability approach. However, the redundancy-free approach should not be disregarded. Whatever the choice, researchers should be aware of the assumptions each approach is based on and the risks involved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, I will argue that a number of Hume's claims generate a putative inconsistency with regard to complex ideas and independent existence. I first provide a prima facie argument for the existence of this inconsistency. Then, I examine a number of attempts to rescue Hume from this problem, and argue that each of them fails, before proposing my own solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the discussion on existence of the inconsistency including independent existence of perceptions from one another through the Separability Principle taking distinguishability being equivalent to distinctness.

This article presents a catalogue of some of the ways in which Proust's novel fails to make sense. The major categories of non-sense examined here are: minor inconsistencies due to the unfinished quality of the work; chronological incoherences; and inconsistent distinctions between narrator and author, with particular attention to textual entailments of the differences between the author and his semi-autobiographical narrator in terms of homosexuality, Jewishness and snobbery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The problem of corruption in Indonesia is like an unbroken chain. Since the 1998 reformation until now (2021), many persons with corruption cases involving politicians or officials have been arrested and even imprisoned. Among those entangled in corruption are many Muslim politicians and religious leaders known to the public as having a high level of religiosity and a clean reputation. Ideally, these Muslim politicians will be at the forefront of guarding the nation’s anti-corruption morality. However, the reality is different. This study explains the discrepancy of the relationship between religiosity and anti-corruption attitudes by Muslim politicians. This study relies on a qualitative approach with a descriptive analysis of the online media findings regarding Muslim politicians’ corrupt behaviour. The results of this study indicate that there is no correlation between religiosity and unethical behaviour. Politicians entangled in corruption come from all circles of political parties, socio-economic levels, intellectuals and various religious backgrounds. It means that other factors besides religious morality encourage a person to commit corruption, such as motives for power, high political costs, a hedonistic lifestyle, an incompetent law enforcement system and a deeprooted culture of corruption. Contribution: Efforts to eradicate corruption in Indonesia need to be carried out in an integrated and comprehensive manner with various approaches. Thus, the goal to minimise the corruption behaviour in Indonesia can be achieved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports a Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) exploring the nature, causes and epistemic effects of knowledge recontextualization in the 'official' Key Stage Five History curriculum in England. "Recontextualization" refers to inevitable changes that occur to knowledge as it is 'pedagogized', due to the value-laden practices and contexts which enact and shape curriculum-making. Five accredited examination specifications and three 'generative' policy documents were analysed using Fairclough's methods and interpreted through a Bernsteinian theoretic lens. Five problematic forms of knowledge recontextualization will be discussed: canonization; commodification; de-diversification; knowledge made static; and epistemic inconsistency. The application of CDA to everyday 'official' curriculum artefacts illuminates the role of micro-level 'language-in use' in bringing particular constructions of subject knowledge into being. It is suggested that not all these recontextualizations were intentional, nor fully explainable through macro and meso structural factors. Some had been enacted 'by accident' in the contingencies of fragmented and negotiated local practice. Epistemic and discursive 'literacies' are suggested as key to engendering agentic practice within the official curriculum-making community, as well as enabling teachers to select and pedagogically mediate specifications in line with local epistemic aims. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Newcomb's problem has spawned a debate about which variant of expected utility maximisation (if any) should guide rational choice. In this paper, we provide a new argument against what is probably the most popular variant: causal decision theory (CDT). In particular, we provide two scenarios in which CDT voluntarily loses money. In the first, an agent faces a single choice and following CDT's recommendation yields a loss of money in expectation. The second scenario extends the first to a diachronic Dutch book against CDT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wilhelm has recently shown that widely accepted principles about immediate ground are inconsistent with some principles of propositional identity. This note responds to