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Students, instructors, and policy makers are in need of research-based recommendations for supporting students' motivation to pursue STEM fields. The present study addressed this need by examining relations between perceived motivational supports, year-long trajectories of expectancy for success and three task values, and grades among students (N = 1,021) in a large, gateway engineering course. Results indicated that students with higher motivation at the beginning of the year tended to perceive their class as more motivationally supportive. Controlling for relations between initial motivation and perceptions, perceived instructional supports for mastery goals, autonomy, and competence predicted more positive trajectories of all three task values. Conversely, higher perceived instructor performance goals negatively predicted grades and the slopes of self-efficacy and interest value. Results contribute key understanding about the interconnectedness of individual motivation and climate perceptions, while indicating the importance students place on certain motivationally supportive practices in promoting students' STEM motivation trajectories.

This study used a longitudinal person-oriented approach to examine whether two distinct developmental pathways of maladaptive motivation could be distinguished among high-ability students (intelligence quotient [IQ] [greater than or equal to] 120, N = 403, M[subscript age] = 12.2 years, 60.5% males), as proposed by the Pathways to Underachievement Model. Latent class growth analysis provided evidence for a three-class solution, including an adaptive class and two maladaptive classes, largely corresponding with the predictions of the Pathways to Underachievement Model. Furthermore, the classes related to the outcome variables in the expected ways, with the maladaptive classes showing higher disengagement and underachievement. These findings substantiate the Pathways to Underachievement Model and provide developmental insight into the multiple motivational pathways underlying disengagement and underachievement among high-ability students.

Mastery goal structures, which communicate value for developing deeper understanding, are an important classroom support for student motivation and engagement, especially in the context of science learning aligned with the Next Generation Science Standards. Prior research has identified key dimensions of goal structures, but a more nuanced examination of the variability of teacher-enacted and student-perceived goal structures within and across classrooms is needed. Using a concurrent mixed-methods approach, we developed case studies of how three 7th-grade science teachers enacted different goal structures while teaching the same chemistry unit and how their students perceived these goal structures. Student perceptions were largely consistent with our observational analysis and suggested that a positive social climate and autonomy support are important elements of mastery goal structure. However, balancing socio-emotional support with sufficient academic rigor may be especially important for students with high levels of mastery goal orientation and self-efficacy in science. Implications for research include the need for further research linking classroom stimuli to variability in perceived goal structure, especially across students with different motivational characteristics. Implications for practice include strategies for science teachers to promote perceptions of a mastery goal focus in students, particularly through feedback and recognition practices.

Background: Students are more likely to persist when they both perceive themselves as capable of success (expectancy) and perceive tasks to be interesting, important, and useful (values) or less costly in terms of effort, lost opportunities, and psychological stress (perceived costs). Prior research has not examined whether these motivational beliefs synergistically predict engineering-related outcomes; studying such synergy is critical for understanding how multiple forms of motivation combine to support engineering persistence. Purpose/Hypothesis: We tested how engineering academic self-efficacy (expectancy), values/costs, and their interaction predicted engineering-related outcomes. We hypothesized that there would be significant interactions between self-efficacy and values/costs in predicting engineering persistence and academic success. Design/Method: Structural equation modeling was used to investigate latent interactions between self-efficacy and values/costs (interest, attainment, and utility values; opportunity, effort, and psychological costs) in predicting career intentions, aspirations for engineering graduate school, and engineering retention, and grades in foundational courses for engineering among first-year engineering undergraduates (n = 2420). Results: Significant interactions between self-efficacy and values (interest and utility only) were identified, but not for self-efficacy and attainment value or costs. Feeling both competent in engineering and highly valuing engineering were simultaneously related to higher engineering persistence, as compared to either feeling competent or valuing engineering alone. Conclusions: The findings contribute to expectancy--value theory by providing a more precise understanding of the role of each type of value and cost in predicting distal outcomes, and practicing by highlighting the importance of supporting both expectancy and values when intervening to support engineering persistence.

Decades of motivation research have yielded a set of Motivation Design Principles (MDPs) that can be leveraged to support the development of student motivation and engagement in the classroom. This article addresses the translation of these guiding principles to teacher professional learning and subsequently, classroom practice. Drawing from published literature, as well as the experiences of a co-design team of motivation and science education researchers and middle school science teachers, we address the landscape of decision points for designing and implementing professional learning focused on supporting middle school students' motivation in science. We identify 3 key decision points: (1) the extent to which professional learning should focus on general principles or specific practices; (2) the appropriate level(s) for translation of the MDPs into practice; and (3) the creation of opportunities for teacher reflection and self-assessment of their practice on student motivation and engagement.

The articles in this special issue take an important step in beginning to test the PET framework. Together, these articles illustrate the importance of considering individual differences in attitudes and prior knowledge as well as differences in task demands when investigating the role of emotions in shaping cognitive processing while reading texts. This commentary begins with a focus on the type of emotion being studied (e.g., preexisting emotions/mood, achievement emotions, epistemic emotions, topic emotions). Next, the function of emotions in cognitive processing and self-regulation is discussed, including a consideration of key findings from the articles in this special issue and additional considerations about the ways in which emotions may shape discourse processing. Finally, practical methodological matters relating to the investigation of emotions during discourse processing are considered. Throughout, contributions of the articles in this special issue are featured as well as suggestions for potential avenues for future research.

