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Measures of learning speed (i.e., the amount of learning/cumulative time learner spends engaged in an intervention) are rarely included in research designed to evaluate and compare academic interventions. We build a case that includes analyses of learning speed metrics in academic intervention research can provide more useful information for prevention and remediation efforts, deter researchers from drawing misleading data-based conclusions, and promote scientific parsimony. Research is reviewed where the same learning data is analyzed across different metrics (i.e., same amount of learning, different measurement scales) including learning per event, learning speed, and growth. Patterns are analyzed and examples are provided that demonstrate how altering metrics can influence relative effectiveness conclusions and applied recommendations when researchers compare two or more interventions, conduct component analysis or optimization studies, and apply meta-analytic techniques. Opportunity costs for learners, educators, and learning scientists that may be caused by failure to measure learning speed are identified and analyzed. Our review and analyses support the conclusion that, in most instances, researchers can better inform prevention and remediation efforts by including precise measures of learning speed as dependent variables when they evaluate and compare interventions designed to enhance academic skills. Limitations and challenges associated with measuring learning speed are described and directions for future research are provided.

Teachers focused on prevention of academic problems should apply procedures that enhance learning speed, or learning as a function of the time that the learner spends engaged in the intervention(s). Although few researchers evaluate or compare academic interventions using precise measures of learning speed, several strategies for modifying interventions or instructional procedures have been developed that may enhance learning speed. Teachers who apply strategies that increase learning speed may allow students who receive remedial and special education services to incur fewer opportunity costs associated with time reallocation strategies and allow them to return to typical school activities earlier. More importantly, applying interventions that cause more rapid learning may "prevent" learning deficits, which may be the best way to minimize opportunity costs and enhance student success.

When remedying student academic deficits, educators must decide not only upon the intervention package to employ but how much of that intervention to deliver in order to provide an effective dose. In the current study, various doses of an explicit timing math fluency intervention package were evaluated with 105 fourth-grade students to identify the range of effective doses. Results indicate that doses of one 2-min intervention per day for 20 days (40 cumulative min) was the minimum required to produce a measurable treatment effect. Higher doses were also found to be effective. Discussion focuses on how using dose-response curve analysis can provide a more comprehensive evaluation of interventions that can better inform practitioners who are attempting to prevent and remedy academic skill deficits. Implications for future studies and expanded evaluation of treatments and treatment catalysts are also discussed.

Through innovation in research and self-correction, it is inevitable that some practices will be replaced or be discredited for one reason or another. De-implementation of discredited and low-value practices is a necessary step for school psychologists' maintenance of evidence-based practices and to reduce unnecessary costs and risk. However, efforts to clarify de-implementation frameworks and strategies are ongoing. The scope of this paper follows McKay et al. in considering the potential for de-implementation strategies to be informed by applied behavior analysis and operant learning theory. We conceptualize low-value practice as sets of behaviors evoked by their context and maintained by their consequences, and thus de-implementation as behavior reduction. We discuss the need for future research given this perspective.

Brief experimental analysis (BEA) is a well-researched approach to conducting problem analysis, where potential interventions are pilot tested using a single-subject alternating treatment design. However, its brevity may lead to a high frequency of decision-making errors, particularly in situations where one tested condition is rarely optimal for students (i.e., the base rate). The current study explored the accuracy of a specific variant of BEA, skill versus performance deficit analysis (SPA), across different variations of the basic BEA design, score difference thresholds, and reading and math curriculum-based measurements (CBMs). Findings indicate that the ABAB design provides a reasonable control of such error rates when using reading CBM, whereas subtraction CBM required the use of an ABABAB design. Such error rates could not be controlled, regardless of design, when using multiplication CBM. Implications for best practice in the use of BEA are discussed.