this inconsistency by developing two ground-theoretic accounts of propositional individuation. On one account some of the grounding principles are incorrect; on the other account, the principles of propositional individuation are incorrect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The injective version of Cantor's theorem appears in full second-order logic as the inconsistency of the abstraction principle, Frege's Basic Law V (BLV), an inconsistency easily shown using Russell's paradox. This incompatibility is akin to others—most notably that of a (Dedekind) infinite universe with the Nuisance Principle (NP) discussed by neo-Fregean philosophers of mathematics. This paper uses the Burali–Forti paradox to demonstrate this incompatibility, and another closely related, without appeal to principles related to the axiom of choice—a result hitherto unestablished. It discusses both the general interest of this result, its interest to neo-Fregean philosophy of mathematics, and the potential significance of the Burali–Fortian method of proof. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Molecular simulations can provide microscopic insight into the physical and chemical driving forces of complex molecular processes. Despite continued advancement of simulation methodology, model errors may lead to inconsistencies between simulated and reference (e.g., from experiments or higher-level simulations) observables. To bound the microscopic information generated by computer simulations within reference measurements, we propose a method that reweights the microscopic transitions of the system to improve consistency with a set of coarse kinetic observables. The method employs the well-developed Markov state modeling framework to efficiently link microscopic dynamics with long-time scale constraints, thereby consistently addressing a wide range of time scales. To emphasize the robustness of the method, we consider two distinct coarse-grained models with significant kinetic inconsistencies. When applied to the simulated conformational dynamics of small peptides, the reweighting procedure systematically improves the time scale separation of the slowest processes. Additionally, constraining the forward and backward rates between metastable states leads to slight improvement of their relative stabilities and, thus, refined equilibrium properties of the resulting model. Finally, we find that difficulties in simultaneously describing both the simulated data and the provided constraints can help identify specific limitations of the underlying simulation approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, I offer a close reading of Wittgenstein's remarks on inconsistency, mostly as they appear in the Lectures on the Foundations of Mathematics. I focus especially on an objection to Wittgenstein's view given by Alan Turing, who attended the lectures, the so called 'falling bridges'-objection. Wittgenstein's position is that if contradictions arise in some practice of language, they are not necessarily fatal to that practice nor necessitate a revision of that practice. If we then assume that we have adopted a paraconsistent logic, Wittgenstein's answer to Turing is that if we run into trouble building our bridge, it is either because we have made a calculation mistake or our calculus does not actually describe the phenomenon it is intended to model. The possibility of either kind of error is not particular to contradictions nor to inconsistency, and thus contradictions do not have any special status as a thing to be avoided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Why do states build new international organizations (IOs) in issue areas where many institutions already exist? Prevailing theories of institutional creation emphasize their ability to resolve market failures, but adding new IOs can increase uncertainty and rule inconsistency. I argue that institutional proliferation occurs when existing IOs fail to adapt to shifts in state power. Member states expect decision-making rules to reflect their underlying power; when it does not, they demand greater influence in the organization. Subsequent bargaining over the redistribution of IO influence often fails due to credibility and information problems. As a result, under-represented states construct new organizations that provide them with greater institutional control. To test this argument, I examine the proliferation of multilateral development banks since 1944. I leverage a novel identification strategy rooted in the allocation of World Bank votes at Bretton Woods to show that the probability of institutional proliferation is higher when power is misaligned in existing institutions. My results suggest that conflict over shifts in global power contribute to the fragmentation of global governance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 3-valued paraconsistent logic Ciore was developed by Carnielli, Marcos and de Amo under the name LFI2, in the study of inconsistent databases from the point of view of logics of formal inconsistency (LFIs). They also considered a first-order version of Ciore called LFI2*. The logic Ciore enjoys extreme features concerning propagation and