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A lichenicolous fungus forming large black, vertically elongate, campylidia-like conidiomata on the thallus of Ochrolechia was recently collected in Austria, Mexico and the USA. The conidia are so remarkable in being multiappendiculate that initially no existing fungal genera appeared to be suitable for its description. Nevertheless, molecular phylogenetic analyses of nuITS and nuLSU sequences recovered the species within the genus Mycocalicium. To date, no species of Mycocaliciales has been reported producing appendiculate conidia. The species is described as new as M. campylidiophorum. The new species was also discovered in the type specimen of Opegrapha chionographa that was collected in Colombia 163 years ago. This discovery led us to revise O. chionographa, originally described as a lichen, and clarify that in fact the name applies to a lichenicolous fungus based on type material that is an admixture of M. campylidiophorum, an Ochrolechia and an Opegrapha species. The name is shown to apply to the Opegrapha species and lectotypified as such. Opegrapha blakii is treated as synonym of O. chionographa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The lichen family Teloschistaceae from the Galapagos is revised. Most of the species belong to the Caloplacoideae, two to Teloschistoideae and a few to Xanthorioideae, three subfamilies not validly published, which is remedied here. Four different datasets were analyzed using Bayesian inference. For the bulk of the species, a combined dataset of nrITS, nrLSU and mrSSU was analyzed. Additionally, three analyses were performed using nrITS to further investigate phylogenetic relationships within and between species in each subfamily, and in the genera Xanthomendoza and Squamulea. Four new genera are described: Lacrima, Oceanoplaca, Phaeoplaca, Sucioplaca. Twenty-four species are reported, of which ten are new to science: Caloplaca nigra, Lacrima galapagoensis, Oceanoplaca chemoisidiosa, O. sideritoides, Phaeoplaca tortuca, Squamulea chelonia, S. humboldtiana, S. osseophila, S. oceanica, and Xanthomendoza leoncita. Several new combinations are proposed and three species of Xanthomendoza are reduced to synonymy. Several new combinations and species placed into synonymy do not occur in the Galapagos, but are treated as a consequence of our taxonomic revision. Morphology, anatomy, secondary chemistry, distribution and molecular phylogenetic affiliation are presented for each species and a key is provided. Eight different chemical patterns are quantitatively described based on HPLC analyses. The new genus Lacrima includes L. galapagoensis, a species without vegetative propagules, and two densely isidiate species, L. epiphora and L. aphanotripta that are morphologically similar to 'Caloplaca' wrightii. The only species of Galapagos Teloschistaceae that contains xanthones is placed into Huneckia. Oceanoplaca includes two species with the new anthraquinone isidiosin, O. isidiosa and O. chemoisidiosa, while a third species, O. sideritoides, does not contain this secondary metabolite. Phaeoplaca camptidia has previously been reported from Galapagos, but our phylogenetic analysis suggests that it is a new species, here named P. tortuca. An isolated position is occupied by 'Caloplaca' diplacia, which we place in it its own monotypic genus Sucioplaca. Some Galapagos Teloschistaceae can be considered a 'residue' of unresolved Caloplaca s.l., i.e. the corticolous C. floridana is possibly related to the saxicolous C. nigra, while C. cupulifera can currently not be placed. Squamulea remains particularly problematic and includes S. phyllidizans, that is nested among otherwise unresolved Squamulea species. Based on molecular data, S. phyllidizans is close to 'Huriella'. 'Huriella' flakusii, described from Peru, is confirmed to occur in the Galapagos and the genus is reduced to synonymy with Squamulea. The Squamulea squamosa/subsoluta group remains largely unresolved, but the new species S. chelonia, S. humboldtiana, S. oceanica, and S. osseophila are phylogenetically distinct. Foliose Teloschistaceae are represented only by one species, described as Xanthomendoza leoncita, while the only fruticose species, Teloschistes chrysophthalmus and T. flavicans, are cosmopolitan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study is a reassessment of the Usnea cornuta aggregate diversity mainly in Brazil. Based on previous multi-locus species delimitation analyses using the multispecies coalescent model (MSC), we carried out a posteriori morphological and anatomical studies. The following corticolous new species are described: Usnea arianae with norstictic or fatty or lobaric acids, convex and efflorescent soralia and a lax medulla; U. flabelliformis with protocetraric acid, fan-shaped main branches and a high medulla/cortex ratio; U. rubropallens with protocetraric acid and a faint orange cortical/subcortical pigment; U. stipitata with constictic acid, stipitate soralia and a high medulla/cortex ratio; and U. tenuicorticata with protocetraric acid, a thin cortex and a high medulla/cortex ratio. The newly described species were found to occur so far only in the Americas, except U. arianae which shows an amphi-atlantic distribution in Europe and on the American continent. Seven species already described belonging to the U. cornuta aggr. in Brazil are further treated here: Usnea boomiana with caperatic acid and large, concave soralia, new to South America; U. brasiliensis with protocetraric acid, minute and irregular soralia; U. cornuta with mainly salazinic acid and minute soralia fusing into consoralia; U. macaronesica (syn. nov.: U. subglabrata) with barbatic acid, large excavate soralia and a lax medulla; Usnea subpectinata, a so far european species resurrected from the U. cornuta synonymy, with stictic acid and numerous isidiofibrils, new to South America; and U. trachyclada with thamnolic acid and K+ bright yellow stipitate soralia. Full descriptions with morphological, anatomical and chemical features, geographical distributions, and illustrations are provided for each species along with an identification key. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High levels of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi colonisation of 90-100%, as well as high vesicular and arbuscular colonisation were found in the roots of the rare and endangered wild grapevine (Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris) along the Neretva River in southwestern Bosnia and Herzegovina, surpassing colonisation in region vineyads. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elevational gradients are associated not only with variations in temperature and precipitation, but also with shifts in vegetation types and changes in soil physicochemical properties. While large-scale elevational patterns of soil microbial diversity, such as monotonic declines and hump-shaped models, have been reported, it is unclear whether within-ecosystem elevational distribution patterns exist for soil fungal communities at the small scale. Using Illumina Miseq DNA sequencing, we present a comprehensive analysis of soil fungal diversity and community compositions in an alpine tundra ecosystem at elevations ranging from 2000 to 2500 m on the Changbai Mountain, China. Soil fungal community composition differed among elevations, and the fungal diversity (i.e., species richness and Chao1) increased along elevations. Soil fungal richness was negatively correlated with soil carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio, and community composition varied according to the C/N ratio. In addition, the relative abundances of Basidiomycota and Leotiomycetes were similarly negatively correlated with C/N ratio. For functional guilds, our data showed that mycoparasite and foliar epiphyte abundances were also influenced by C/N ratio. These results