Check-in/check-out (CICO) is a well-established Tier 2 intervention to address at-risk student behavior problems. Despite its widespread empirical support and applied use, CICO can be taxing for teachers to implement when there is insufficient time available and teacher self-efficacy in addressing behavior problems is low. Evaluation of CICO is necessary to promote smarter decision making and efficient service delivery for students at risk of developing more severe problem behaviors. The discussion article outlines one method to identify the exact amount of Tier 2 support needed to improve an individual student's behavior.

Computers have become an important piece of technology in classrooms for implementing academic interventions. Often, students' responses to these interventions are used to help make important educational decisions. Therefore, it is important to consider the effect of these interventions across multiple contexts. For example, previous research has demonstrated that when students practice math fact fluency on the computers gains did not generalize to paper-pencil performance. The current study extended this research by examining the effect of multiple stimulus exemplars on the generalization of computer-based math practice to paper-pencil performance. A total of 57 second-grade students completed fluency drills only on the computer, computer mixed with paper-pencil or with only paper-pencil. Pretest-posttest performance was evaluated using a 3 × 2 doubly multivariate repeated-measures ANOVA, with follow-up univariate analysis to determine whether the interaction between time and treatment type was similar across matched and unmatched treatment modalities. Results from previous research were replicated with a lack of generalization across modalities, but the addition of multiple stimulus exemplars resulted in increased generalization for those students receiving a mix of computer and paper-pencil practice.

Math fact fluency is critical for understanding complex mathematics. Explicit timing interventions have shown promise for improving math fluency, and they may benefit from being paired with group-oriented contingencies. Further, investigations of independent and dependent group-oriented contingencies would help to identify their relative advantages. This study compared the effect of group contingency variations of an explicit timing intervention with goal setting and graphic feedback. Independent and dependent group-oriented contingency groups were compared along with an explicit timing only group. First-grade students completed daily addition probes and received graphs for the previous weeks' performance at the beginning of each week. Twice per week, the contingency groups received rewards based on their performance consistent with the contingency type. Results indicated that students in the independent group-oriented contingency condition had the greatest improvements in addition fluency. There was no difference found between the dependent and the explicit timing only group.

The primary purpose of intensifying interventions is to increase the effect of the intervention currently being delivered. However, there has been little empirical work completed that can provide guidance on selecting intensification methods. Because intensity can be modified in a number of ways that may differentially impact the time, effort, or resources required to deliver an intervention, it is important that systematic research is conducted that will assist practitioners in determining what methods serve to amplify intervention effects. This study evaluated the effect of the immediate delivery of accuracy feedback, as a method of intensification, when added to an explicit timing (ET) intervention. Results indicated that the addition of immediate accuracy feedback enhanced the effect of an ET intervention. Implications for these results and future research are provided.

This study examined the utility of brief academic assessments to identify effective generalization procedures for individual students. Specifically, the study built on the proposal that brief assessments of antecedent and consequence manipulations can identify the most effective generalization strategy for individual students. The design was an alternating treatments design nested within a multiple baseline across six students. Students learned how to solve a set of multiplication facts using a common strategy while spontaneous generalization to other sets of facts was measured. Next, researchers determined whether an antecedent- or consequent-based generalization strategy would be more effective for increasing generalization across multiplication skills and conducted an extended analysis with an alternating treatment phase to confirm results of the brief assessment. Results indicated that the assessment correctly identified the most effective generalization strategy for five of the six students.

School psychologists are often asked to develop treatment to remediate students' academic skills or social behavior problems. When teachers implement treatment recommendations with high levels of treatment integrity, students benefit. Treatment integrity has been enhanced by use of direct training, performance feedback, and negative reinforcement procedures. Still, maintenance of treatment integrity has received limited systematic inquiry. This study investigated maintenance of treatment integrity over time by utilizing a systemic fading procedure with indiscriminable contingencies. The results showed that the teachers continued to implement treatment protocols at a high level after performance feedback was faded. Students also fared better when treatment integrity was high.