retropropagation of the consistency operator: a formula is consistent if and only if some of its subformulas is consistent. In addition, Ciore is algebraizable in the sense of Blok and Pigozzi. On the other hand, the logic LFI2* satisfies a somewhat counter-intuitive property: the universal and the existential quantifier are inter-definable by means of the paraconsistent negation, as it happens in classical first-order logic with respect to the classical negation. This feature seems to be unnatural, given that both quantifiers have the classical meaning in LFI2*, and that this logic does not satisfy the De Morgan laws with respect to its paraconsistent negation. The first goal of the present article is to introduce a first-order version of Ciore (which we call QCiore) preserving the spirit of Ciore, that is, without introducing unexpected relationships between the quantifiers. The second goal of the article is to adapt to QCiore the partial structures semantics for the first-order paraconsistent logic LPT1 introduced by Coniglio and Silvestrini, which generalizes the semantic notion of quasi-truth considered by Mikeberg, da Costa and Chuaqui. Finally, some important results of classical Model Theory are obtained for this logic, such as Robinson's joint consistency theorem, amalgamation and interpolation. Although we focus on QCiore, this framework can be adapted to other 3-valued first-order LFIs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ambiguous or inconsistent information is frequently present in the input of any real-world system that relies on multiple data sources. In the presence of inconsistencies, an expert system based on classical logic is trivialised due to the principle of explosion, that forces any proposition (and its negation) to be inferred. Instead, a family of non-classical logics, called Paraconsistent Logics, formalises the idea that even from inconsistent premises, useful conclusions can be drawn. Within this context, the Paraconsistent Annotated Logics with Annotation of Two Values (PAL2v), which use a pair of favourable and unfavourable evidences as annotations, have been particularly successful in engineering applications. Structures called Para-Analysers can be built with these logics that provide the appropriate means to analyse the truth value of a proposition under conflicting/contradictory evidences. The work reported in this paper extends the traditional Para-Analysers with an evidence filter. This new model can be represented as a cubic structure representing various Para-Analyser lattices, each of which is selected according to the quality of the evidence, that is updated with respect to measurements executed at run time. The resulting three-dimensional paraconsistent analysis structure is encapsulated as an expert-system cell called Cubic Paraconsistent Analyser with Evidence Filter and Temporal Analysis (CPAet). Sets of CPAet nodes are combined constituting distinct network topologies that are used to infer the operating conditions of equipment in data networks of electrical systems control and supervision, resulting in a fault detection and classification system. Tests on simulated systems show that the CPAet networks were effective to deal with inconsistencies without trivialising the inferences, while also providing a more informed (finer grained) decision on the data network equipment state, when compared to the traditional paraconsistent analysers. • The extension of a paraconsistent logic model considering the quality of evidences. • A novel paraconsistent algorithm for the analysis of equipment of data networks. • The encapsulation of this algorithm as nodes in a network for system analysis. • The identification of failure in engineering installations using sets system analysis networks. • Complete investigation paraconsistent analysis applied to complex electrical systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to resolve some of the inconsistencies within Kant's theory of aesthetic ideas that have been left unaddressed by previous interpretations. Specifically, Kant's text appears to be imbued with the following two tensions. First, there appears to be a conflict between his commitment to the view that mere sensations cannot function as vehicles for the communication of aesthetic ideas and his claim that musical tones, on account of being mere sensations, can express aesthetic ideas. Second, his description of musical form as consisting of a play of aesthetic ideas that leave behind no thoughts appears to be incongruous with his formulation of aesthetic ideas as free imaginative representations that contain a wealth of thoughts and meanings. If what it means to express aesthetic ideas is precisely to stimulate much thinking, then how can an object exist that expresses aesthetic ideas, but without leaving any thoughts behind? I attempt to resolve these two perceived tensions by proposing a distinction between reflective and non-reflective aesthetic ideas communicated by form and mere sensations respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Basic results of the paper are that any four-valued expansion L4 of Dunn-Belnap's logic DB4 is defined by a unique (up to isomorphism) conjunctive