indicated that soil C/N ratio might be a key factor in determining soil fungal distribution at small-scale elevational gradients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Light conditions during fungal growth are well known to cause several physiological adaptations in the conidia produced. In this study, conidia of the entomopathogenic fungi Metarhizium robertsii were produced on: 1) potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium in the dark; 2) PDA medium under white light (4.98 W m −2 ); 3) PDA medium under blue light (4.8 W m −2 ); 4) PDA medium under red light (2.8 W m −2 ); and 5) minimum medium (Czapek medium without sucrose) supplemented with 3 % lactose (MML) in the dark. The conidial production, the speed of conidial germination, and the virulence to the insect Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) were evaluated. Conidia produced on MML or PDA medium under white or blue light germinated faster than conidia produced on PDA medium in the dark. Conidia produced under red light germinated slower than conidia produced on PDA medium in the dark. Conidia produced on MML were the most virulent, followed by conidia produced on PDA medium under white light. The fungus grown under blue light produced more conidia than the fungus grown in the dark. The quantity of conidia produced for the fungus grown in the dark, under white, and red light was similar. The MML afforded the least conidial production. In conclusion, white light produced conidia that germinated faster and killed the insects faster; in addition, blue light afforded the highest conidial production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

K20 is a novel amphiphilic aminoglycoside capable of inhibiting many fungal species. K20's capabilities to inhibit Fusarium graminearum the causal agent wheat Fusarium head blight (FHB) and to this disease were examined. K20 inhibited the growth of F. graminearum (minimum inhibitory concentrations, 7.8–15.6 mg L −1 ) and exhibited synergistic activity when combined with triazole and strobilurin fungicides. Application of K20 up to 720 mg L −1 to wheat heads in the greenhouse showed no phytotoxic effects. Spraying wheat heads in the greenhouse with K20 alone at 360 mg L −1 lowered FHB severity below controls while combining K20 with half–label rates of Headline (pyraclostrobin) improved its disease control efficacy. In field trials, spraying K20 at 180 mg L −1 and 360 mg L −1 combined with half-label rates of Headline, Proline 480 SC (prothioconazole), Prosaro 421 SC (prothioconazole + tebuconazole), and Caramba (metconazole) reduced FHB indices synergistically. In addition, the K20 plus Proline 480 SC combination reduced levels of the mycotoxin deoxinivalenol by 75 % compared to the control. These data suggest that K20 may be useful as a fungicide against plant diseases such as FHB particularly when combined with commercial fungicides applied at below recommended rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The low survival of insect-pathogenic fungi when used for insect control in agriculture is mainly due to the deleterious effects of ultraviolet radiation and heat from solar irradiation. In this study, conidia of 15 species of entomopathogenic fungi were exposed to simulated full-spectrum solar radiation emitted by a Xenon Test Chamber Q-SUN XE-3-HC 340S (Q-LAB ® Corporation, Westlake, OH, USA), which very closely simulates full-spectrum solar radiation. A dendrogram obtained from cluster analyses, based on lethal time 50 % and 90 % calculated by Probit analyses, separated the fungi into three clusters: cluster 3 contains species with highest tolerance to simulated full-spectrum solar radiation, included Metarhizium acridum , Cladosporium herbarum , and Trichothecium roseum with LT 50 > 200 min irradiation. Cluster 2 contains eight species with moderate UV tolerance: Aschersonia aleyrodis , Isaria fumosorosea , Mariannaea pruinosa , Metarhizium anisopliae , Metarhizium brunneum , Metarhizium robertsii , Simplicillium lanosoniveum , and Torrubiella homopterorum with LT 50 between 120 and 150 min irradiation. The four species in cluster 1 had the lowest UV tolerance: Lecanicillium aphanocladii , Beauveria bassiana , Tolypocladium cylindrosporum , and Tolypocladium inflatum with LT 50 < 120 min irradiation. The QSUN Xenon Test Chamber XE3 is often used by the pharmaceutical and automotive industry to test light stability and weathering, respectively, but it was never used to evaluate fungal tolerance to full-spectrum solar radiation before. We conclude that the equipment provided an excellent tool for testing realistic tolerances of fungi to full-spectrum solar radiation of microbial agents for insect biological control in agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Entomopathogenic fungi of the order Hypocreales infect their insect hosts mainly by penetrating through the cuticle and colonize them by proliferating throughout the body cavity. In order to ensure a successful infection, fungi first produce a variety of degrading enzymes that help to breach the insect cuticle, and then secrete toxic secondary metabolites that facilitate fungal invasion of the hemolymph. In response, insect hosts activate their innate immune system by triggering both cellular and humoral immune reactions. As fungi are exposed to stress in both cuticle and hemolymph, several mechanisms are activated not only to deal with this situation but also to mimic host epitopes and evade the insect's immune response. In this review, several components involved in the molecular interaction between insects and fungal pathogens are described including chemical, metabolomics, and dual transcriptomics approaches; with emphasis in the involvement of cuticle surface components in (pre-) infection processes, and fungal secondary metabolite (non-ribosomally synthesized peptides and polyketides) analysis. Some of the mechanisms involved in such interaction are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neoscytalidium spp. are ascomycetous fungi consisting of pigmented and hyaline varieties both able to cause skin and nail infection. Their color-based identification is inaccurate and may compromise the outcome of the studies with these fungi. The aim of this study was to genotype 32 isolates morphologically identified as N eoscytalidium dimidiatum or N. dimidiatum var. hyalinum by multilocus sequence typing (MLST), differentiate the two varieties by their sequence types, evaluate their susceptibility to seven commercial antifungal drugs [amphotericin B (AMB), voriconazole (VOR), terbinafine (TER), 5-flucytosine (5FC), ketoconazole (KET), fluconazole (FLU), and caspofungin (CAS)], and also to the antimicrobial photodynamic treatment (APDT) with the phenothiazinium photosensitizers (PS) methylene blue (MB), new methylene blue (NMBN), toluidine blue O (TBO) and the pentacyclic derivative S137. The efficacy of each PS was determined, initially, based on its minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC). Additionally, the APDT effects with each PS on the survival of ungerminated and germinated arthroconidia of both varieties were evaluated. Seven loci of Neoscytalidium spp. were sequenced on MLST revealing eight polymorphic sites and six sequence types (ST). All N. dimidiatum var. hyalinum isolates were clustered in a single ST. AMB, VOR and TER were the most effective antifungal agents against both varieties. The hyaline variety isolates were much less tolerant to the azoles than the isolates of the pigmented variety. APDT with S137 showed the lowest MIC for all the isolates of both varieties. APDT with all the PS killed both ungerminated and germinated arthroconidia of both varieties reducing the survival up to 5 logs. Isolates of the hyaline variety were also less tolerant to APDT. APDT with the four PS also increased the plasma membrane permeability of arthroconidia of both