Math proficiency is related to math calculation fluency. Explicit timing provides repeated practice for math fluency. It is enhanced through goal setting, graphic feedback, and rewards. Self-selected goals have potential to increase performance for math fluency. This study compared the effect of goal lines, and researcher goals versus self-selected goals. The authors compared three groups: (a) researcher-selected goals only, (b) researcher-selected goals with goal lines, and (c) self-selected goals with goal lines. First-grade students completed subtraction probes and colored in a bar graph with their performance. When participants met or exceeded their goals, participants received rewards twice per week. Results indicated that the researcher-selected goals with goal lines procedures with explicit timing had the greatest effect on subtraction fluency for first-grade students. The researcher-selected goals with goal lines and self-selected goals with goal lines groups outperformed the researcher-selected goals-only group.

Computer-based interventions are being used more in the classroom. Student responses to these interventions often contribute to decisions making regarding important outcomes. It is important to understand the effect of these interventions within the context of the intervention as well as across related context. The current study examined the generalization of math fact fluency gains resulting from a computer-based intervention to paper-and-pencil performance. A total of 31 second grade students completed fluency drills on the computer or with paper and pencil. Pretest-posttest performance on both computer and paper and pencil for all students was evaluated using a doubly multivariate repeated measure ANOVA. Results indicated that gains achieved on the computer did not generalize to paper-and-pencil performance. (Contains 1 table and 2 figures.)

Observational bias can significantly affect results attained through observation. This study focused on 122 preservice teacher educators who conducted a structured observation, using momentary time sampling procedures with 10-second intervals, to measure student on-task and off-task behaviors. The experimental variable altered was the exceptionality label of the observed student to determine if the label would have a biasing effect. Labels used were oppositional defiant disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and gifted/talented. Results suggest that an exceptionality label (i.e., oppositional defiant disorder) significantly affects observed behavior. Practical implications of the study are discussed. (Contains 2 tables.)

The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effect of three procedures designed to promote the generalization of fluent responding of 12 addition facts to 12 related subtraction facts. The first procedure was completed to determine whether increases in the number of digits correct per minute computed on addition facts would generalize to related subtraction facts. If students were fluent in the targeted addition problems and no generalization was detected, a second procedure was implemented where students completed a conceptual lesson. If no generalization was observed during this phase, a third procedure was implemented where students completed addition problems presented in a cloze format. Results failed to demonstrate generalized fluency gains across any of the procedures. Discussion focuses on future directions of generalization research to further our understanding of the conditions needed for generalization to occur.

The need to investigate strategies promoting the generalization of reading skills is well documented. The current study builds upon previous literature by examining the impact of a common stimulus procedure on accuracy of reading generalization words in isolation. The common stimulus procedure used in this study intended to enhance the salience of the orthographic and phonemic features between taught and generalization words by highlighting the common rime structure in each word with a specific color. Taught and generalization words representing four word families were used (e.g., end, et, ell, & en). Using a multiple-baseline design across three participants with a replication of procedures for a fourth student, the impact of the common stimulus on accuracy of reading generalization words was examined. Results demonstrated increased accuracy and stability of responding when common stimulus procedures were implemented.

This study examined the application of two generalization procedures designed to promote generalized responding across two early literacy skills. Letter sound fluency was targeted using direct intervention for three subjects within a multiple baseline design. After instruction was complete, two generalization procedures (cueing and providing sufficient response exemplars) were tested in an increasingly intense application of the procedures to determine whether sufficient levels of response generalization to letter sound blending could be programmed. Results indicated that although some subjects demonstrated minor levels of unprogrammed or spontaneous generalization, more complete levels of generalization were accomplished only once generalization techniques were employed.

Response to intervention (RTI) has been discussed as a new model of assessment. Although the basic process by which RTI works has received frequent attention in the literature, the available research leaves several important questions unanswered (Kavale et al. in Learn Disabil Q 28(1): 2-16, 2005). One concept within RTI that has received little empirical consideration is intervention intensity. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of the application of increased intervention frequency on the mathematics performance of students and to evaluate this increased frequency as a systematic means of increasing and quantifying intervention strength. Results indicate that although all students were responsive to the intervention, some participants were sensitive only to more frequent application of the treatment or at more intense levels of treatment. Through this methodology a means of quantifying treatment intensity was also identified and implications for future research are discussed.