matrix M4 with exactly two distinguished values over an expansion U4 of a De Morgan non-Boolean four-valued diamond, but by no matrix with either less than four values or a single [non-]distinguished value, and has no proper extension satisfying Variable Sharing Property (VSP). We then characterize L4's having a theorem / inconsistent formula, satisfying VSP and being [inferentially] maximal / subclassical / maximally paraconsistent, in particular, algebraically through M4jA4's (not) having certain submatricesjsubalgebras. Likewise, [providing U4 is regular / has no three-element subalgebra] L4 has a proper consistent axiomatic extension if[f]M4 has a proper paraconsistent / two-valued submatrix [in which case the logic of this submatrix is the only proper consistent axiomatic extension of L4 and is relatively axiomatized by the Excluded Middle law axiom]. As a generic tool (applicable, in particular, to both classically-negative and implicative expansions of DB4), we also prove that the lattice of axiomatic extensions of the logic of an implicative matrixMwith equality determinant is dual to the distributive lattice of lower cones of the set of all submatrices of M with non-distinguished values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This experiment investigated interactions between lower- and higher-level processing when reading in a second language (L2). We conducted an eye-tracking experiment with the within-subject manipulation inconsistency (to tap higher-level coherence-building) crossed with a within-subject manipulation of word-processing difficulty (to alter the ease of lower-level processing), both manipulated on the text level. Sixty-three L2 learners read 48 short expository texts containing inconsistencies created through mismatches between pretargets such as soya and targets such as corn, or consistent controls. Word-processing difficulty was manipulated by inserting either shorter and higher-frequency words such as often or longer and lower-frequency words such as increasingly. We found evidence of interactions between lower-level word-processing difficulty and higher-level coherence building, as revealed by reduced a inconsistency effect showing in go-past durations and rereading in the difficult condition. This effect did not, however, extend to targeted regressions into inconsistent information. Our findings provide the first experimental evidence for online interactions between lower-level word processing and higher-level coherence building. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper I provide five separate responses, one for each of the contributed papers, in order to clarify some crucial aspects of the view defended in my book. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although Mark's Gospel refers to "the holy spirit" only six times, a central aspect of Mark's presentation of Jesus in the prologue is as one who is "spirit-filled" at the baptism (1:10). Mark continues to signal throughout the narrative that Jesus's actions are energized by the holy spirit, especially in his conflicts with his chief enemy, Satan, and others in the apocalyptic conflict, such as demonic and human opponents. Jesus's victories come through the spirit's power, and he offers the same possibility to his disciples. Even though their own "testing" shows their inability to imitate Jesus, Mark's Gospel nevertheless holds out for its audience the promise of future power through the holy spirit. The intersection of the themes of discipleship and the spiritfilled life, as modeled by Jesus, show that, just as Jesus engaged in battle with his cosmic enemies through the holy spirit, so too Jesus's disciples can expect to do the same. This role for the holy spirit is Mark's functional pneumatology. Jesus serves as a narrative portrayal of the "spirit-filled" life for Mark's audience, who can imitate not only Jesus's suffering unto death but also the advent of the kingdom through embodying the way of life of the kingdom of God. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 153 fish of John 21:11 should be seen as a "name in numbers" puzzle and should be solved with that category's conventions in mind. Previous solutions have failed to explore and evaluate the knowledge a would-be puzzle-solver would need. In 1990, in an article in Expository Times I proposed adding the one fish Jesus is roasting on the coals (John 21:9) and used isopsephy to solve the new total, 154, as the word "Day," an early title of Jesus. Two new arguments support that solution: the numerical sum of the name Jesus is reflected in the three Sunday appearances--"on the first day of the week" (John 20:19); "after eight days" (20:26); and the final Sunday that solves the numerical puzzle (21:1-14)--and the fishing scene imitates a wellknown gathering of eight men in book 2 of the Iliad. The elementary arithmetic of triangular numbers suggests a hypothesis. If the epilogue to the Gospel of John used the nomen sacrum ⲓⲏ for the name Jesus, the nomen as the number 18 and its triangle 171 also belong with the triangular 153 and its base of 17. The letter-numerals of η ογδοη η add up to 171. As letters joined with ἡμέρα, they form a phrase familiar from Leviticus, ἡ ἡμέρα ἡ ὀγδόη, which equals 153 plus 1 plus 171. The solution: Jesus is "the Eighth Day". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new aspect is added to the discussion of the unity of 2 Corinthians: stichometric analysis. Application of the ancient standard line for prose texts, the stichos of fifteen syllables, reveals that the two great apologias in 2:14-7:4 and 10:1-13:10 are of the same length, and the section 8:1-9:15 is exactly half of that. In fact, the letter as a whole appears to be composed in a uniform way. This conclusion contradicts the several hypotheses dividing the epistle into different parts written at different times. Arguments presented to justify these divisions are contrasted with counterarguments supporting the epistle's integrity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Job's encounter with God (38:1-42:6) has long been understood as the crux of the Book of Job, leading readers to seek the book's meaning in these cryptic chapters. Based on formal discrepancies in the text and evidence from two Babylonian parallels, the existence of a "dialogue of Job" (chaps. 3-27; 29-31) is proposed, which was composed independently not only from the prose tale (chaps. 1-2; 42:7-17) but also from the theophany. As this original poetic composition made no appeal to a divine epiphany, its depiction of a suffering and persuasive protagonist served provocatively to challenge traditional answers to the question of theodicy, rather than offer a solution of its own. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There exists the indeterminate situations of truth, falsity, indeterminacy degrees due to the uncertainty and inconsistency of decision makers' arguments in a complicated decision making (DM) problem. Then, existing neutrosophic set cannot describe the indeterminate information of truth, falsity, indeterminacy degrees. It is noted that the simplified neutrosophic set (SNS) is depicted by truth, falsity, indeterminacy degrees, while a neutrosophic number (NN) can be flexibly depicted by its determinate part and its indeterminate part. Regarding the indeterminate situations of truth, falsity, indeterminacy degrees in indeterminate DM problems, this study first presents a simplified neutrosophic indeterminate set (SNIS) to express the hybrid information of SNS and NN and defines the score, accuracy, and certainty functions of simplified neutrosophic indeterminate elements (SNIEs) with indeterminate ranges to compare SNIEs. Then, we introduce a SNIE weighted arithmetic averaging (SNIEWAA) operator and a SNIE weighted geometric averaging (SNIEWGA) operator to aggregate simplified neutrosophic indeterminate information. Next, a multi-attribute DM approach with decision makers' indeterminate ranges is established regarding the SNIEWAA and SNIEWGA operators in SNIS setting. Finally, the proposed DM approach is applied in a DM example on choosing a suitable slope design scheme to indicate the applicability and suitability of the proposed approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What follows is a proof as to why, at its origin, the articulation of any doctrine of racial supremacy harbors an internal contradiction. The notion of racial supremacy suffers from its own predicament for, by its inconsistency, Whites cannot be "White." This proof has the added benefit of illustrating that it is precisely because of the unattainability of "White"-ness that there is so much animosity. This essay's framework explains why this animosity is externalized toward those, who by the terms of that system, and by name alone, are barred access to this transcendent category—transcendent, thus, not of this world. With outstretched hands, attempts to enact supremacist notions in the world make for a hell of definitions. White is somehow defined as a noncolor color that has no means of defining or justifying itself, save by or through others. As such, its distinction from others falls apart, devouring itself by the very terms of its articulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper brings out an inconsistency between David Chalmers's dualism, which is the main element of his philosophy of mind, and his structuralism, which is the main element of his epistemology. The point is ad hominem, but the inconsistency if it can be established is of considerable independent interest. For the best response to the inconsistency, I argue, is to adopt what Chalmers calls 'type‐C Materialism', a version of materialism that has been much discussed in recent times because of its promise to move us beyond the stand‐off between standard versions of materialism and dualism. In turn, if that version of materialism is true, both dualism and structuralism should be rejected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past two decades, securitization theory has developed into a robust literature of cases and critiques. The vast majority of the attention paid to securitization has been to the securitizing actor and the referent object, leaving the audience – the body that determines the fate of a securitizing move by accepting or rejecting the securitizing actor's request – undertheorized. The audience is