varieties but only NMBN and S137 caused peroxidation of the membrane lipids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many fungi are polykaryotic, containing multiple nuclei per cell. In the case of heterokaryons, there are different nuclear types within a single cell. It is unknown what the different nuclear types contribute in terms of mRNA expression levels in fungal heterokaryons. Each cell of the mushroom Agaricus bisporus contains two to 25 nuclei of two nuclear types originating from two parental strains. Using RNAsequencing data, we assess the differential mRNA contribution of individual nuclear types and its functional impact. We studied differential expression between genes of the two nuclear types, P1 and P2, throughout mushroom development in various tissue types. P1 and P2 produced specific mRNA profiles that changed through mushroom development. Differential regulation occurred at the gene level, rather than at the locus, chromosomal, or nuclear level. P1 dominated mRNA production throughout development, and P2 showed more differentially up-regulated genes in important functional groups. In the vegetative mycelium, P2 up-regulated almost threefold more metabolism genes and carbohydrate active enzymes (cazymes) than P1, suggesting phenotypic differences in growth. We identified widespread transcriptomic variation between the nuclear types of A. bisporus. Our method enables studying nucleus-specific expression, which likely influences the phenotype of a fungus in a polykaryotic stage. Our findings have a wider impact to better understand gene regulation in fungi in a heterokaryotic state. This work provides insight into the transcriptomic variation introduced by genomic nuclear separation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study was carried out to determine chemical composition and rumen degradability parameters of dry matter (DM), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF) ether extract (EE) and organic matter (OM) in Populus nigra sawdust biodegraded by Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Pleurotus ulmarius. The samples were incubated by the fungal biomass at 30 °C with 65 % relative humidity for 7 and 17 days and chemical composition of substrate was then analyzed. Using in situ technique enabled us to evaluate degradability of the samples in the rumen of two Moghani rams with rumen fistula. Significant differences were observed in DM, NDF, ADF, EE and ash contents as well as degradability parameters of DM, NDF, ADF and OM, including highly soluble and readily degradable fraction (a), insoluble and slowly degradable fraction (b), rate constant for degradation of the fraction b (c) and effective degradability (ED) in different times of biodegradation. The findings indicated that effects of white rot fungi on Populus nigra sawdust significantly decreased DM, NDF, ADF and OM while EE, ash content, DM and NDF degradability parameters were significantly increased. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fungi respond to light irradiation by forming conidia and occasionally synthesizing mycotoxins. Several light wavelengths, such as blue and red, affect the latter. However, the relationship between light irradiation and mycotoxin synthesis varies depending on the fungal species or strain. This study focused on aflatoxin (AF), which is a mycotoxin, and the types of light irradiation that increase AF synthesis. Light-irradiation tests using the visible region indicated that blue wavelengths in the lower 500 nm region promoted AF synthesis. In contrast, red wavelengths of 660 nm resulted in limited significant changes compared with dark conditions. Irradiation tests with different intensity levels indicated that a low light intensity increased AF synthesis. For one fungal strain, light irradiation decreased the AF synthesis under all wavelength conditions. However, the decrease was mitigated by 525 nm low intensity irradiation. Thus, blue-green low intensity irradiation may increase AF synthesis in fungi. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the current study, Octospora leucoloma, known as a bryoparasitic fungus, is reported for the first time from Turkey at genus level. Macro- and microphotographs of the taxon are provided, along with a description. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on morphological characteristics, a hypocrea-like collection from Hunan Province was found to be identical with Pseudohypocrea hongkongensis , which was originally reported only from Hong Kong, China. A living culture of the fungus was obtained from fresh ascomata, and its asexual morph is described for the first time. The gross morphology and anatomic structure of the fungus and the type species of Pseudohypocrea were compared in detail. Their phylogenetic positions were explored based on sequence analyses of the combined ITS and nrLSU regions. Both morphological and molecular data support placing Pseudohypocrea in synonymy with Trichoderma . Two new combinations, T. citrinellum comb. nov. and T. hongkongense comb. nov., are thus proposed. The phylogenetic relationships of T. hongkongense and other members of the genus are confirmed by sequence analyses of the combined ITS, rpb2 and tef1 regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, fungi from waste water of different sources in Madinah, KSA, was isolated in order to determine the effective dose and shape of silver nanoparticles necessary for treating them. Waste water was collected from two sources, homes and hospitals (Ohud Hospital). Additionally, bottled drinking water (Taibah) and autoclaved distilled water was used as control. Uncoated silver nanoparticles were used. The particles were with two shapes (rod, cube) and four concentrations (0, 1, 10 and 100 μg/ml) were selected and distilled water was used as a solvent. Fungi were isolated and purified on potato dextrose agar media. A total of eight genera and nine fungal species were identified: Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A. terreus, Fusarium oxysporium, F. solani, Geotrichum candidum, Mucor hiemalis, Penicillium chrysogenum, Rhizopus oryzae, Trichoderma harizianum and Trichophyton sp., Aspergillus sp. was the highest in its number collectively, thus was considered for further experiment. Silver nanoparticles were tested on two Aspergillus sp. i.e. A. niger and A. terreus. The gradual growth reduction was clear in both Aspergillus species as the concentration of the silver nanoparticles increased. A. terreus had higher reduction compared to A. niger. No significant differences were found among the 1, 10, and 100 μg/ml concentrations. The rod shaped nanoparticles showed less growth for the fungi studied compared to the cube shaped. It is possible to use silver nanoparticles as antifungal substances; however, more considerations should be taken. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fungal chitinase I obtained fromThermomyces lanuginosusSSBP, a thermophilic deuteromycete, has an optimum growth temperature and pH of 323.15 K and 6.5, respectively.This enzyme plays an important task in the defence mechanism of organisms against chitin-containing parasites by hydrolysing β-1, 4-linkages in chitin. It acts as both anti-fungal and biofouling agents, with some being thermostable and suitable for the industrial applications. Three-dimensional model of chitinase I enzyme was predicted and analysed using various bioinformatics tools. The structure of chitinase I exhibited a well-defined TIM barrel topology with an eight-stranded α/β domain. Structural analysis and folding studies at temperatures ranging from 300 to 375 K using 10 ns molecular dynamics simulations clearly showed the stability of the protein was evenly distributed even at higher temperatures, in accordance with the experimental results. We also carried out a number of 20 ns constant pH molecular dynamics simulations of chitinase I at a pH range 2–6 in a solvent. This work was aimed at establishing the optimum activity and stability profiles of chitinase I. We observed a strong conformational pH dependence of chitinase I and the enzyme retained their characteristic TIM barrel topology at low pH. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Parasola malakandensis sp. nov. is described as a new species from Malakand, Pakistan, based on morpho-anatomical and molecular data. Morphological description and line drawings of anatomical structures for the new species and comparison with closely allied taxa are provided. Phylogenetic analyses based on internal transcribed spacer (ITS), large subunit of the nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrLSU) and gene for translation elongation factor 1α ( tef-1α ) are studied. Parasola malakandensis is placed in Parasola section Auricomi on account of dark brown sclerocystidia in the pileipellis and basidiospores with central germ-pore. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycopathogens were explored from wheat germplasm cultivars from District Bhimber of Azad Kashmir. In this study, 10 different seed-borne pathogens were isolated from District of Bhimber, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. The Agar Plate Method (APM) and Towel Paper Method (TPM) were used for detection of seed borne pathogens. The disease incidence (percentage) and disease severity of fungi varied with respect to type of pathogen and seed sampling sites. Kernel bunt caused by Tilletia indica showed highest incidence (67.25%) and severity (7.0) on 0-9 rating scale. Fusarium graminearum showed the highest infection rate in three sub-divisions of district Bhimber as compared to others. The fungal attacking pathogens on wheat crop were control through fungicides treatment and treatments with plant extracts. Maximum germination rates were calculated in three sub-divisions of Bhimber after treatment of Tilt fungicide. As 86% germination rate in Samahni, 87.5% in Bhimber and 84.5% in Bernala was calculated. Antifungal activity of five plant extracts (Acacia nilotica L., Azadirachta indica L. Juss., Eucalyptus citriodora Hook, Ficus bengalensis L. and Allium sativum L.) were evaluated in four different solvents. Highest minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was calculated of all plants in methanolic extracts. Maximum MIC (57.38 mcg/ml) exhibited by extracts of Acacia nilotica leaves against ten fungi. Azadirachta indica extracts in different solvents against wheat-seed fungal pathogens was shown more antimicrobial activity as compared to other four plants. Azadirachta indica extract in methanol showed the highest mean of antifungal activity (62.20 mcg/ml) against ten different fungal pathogens. Antimicrobial activity (MIC) of Ficus bengalensis in different solvents against nine wheat-seed fungal pathogens was also investigated. Highest MIC was measured against B. graminis (57.50 mcg/ml) and S. macrospora (57.00 mcg/ml) by using methanolic extract of Ficus bengalensis. Allium sativum extracts isolated from methanol solvent showed an excellent antifungal activity (49.57mcg/ml) against ten wheat attacking fungal pathogens. The antifungal activity of Eucalyptus citriodora in methanol indicated a better control of different wheat-seed fungal pathogens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rhizosphere and endophytic fungal communities are considered critically important for plant health and soil fertility. In response to continuous cropping, Panax notoginseng becomes vulnerable to attack by fungal pathogens. In the present study, culture-independent Illumina MiSeq was used to investigate the rhizospheric and root endophytic fungi in response to continuous Panax notoginseng cropping practices. The results demonstrated that fungal diversity is increased inside the roots and in rhizospheric. Ascomycota , Zygomycota , Basidiomycota and Chytridiomycota were the dominant phyla detected during the continuous cropping of Panax notoginseng . The fungal diversity in the rhizospheric soil and roots of root-rot P. notoginseng plants are less than that of healthy plants in the same cultivating year, thus showing that root-rot disease also affects the community structure and diversity of rhizospheric and root endophytic fungi. Similarities in the major fungal components show that endophytic fungal communities are similar to rhizospheric soil fungal community based on a specialized subset of organisms. Canonical correspondence analysis on the fungal communities in root-rot rhizospheric from both healthy plants and rotation soils reveals that the soil pH and organic matter have the greatest impact upon the microbial community composition during continuous cropping, whereas soil nutrition status does not significantly affect the fungal community composition in response to continuous cropping practices. In addition, the results suggest that the unclassified genera Leotiomycetes, Cylindrocarpon , Fusarium and Mycocentrospora are shown as the potential pathogens which are responsible for the obstacles in continuous cropping of P. notoginseng . Further exploration of these potential pathogens might be useful for the biological control of continuous cropping of P. notoginseng . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a new species,Cystolepiota pseudofumosifolia, is introduced.C.pseudofumosifoliais characterized by granulose or powdery pileus with an anatomic structure that is loosely globose, as well as ellipsoid cells in chains in the pileus covering the cheilocystidia. This new species is compared to the related and similarCystolepiotaspecies in morphology and molecular phylogeny based on Internal transcribed spacer sequences. Both types of data support our specimens as a new species in the genusCystolepiota. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Aim: Despite the important roles that microbial communities play world-wide, relatively little attention has been given to the processes that shape their distributions. Of those studies that have addressed this question, the vast majority has focused on temperate regions and relatively undisturbed environments. In particular, tropical agricultural environments have been rarely studied, and it is commonly assumed that agriculture reduces spatial variation in microbial communities, especially in soil. Here, we evaluated the diversity and abundance of fungal communities in soils used for the cultivation of the world's largest crop, sugarcane, in the world's largest producer, Brazil. Location: State of São Paulo, Brazil. Methods: Our study sampled across 23,022 km2 of the State of São Paulo, Brazil, in an area that is a major producer of sugarcane. The composition of the fungal communities was estimated via terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) analysis, and the fungal abundance was estimated by quantitative PCR (qPCR). Results: We observed that the variance in community composition explained by soil characteristics was 2.88%, and that explained by climate variables was 2.93%. In contrast, geographical distance explained 50.75% of the variance. Moreover, the distribution of fungal species abundance fits a neutral model that assumes only dispersal and drift better, rather than models that assume environmental filtering. Main conclusions: Our work demonstrates that fungal communities in soil can exhibit biogeographical patterns, even in agricultural soils, and that these patterns are likely to be due at least in part to dispersal limitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Leishmaniasis and malaria are the two most common parasitic diseases and responsible for large number of deaths per year particularly in developing countries like Pakistan. Majority of Pakistan population rely on medicinal plants due to their low socio-economic status. The present review was designed to gather utmost fragmented