As a result of the new revision of IDEA (2004), models of early intervention and response-to-intervention (RTI) have received a great deal of attention in the literature. Although various tiered models have been described in detail, one aspect of RTI that has received little empirical attention is the need to ensure integrity of intervention as part of a team decision making process. One method that has good support for improving treatment integrity is performance feedback (PFB); however, the utilization of PFB within a team context has received very little attention in the literature. Experiment 1 evaluated the effect of PFB delivered within the context of an RTI team on treatment integrity after fidelity had fallen to unacceptable levels. Experiment 2 evaluated the effects of PFB on the maintenance of treatment integrity prior to integrity fall off. Results indicate that PFB can be used as an efficient means of improving or maintaining treatment integrity when applied within a team model. (Contains 2 tables and 2 figures.)

Programming common stimuli is a strategy for generalizing behavior across settings (Stokes & Baer, 1977). The present study programmed common stimuli (i.e., goal statement and use of a pictorial icon) to generalize the effects of a reinforcement-based intervention for students identified as either developmentally delayed or emotionally disturbed. Results supported the effectiveness of the strategy in producing generalized responding from training to the generalization setting. The importance of methodological rigor in future research exploring generalization and the need to compare generalization strategies are discussed. (Contains 1 figure.)

The bulk of the existing literature emphasizes the use of phonemic/phonetic based instruction to enhance generalization between reading and written language. However, phonetically irregular words are common in English and may require the use of whole word approaches. This study examined generalization between from reading to spelling and from spelling to reading following whole word based instruction using a delayed prompt procedure. The total instructional time was equated across conditions. Students exhibited substantial but incomplete generalization with the degree of generalization varying somewhat across responses and students. The most striking finding was that oral spelling instruction in which the printed word was neither presented nor produced resulted in substantial generalization to reading. These data illustrate a model for examining response generalization in instructional contexts.

This study examined an approach for assessing and intervening with academic concerns that is conceptually derived from the distinction between skill deficits and performance deficits. A class-wide assessment was used to describe the students' functioning in the context of their peers and to help select a target concern for intervention. An individual assessment was also conducted to examine the possibility that goal setting and reward would be sufficient to correct the identified deficit. For 2 students rewards were effective in the brief assessment, suggesting a performance deficit hypothesis, and for 2 students they were not, suggesting a skill deficit hypothesis. An extended analysis was then conducted comparing an instructional intervention to one emphasizing motivational variables. In all cases the intervention approach suggested by the initial brief analysis was supported in the extended analysis. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

A longitudinal randomized design was used with a sample of 57 third-grade students to evaluate and compare the effectiveness of three variations of cover, copy, and compare (CCC; traditional CCC, CCC-answer only, and CCC-paired responding) on multiplication fluency in third-grade students. Traditional CCC requires students to write the problem and answer as a response, CCC-answer only requires students only to write the answer, and CCC-paired responding requires students to write the answer only, then verbally state the problem and answer twice. The interventions occurred for 4 min per day, 5 days per week, across 11 calendar weeks (minus 1 week during a school break). Digits correct per minute (DCPM) level and trend data were significantly higher for each of the CCC variations when compared to control probes, with a posttest unstandardized effect of 7.22 [5.39, 9.10] DCPM. However, there were no significant differences in learning across the three CCC variations. Overall, these results provide additional evidence that all three forms of CCC can enhance math fact fluency and suggest that educators could choose which version to apply based on idiosyncratic or contextual factors. The discussion focuses on future theoretical research designed to investigate these findings and the advantages of studies that evaluate multiple interventions and compare their effectiveness. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).