presented as a problematic contradiction, because as a collectivity called by the securitizing actor it appears to be a passive body, critiqued thereby as potentially irrelevant. On the other hand, both the original Copenhagen school formulation of securitization theory and many of its current theorists reaffirm the agency of the audience to actively determine the success or failure of the securitizing move. This article turns to political theology for guidance, and explains the contradiction of the passive/active audience through homology to the ekklesia and the acclamation of 'amen' in liturgical doxology. The fact that the congregation is passive recipient of a call does not negate the essential and substantial role that it must actively play, just as the contradiction of the passive/active description of the securitization audience is not a problem of illogic, but a paraconsistent truth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article will identify the inconsistency and confusion in mediation regarding the definition of mediation, the role of the mediator, and the difference between mediation confidentiality and privilege. Further, it will discuss the confusion and inconsistency in the protection of mediation communication, specifically regarding the definition of mediation communication, the time frame for protected communication, waiver of the protections and exceptions to protected mediation communication. It will provide a roadmap and fact pattern for determining whether mediation communications are protected and if so, the protection they are afforded. Lastly, it will offer recommendations so parties, professionals and the courts may better understand and reap the benefits of mediation. Key Points for the Family Court Community: Considerable confusion in mediation communication protection definitions highlighted.Inconsistent state protection of mediation communications demonstrated and examples provided.Privilege and confidentiality are most common mediation communication protections utilized.Privilege limits admissibility of mediation communication in court.Parties and others may have a privilege to prevent disclosure of mediation communications in court.Confidentiality limits mediation disclosures outside a proceeding unless the parties waive otherwise.Parties need to know if mediation communications are privileged and/or confidential or otherwise protected.Professionals and the court need to clearly inform parties about mediation communication protection.A roadmap to determine when a mediation communication is protected is provided.A fact pattern analysis of protection of mediation communication utilizing roadmap is demonstrated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction. Raising a research problem requires clarifying the difference between real problem, problem, problematization and research problem. At the same time, it requires thinking of the researcher as the source of the problem and of reasoning, considering the three types of reasoning: deductive, inductive and abductive. It proposes four criteria to build a research problem: 1. Description of the phenomenon 2. Description of the imbalance 3. Description of the time space 4. Description of the research subjects. Finally, the difference between the paradigms in the construction of research problems is considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article deals with the issue of international economists' vocational training. The results of the pilot research have revealed a number of inconsistencies in the process of studies such as the growing load of educational material and inefficient traditional methods of its study; requirements to solve professional problem situations combined with rare practice of applying innovative pedagogical technologies that could enhance interpersonal interaction; the need to develop practical readiness to build functional relationships in a foreign-language and lack of interdisciplinary approaches, professional simulation and adaptation techniques. With the aim of eliminating the aforementioned problems a graphical model of vocational training of future international economists using interactive technologies has been developed on the basis of theoretical and empirical research which determines the main directions of the experimental work. The key constituents of the suggested model such as pedagogical conditions, components, criteria, indicators, levels, have been described. The article gives a comparative analysis of the research results which proves the efficiency of using interactive technology tools in the humanitarian and professional practical training of international economists: in the control groups the average indicator of students' readiness for foreign economic activity has changed during the course of studies from 3.03 grade points to 3.19 points (i.e. by 0.16 points), and in the experimental groups - from 2.98 points to 3.64 points (i.e. by 0.66 points), which is 0.5 points better than in control groups. The validity of the results has been verified with the methods of mathematical statistics proving the plausibility of the conducted experiment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]