published data on traditionally used medicinal plants against leishmaniasis and malaria in Pakistan and their scientific validation. Methods: Pub Med, Google Scholar, Web of Science, ISI Web of knowledge and Flora of Pakistan were searched for the collection of data on ethnomedicinal plants. Total 89 articles were reviewed for present study which was mostly published in English. We selected only those articles in which complete information was given regarding traditional uses of medicinal plants in Pakistan. Results: Total of 56 plants (malaria 33, leishmaniasis 23) was found to be used traditionally against reported parasites. Leaves were the most focused plant part both in traditional use and in in vitro screening against both parasites. Most extensively used plant families against Leishmaniasis and Malaria were Lamiaceae and Asteraceae respectively. Out of 56 documented plants only 15 plants (Plasmodia 4, Leishmania 11) were assessed in vitro against these parasites. Mostly crude and ethanolic plant extracts were checked against Leishmania and Plasmodia respectively and showed good inhibition zone. Four pure compounds like artemisinin, physalins and sitosterol extracted from different plants proved their efficacy against these parasites. Conclusions: Present review provides the efficacy and reliability of ethnomedicinal practices and also invites the attention of chemists, pharmacologist and pharmacist to scientifically validate unexplored plants that could lead toward the development of novel anti-malarial and anti-leishmanial drugs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Basidiomata were collected from Trabzon, Tokat, and İstanbul provinces between 2011 and 2015. Standard methods were used during collecting and microscopic investigations. Cantharellus ianthinoxanthus (R.Maire) Kühner, Cortinarius humicola (Quél.) Maire, Cortinarius obtusorum Rob. Henry, Cortinarius rubicundulus (Rea) A.Pearson, Cortinarius sordescens Rob. Henry, Crinipellis subtomentosa (Peck) Singer, Macrotyphula juncea (Alb. & Schwein.) Berthier, Pluteus chrysophaeus (Schaeff.) Quél., Pseudoomphalina kalchbrenneri (Bres.) Singer, and Suillellus pulchrotinctus (Alessio) Blanco-Dios were identified and recorded for the first time for the Turkish fungal biodiversity. Field and laboratory images, descriptions, and a brief discussion about the new records are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural land use commonly exerts multiple stressors on the functioning of stream ecosystems, including leaf litter decomposition and the utilization of this resource in stream food webs. If stressors interact, their cumulative effects on biotic responses cannot be predicted from knowledge of individual stressor effects, posing challenges for management and restoration of ecosystems., We examined the individual and interactive effects of four common agricultural stressors and the role of litter quality on leaf litter decomposition and fungal decomposers. In 128 outdoor, flow-through mesocosms, we manipulated levels of nutrients, a nitrification inhibitor (dicyandiamide), deposited fine sediment and flow velocity. Interactions among these stressors can ensue because, for instance, they jointly affect physicochemical conditions around leaf litter colonized by fungi such as concentrations of dissolved oxygen and nutrients., The two litter species used, deciduous birch and evergreen mahoe, showed contrasting decomposition dynamics, and these differences influenced their response to stressors. Fungi were important for birch litter decomposition but played a minor role for mahoe. Overall, flow velocity reduction and deposited fine sediment had the strongest, mainly negative effects on fungi and litter decomposition, probably as a consequence of reductions in dissolved oxygen available to fungi. However, fine sediment substantially increased mahoe litter mass loss, pointing at fungi-independent processes being relevant for its decomposition., Although interactions among stressors were uncommon, they showed effects of the same magnitude as stressor main effects. Potential mechanisms underlying interactions included reductions in dissolved oxygen and changes in microbial community composition., Knowledge of the effects of multiple agricultural stressors and of litter quality on litter decomposition and litter-associated fungi is crucial for management of forested riparian corridors, which have been shown to efficiently mitigate impacts of agricultural stressors on streams. The contrasting responses of the litter species used in our study warrant consideration of species composition of the riparian vegetation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interactions between insects and fungi are widespread, and important mediators of these interactions are fungal chemicals that can therefore be considered as allelochemicals. Numerous studies suggest that fungal chemicals can affect insects in many different ways. Here, we apply the terminology established by insect-plant ecologists for categorizing the effect of fungal allelochemicals on insects and for evaluating the application potential of these chemicals in insect pest management. Our literature survey shows that fungal volatile and non-volatile chemicals have an enormous potential to influence insect behavior and fitness. Many of them still remain to be discovered, but some recent examples of repellents and toxins could open up new ways for developing safe insect control strategies. However, we also identified shortcomings in our understanding of the chemical ecology of insect-fungus interactions and the way they have been investigated. In particular, the mode-of-action of fungal allelochemicals has often not been appropriately designated or examined, and the way in which induction by insects affects fungal chemical diversity is poorly understood. This review should raise awareness that in-depth ecological studies of insect-fungus interactions can reveal novel allelochemicals of particular benefit for the development of innovative insect pest management strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study describes isolation of laccase producing fungal strain and optimization of the process parameters by design of experiment (DOE) technique to achieve the maximum production of extracellular laccases by Aspergillus flavus obtained from natural habitat. Bromophenol blue dye and ABTS (2,2′-azinobis 3-ethyl-benzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) were used as substrates for the screening of laccase activity. Design expert 8.0.7.1 software was used to optimize culture conditions such as carbon source, nitrogen source, temperature and pH. Subsequently, optimization for inoculums size was also carried out. The optimization studies revealed that the laccase yield was highest when operated at the following conditions: carbon source – cellulose (8%), nitrogen source – peptone (2%), temperature – 35 °C, pH – 7 and inoculum of size 1.5 cm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this research was to find the basic data on genetic diversity of mtDNA D-Loop in Aceh cattle and its association with Bhutanese, Chinese, and Indian cattle. There were sixty samples of DNA which had been sequenced; i.e. Banda Aceh (11), Saree (20), and Indrapuri (29). To the best of our knowledge this is the first published data on the complete mitochondrial D-Loop sequence of Aceh cattle. Results show that Aceh cattle have the closest relationship to Bos indicus and have been influenced by Bos taurus . The closest genetic ranges among Aceh cattle, Bhutanese, Chinese, Indian and Zebu were Aceh–Zebu (0.0138), Aceh–Bhutanese (0.0156), Aceh–Chinese (0.0190) and Aceh–Indian (0.0193). D-Loop mtDNA analyses showed that there were 27 haplotypes in which twenty-one samples spread in haplotype 1, two samples were in haplotype 2, and the other four haplotypes had various samples in the range of three to seventeen samples. One sample of Aceh cattle from Saree has a closest maternal genetic with B. taurus . One of the four mutations among the star-shaped clusters on median joining network was a new specific haploid-group in Aceh cattle. From this finding it could be assumed that Aceh cattle form a specific haplotype and it can be conclude that Aceh cattle are animal genetic resources from Aceh in Sumatera Island that have to be preserved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated the biochemical characteristics and kinetic parameters of laccase from a newly isolated Aureobasidium pullulans NAC8 obtained from soil containing decay plant litters. This was with a view to identifying the type of laccase and its possible suitability for biotechnological applications. The fungal strain was identified as A. pullulans NAC8 by sequencing of its 5.8S rRNA and adjacent internally transcribed sequences (ITS) 1 and 2. A. pullulans NAC8 laccase was purified 2.0-fold with a yield of 59.3% and specific activity of 9.34 μmol/min/mg protein. The kinetic parameters K M , V max , k cat and k cat / K M for laccase with guaiacol as substrate were 1.05 ± 0.12 mM, 12.67 ± 0.55 μmol/ml/min, 25.3 × 10 −1 s −1 and 2.4 × 10 3 M −1 s −1 respectively. Laccase exhibited maximum activity at 45 °C and optimum pH of 4.5. The enzyme showed stability at a temperature range of 45–55 °C after a 2 h incubation. The molecular weight determined on SDS–PAGE was 68.4 kDa. The enzyme was stable at 10% of all organic solvents used but displayed a loss of activity at 50%. 2.5 mM thioglycolic acid (TGA) and 0.05 mM sodium azide inactivated the enzyme. The substrate specificity was guaiacol > catechol > tannic acid > gallic acid. There was no peak observed at 610 nm and the ratio of absorbance at 280 nm and 610 was 26. This suggests a yellow laccase. The biochemical properties of A. pullulans NAC8 yellow laccase makes it potentially useful in several biotechnological applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The outcome of the arms race between hosts and pathogens depends heavily on the interactions between their genetic diversity, population size and transmission ability. Theory predicts that genetically diverse hosts will select for higher virulence and more diverse pathogens than hosts with low genetic diversity. Cultivated hosts typically have lower genetic diversity and thus small effective population sizes, but can potentially harbour large pathogen population sizes. On the other hand, hosts, such as weeds, which are genetically more diverse and thus have larger effective population sizes, usually harbour smaller pathogen population sizes. Large pathogen population sizes may lead to more opportunities for mutation and hence more diverse pathogens. Here we test the predictions that pathogen neutral genetic diversity will increase with large pathogen population sizes and host diversity, whereas diversity under selection will increase with host diversity. We assessed and compared the diversity of a fungal pathogen, Rhynchosporium commune, on weedy barley grass (which have a large effective population size) and cultivated barley (low genetic diversity) using microsatellites, effector locus nip1 diversity and pathogen aggressiveness in order to assess the importance of weeds in the evolution of the neutral and selected diversity of pathogens. Results: The findings indicated that the large barley acreage and low host diversity maintains higher pathogen neutral genetic diversity and lower linkage disequilibrium, while the weed maintains more pathotypes and higher virulence diversity at nip1. Strong evidence for more pathogen migration from barley grass to barley suggests transmission of virulence from barley grass to barley is common. Conclusions: Pathogen census population size is a better predictor for neutral genetic diversity than host diversity. Despite maintaining a smaller pathogen census population size, barley grass acts as an important ancillary host to R. commune, harbouring highly virulent pathogen types capable of transmission to barley. Management of disease on crops must therefore include management of weedy ancillary hosts, which may harbour disproportionate supplies of virulent pathogen strains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thousands of basidiomycete fungal species rely on mushroom spores to spread across landscapes. It has long been thought that spores depend on favorable winds for dispersal—that active control of spore dispersal by the parent fungus is limited to an impulse delivered to the spores to carry them clear of the gill surface. Here we show that evaporative cooling of the air surrounding the pileus creates convective airflows capable of carrying spores at speeds of centimeters per second. Convective cells can transport spores from gaps that may be only 1 cm high and lift spores 10 cm or more into the air. This work reveals howmushrooms tolerate and even benefit from crowding and explains their high water needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background To determine the clinical features, fungal profiles, treatment outcomes, and factors that are significantly associated with the visual outcomes of eyes with endogenous fungal endophthalmitis (EFE). Material and methods The medical records of 17 eyes of 9 patients diagnosed with EFE during January 2005 to December 2013 were reviewed. The collected data included patient characteristics, visual acuities (VAs), length between appearance of the first sign of infection and the first ophthalmic examinations, fungal profiles, and treatment regimen. The main outcome measure was the VA. Statistical analyses were done to detect the factors significantly associated with the visual prognosis. Results The median age at presentation was 67 years. Seven patients had Candida albicans , and 2 had Candida tropicalis . Eight patients received intravenous fosfluconazole, 4 systemic micafungin, 4 oral itraconazole, and 2 intravenous voriconazole. The minimum inhibitory concentrations of fluconazole against Candida albicans isolated from 5 patients ranged from 0.25 to 1.0 μg/mL. A final VA of ≥20/200 was achieved in 69.2% of the eyes. Multiple regression analysis (r 2 = 0.695) detected both initial logMAR (the Logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution) VA ( P = 0.0067) and longer length between onset of symptoms and the first ophthalmic examinations ( P = 0.0491) as significant worsen factors for final logMAR VA. Conclusions Early ophthalmic consultation, better initial visual acuity, and use of effective systemic antifungal treatment might lead to relatively good visual outcomes in EFE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organisms have evolved a fascinating variety of strategies and organs for successful reproduction. Fruit bodies are the reproductive organ of fungi and vary considerably in size and shape among species. Our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the differences in fruit body size among species is still limited. Fruit bodies of saprotrophic fungi are smaller than those of mutualistic ectomycorrhizal fungi. If differences in fruit body size are determined by carbon acquisition, then mean reproductive traits of saprotrophic and ectomycorrhizal fungi assemblages should vary differently along gradients of resource availability as carbon acquisition seems more unpredictable and costly for saprotrophs than for ectomycorrhizal fungi. Here, we used 48 local inventories of fungal fruit bodies (plot size: 0.02 ha each) sampled along a gradient of resource availability (growing stock) across 3 years in the Bavarian Forest National Park in Germany to investigate regional and local factors that might influence the distribution of species with different reproductive traits, particularly fruit body size. As predicted, mean fruit body size of local assemblages of saprotrophic fungi was smaller than expected from the distribution of traits of the regional species pool across central and northern Europe, whereas that of ectomycorrhizal fungi did not differ from random expectation. Furthermore and also as expected, mean fruit body size of assemblages of saprotrophic fungi was significantly smaller than for assemblages of ectomycorrhizal species. However, mean fruit body sizes of not only saprotrophic species but also ectomycorrhizal species increased with resource availability, and the mean number of fruit bodies of both assemblages decreased. Our results indicate that the differences in carbon acquisition between saprotrophs and ectomycorrhizal species lead to differences in basic reproductive strategies, with implications for the breadth of their distribution. However, the differences in resource acquisition cannot explain detailed species distribution patterns at a finer, local scale based on their reproductive traits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A fibrinolytic metalloprotease-like enzyme named TFase, was purified from the fruiting bodies of the medicinal fungus Tremella fuciformis. Purification of TFase was performed by a chromatography on DEAE Sepharose CL-6B and Superdex-75. TFase showed a molecular weight of 38 kDa by SDS-PAGE and displayed a strong fibrin zymogram lysis band corresponding to a similar molecular mass. The enzyme demonstrated wide temperature optimum from 10 to 40°C and pH optimum at pH 8.0. The fibrinolytic activity of TFase was strongly inhibited by EDTA and EGTA, which are metalloprotease inhibitors. The K and V values for enzyme using the artificial substrate pyroGlu-Gly-Arg-pNA were 3.81 mM and 4.88 µmoles mg min, respectively. TFase of T. fuciformis partially dissolved a fibrin clot directly and specifically cleaved the Aα and Bβ chains of fibrinogen. In addition, the enzyme prolonged the coagulation time, and increased the activated partial thromboplastin time and prothrombin time. These results suggest that TFase of T. fuciformis exhibits properties of a metalloprotease-like enzyme, shows novel fibrin(ogen)olytic enzyme activity, and has the potential to be a therapeutic agent for thrombosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent finding of a novel fungal strategy to manipulate salicylic acid (SA) in a nonmodel plant pathogen interaction not only establishes the universality of the strategy to ensure the success of biotrophs and hemibiotrophs, but also illustrates current limitations and challenges to identify targets of fungal effector in crop plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about the response of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities to ecosystem development. We use a long-term soil chronosequence that includes ecosystem progression and retrogression to quantify the importance of host plant identity as a factor driving fungal community composition during ecosystem development., We identified arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plant species from 50 individual roots from each of 10 sites spanning 5-120 000 yr of ecosystem age using terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T- RFLP), Sanger sequencing and pyrosequencing., Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities were highly structured by ecosystem age. There was strong niche differentiation, with different groups of operational taxonomic units ( OTUs) being characteristic of early succession, ecosystem progression and ecosystem retrogression. Fungal alpha diversity decreased with ecosystem age, whereas beta diversity was high at early stages and lower in subsequent stages. A total of 39% of the variance in fungal communities was explained by host plant and site age, 29% of which was attributed to host and the interaction between host and site (24% and 5%, respectively)., The strong response of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to ecosystem development appears to be largely driven by plant host identity, supporting the concept that plant and fungal communities are tightly coupled rather than independently responding to habitat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author presents insights on dimorphic fungi of mammals, plants and insects that cause infections. Topics discussed include the total number of Histoplasma capsulatum and Coccidioides infections in the U.S. annually, the impact of phytopathogenic dimorphic fungi on urban landscape and agriculture, and how the switch in morphology of yeast affect its pathogenesis. Also mentioned is the influence of hyphal growth on the pathogenesis of fungi.

One of the characteristic features of European species of genera Boletus s.str. and Butyriboletus is a conspicuous development of their cheilocystidia covering their pores in youth. The development of this type of cheilocystidia is partly supported by the growth of hyphae of the hymenophoral trama under the cheilocystidia. This special arrangement of cheilocystidia is an important diagnostic character distinguishing European species of the above-mentioned genera from other groups of boletes in Boletaceae. The microscopical structure of this type of pores is described in detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper summarises the current state of knowledge of the distribution and ecology of Xerocomus chrysonemus in the Czech Republic. The authors present information on newly discovered localities in the Czech Republic and a yet unobserved feature of the species - bluing of the context. A distribution map based on the collections from the Czech Republic is presented and features suitable for field identification are summarised, especially with regard to X. subtomentosus, which frequently occurs together with the species in question. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphidaceae is a large family of over 2000 predominantly tropical, lichenized fungal species encompassing a remarkable range of morphological and chemical diversity. The majority of species belongs in subfamily Graphidoideae, which also exhibits the greatest amount of variation. Various phenotype characters have traditionally been used for classification at the genus and species levels, but their correlations with phylogenetic clades are poorly known. Using a multilocus approach, we reconstructed a phylogeny for 224 taxa, representing all main genera within subfamily Graphidoideae, and employed ancestral character reconstruction and character transformation analyses to understand the evolution of morphological, anatomical and chemical characters within this group. In addition, we examined the changes of habitat and photobiont types over the phylogeny. For this purpose, we focused on 10 characters, including thallus and ascoma features and chemistry. Since previous studies have shown that results may differ depending on the reconstruction method used, both Maximum-parsimony and Maximum-likelihood approaches were employed and multistate coding of characters was used. We reconstructed the ancestral states for 64 well-supported major clades in the family and found support for the ancestor of Graphidoideae being a tropical species with a trentepohlioid photobiont, apothecioid, solitary ascomata lacking both a columella and lateral paraphyses, and having non-amyloid ascospores. The frequency of transformations of morphological and chemical characters over the phylogeny of Graphidaceae was computed, resulting in a high frequency of reversible transformations for some characters, such as secondary chemistry, whereas other characters, such as photobiont, hymenial persistence or ascoma aggregation, exhibited low frequency of transformations. However, we found that even in the character with the highest number of transformations, secondary chemistry, the shifts were highly structured phylogenetically, suggesting that the evolution of the character, rather than the character state itself, can be used to predict phylogenetic relationships with certain accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Highlights: [•] Fungal diversity affects soil fungistasis and bacterial invasion? [•] Microcosms were assembled with fungal diversity ranging from 1 to 8 species. [•] Soil fungistasis was inversely related to initial microcosm diversity. [•] Bacteria capability to invade soil and rhizosphere decreased with microcosm diversity. [•] Loss of fungal microbial diversity may adversely affect ecosystem functionality. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Several microbial molecules are released to the extracellular space in vesicle-like structures. In pathogenic fungi, these molecules include pigments, polysaccharides, lipids, and proteins, which traverse the cell wall in vesicles that accumulate in the extracellular space. The diverse composition of fungal extracellular vesicles (EV) is indicative of multiple mechanisms of cellular biogenesis, a hypothesis that was supported by EV proteomic studies in a set of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains with defects in both conventional and unconventional secretory pathways. In the human pathogens Cryptococcus neoformans, Histoplasma capsulatum, and Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, extracellular vesicle proteomics revealed the presence of proteins with both immunological and pathogenic activities. In fact, fungal EV have been demonstrated to interfere with the activity of immune effector cells and to increase fungal pathogenesis. In this review, we discuss the impact of proteomics on the understanding of functions and biogenesis of fungal EV, as well as the potential role of these structures in fungal pathogenesis. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Trends in Microbial Proteomics. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The phylogeny of taxa with poroid and lamellate hymenophores in Auriculariales as yet has not been well studied. Here we sequenced the nLSU and ITS regions of poroid and lamellate representatives from the genera Elmerina, Protodaedalea and Protomerulius to establish the phylogenetic position of these morphologically similar taxa. Our analyses suggest that (i) Elmerina foliacea is divergent from all other Elmerina species sampled; (ii) Protodaedalea hispida (the type of monotypic genus Protodaedalea) and Protomerulius efibulatus should be transferred to Elmerina as E. hispida and E. efibulata respectively; (iii) after exclusion of P. efibulatus, Protomerulius becomes monophyletic and represents the core of a "Protomerulius family" clade that potentially includes species from Tremellodendropsis, Heterochaetella and Protodontia; and (iv) the presence or absence of gloeocystidia serves as the most reliable morphological feature in delimiting Elmerina s.l. and Protomerulius. Concepts of Elmerina s.l. and Protomerulius are redefined, and diagnostic keys for these two genera are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Basidiomycete fungi perform fertilizations by incorporation of nuclei into a monokaryotic mycelium to establish a dikaryon. The dikaryon cannot incorporate another type of nucleus, but can still act as a nucleus donor in a dikaryon–monokaryon (di–mon) mating, known as the Buller phenomenon. Previously, it has been observed that: (1) in a particular di–mon mating, one of the nuclear types of the dikaryon generally performs better as a donor than the other, and (2) when nuclei from a dikaryon are separated to form monokaryons again (dedikaryotisation), recovery of monokaryons of the two nuclear types is usually unequal. In this study, we investigated if these two observations of asymmetry are functionally related. We tested this hypothesis by performing both di–mon matings and dedikaryotisation of dikaryons derived from five different monokaryons. When a single mechanism controls both processes, the nucleus better at fertilizing a monokaryon in a Buller pairing should also be recovered upon dedikaryotisation with a higher frequency. The results showed a hierarchical structure for recovery among nuclei in dedikaryotisation, but this hierarchy did not correspond to the fertilization success during di–mon mating. These findings thus show that the mechanism causing asymmetric regeneration of nuclei, is most likely not the same as the mechanism responsible for increased chance of fertilization in di–mon matings. We discuss the complexity of the interactions that occur during di–mon matings with regards to the mating type loci. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Fungi belong to the large kingdom of lower eukaryotic organisms encompassing yeasts along with filamentous and dimorphic members. Microbial P450 enzymes have contributed to exploration of and adaptation to diverse ecological niches such as conversion of lipophilic compounds to more hydrophilic derivatives or degradation of a vast array of environmental toxicants. To better understand diversification of the catalytic behavior of fungal P450s, detailed insight into the molecular machinery steering oxidative attack on the distinctly structured endogenous and xenobiotic substrates is of preeminent interest. Based on a general, CYP102A1-related template the bulk of predicted substrate/inhibitor-binding determinants were shown to cluster near the distal heme face within the six known substrate recognition sites (SRSs) made up by the α-helical B′/F/G/I tetrad, the B′–C interhelical loop and strands of the β6-sheet, population density being highest in the structurally flexible SRS-1 and SRS-4 domains, showing a low degree of conservation. Reactivity toward ligands favorably coincides with the lipophilicity/hydrophilicity profile and bulkiness of critical amino acids acting as selective filters. Some decisive elements may also serve in maintenance of catalytic competence via their action as gatekeepers directing substrate access/positioning or stabilizers of the heme environment enabling dioxygen activation. Non-SRS residues seem to control spin state equilibria and attract redox partners by electrostatic forces. Of note, the inhibitory potency of azole-type fungicides is likely to arise from perturbation of the complex interplay of the mechanistic principles addressed above. Knowledge-supported exploitation of the topological data will be helpful in the manufacture of commodity/specialty chemicals as well as therapeutic agents. Also, engineered fungal P450s may be used to improve pollutant-specific bioremediation of contaminated soils. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Terfezia, Picoa and Tirmania, so called desert truffles, are mycorrhizal fungi mostly endemic to arid and semi-arid areas of the Mediterranean Region, where they are associated with Helianthemum and Carex species. The aim of this work was to study the identification, molecular analysis, distribution and hosts of these pezizalean hypogeous fungi in Iran. Among the specimens, Terfezia claveryi, Tirmania pinoyi, T. nivea, Picoa lefebvrei and P. juniperi were identified. Field, laboratory and anatomical studies showed that Helianthemum ledifolium, H. salicifolium, H. lippi and Carex stenophylum have ectomycorrhizal associations with five species in the studied areas. The results of molecular analysis showed that C. stenophylum roots form mycorrhizal associations with T. claveryi. Hyphal mantle was absent from sections of the mycorrhizas. The results of physico-chemical analyses on soil samples from different parts of the Fars Province in Iran showed that the genus Tirmania was more prevalent in soils with high CaCO3 and silt contents than the T. claveryi, P. lefebvrei and P. juniperi. The Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) indicated that soil structure were an important environmental parameter influencing desert truffles distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]