The end of college is a key transition point when students prepare for the workforce or graduate school, and when competence beliefs that have been shaped throughout college play a particularly important role in decision-making processes. This study examined the roles of two competence beliefs, self-efficacy for scientific tasks and science academic self-efficacy, during the final year of college. A structural equation model was used to examine science research self-efficacy and science academic self-efficacy as predictors of post-graduation science career intentions and life satisfaction; prior achievement was also included as a predictor of competence beliefs and post-graduation outcomes. Findings indicated that both types of self-efficacy predicted career intentions and life satisfaction. To better understand the processes that contribute to gender gaps in certain science careers, gender differences in mean levels of self-efficacy and in the structural relations among the variables of interest were examined using multi-group analyses. Females reported lower academic self-efficacy, despite having similar levels of prior achievement and outcomes; structural relations also appeared to vary by gender. Results extend theoretical understanding of the roles of two distinct forms of self-efficacy and the potential mechanisms explaining gender gaps in science fields.

This research synthesis examined the impact of grades, comments, and no performance feedback on academic motivation and achievement in elementary and secondary school. Four meta-analyses were conducted, with two each exploring the impact of (a) grades versus no performance feedback and (b) grades versus comments on academic motivation and achievement, respectively. Overall results indicated that grades positively influenced achievement but negatively influenced motivation compared to no feedback. However, compared to those who received comments, students receiving grades had poorer achievement and less optimal motivation. Moderator analyses generally suggested that overall effects varied as a function of the type of motivation (i.e. the specific construct, internal vs. external motivation), context (e.g. academic subject; comment type), student characteristics (e.g. achievement level), and methodology (i.e. grade anticipation versus receipt), though it was not possible to test these moderators in all analyses. Theoretical and methodological contributions and implications for education practice are discussed.

Insufficient research attention has been focused on the development of academic "under"-achievement and motivational beliefs. A longitudinal, person-centered approach was used to identify latent subgroups of growth in the joint development of teacher-reported underachievement and four motivational beliefs (self-concept, task importance, psychological cost value, and self-worth) from first through sixth grade. Two types of underachievement emerged: Sustained and Growing Underachievement. An Achievement class was also consistently found. Sustained underachievement was not associated with declining self-concept or task importance, but was related to moderately lower psychological cost value, self-worth, and middle school achievement. Growing underachievement was associated with relatively lower levels of self-concept and task importance that declined over time, similar to the achievement patterns. Class membership did not differ by gifted status. Gender effects emerged for the Task Importance and Self-Worth models in the hypothesized direction, but were not robust. These findings highlight heterogeneity in the development of academic underachievement.

This longitudinal study investigated development in expectancy for success (perceived competence), 3 types of task value (utility, interest, attainment), and 3 types of perceived cost (opportunity, effort, psychological) for engineering students during their first 2 years of college. Latent growth curve models indicated declines in expectancy and values, with attainment value declining more slowly than expectancy, interest value, and utility value. Costs increased over time, with effort cost increasing more rapidly than psychological cost. Demographic differences were observed in initial levels of motivation, but not in rates of change over time. Students with slower declines in expectancy and value and slower increases in effort cost achieved higher grades and were more likely to remain in an engineering major. The attainment value model explained the largest amount of variance in engineering major retention, while the expectancy model explained the largest amount of variance in GPA. Taking a supportive gateway course in the first semester rather than later was associated with slower declines in utility value and attainment value, and slower increases in effort cost. Results suggest expectancy, values, and costs display unique patterns of development and uniquely relate to predictors and outcomes, extending our theoretical understanding of motivation in early college. Implications for practice include the promise of programmatic efforts to support students' motivation in engineering through supportive gateway courses early in college.

Despite efforts to attract and maintain diverse students in the science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) pipeline, issues with attrition from undergraduate STEM majors persist. The aim of this study was to examine how undergraduate science students' competence beliefs, task values, and perceived costs in science combine into motivational profiles and to consider how such profiles relate to short-term and long-term persistence outcomes in STEM. We also examined the relations between underrepresented group membership and profile membership. Using latent profile analysis, we identified three profiles that characterized 600 participants' motivation during their first semester in college: "Moderate All," "Very High Competence/Values-Low Effort Cost," and "High Competence/Values-Moderate Low Costs." The "Moderate All" profile was associated with the completion of fewer STEM courses and lower STEM grade point averages relative to the other profiles after 1 and 4 years of college. Furthermore, underrepresented minority students were overrepresented in the "Moderate All" profile. Findings contribute to our understanding of how science competence beliefs, task values, and perceived costs may coexist and what combinations of these variables may be adaptive or deleterious for STEM persistence and achievement.

The editorial statement from the co-editors of Educational Psychologist highlights their efforts to broaden the journal's authorship and audience, deepen contributions through special issues, and engage in critical reflections on the field of educational psychology. They express gratitude for diverse perspectives on learning and instruction, including developmental, policy-focused, sociocultural, community-focused, and technology-focused lenses. The co-editors emphasize the importance of addressing race, ethnicity, and culture in educational psychology research, welcoming critical perspectives and encouraging scholars to share their work in the field. They acknowledge the valuable contributions of authors, reviewers, managing editors, and publisher in shaping the journal's direction and impact. [Extracted from the article]

Two studies were conducted with distinct samples to investigate how motivational beliefs cohere and function together (i.e., motivational profiles) and predict academic adjustment. Integrating across motivational theories, participants (N[subscript Study 1] = 160 upper elementary students; N[subscript Study 2] = 325 college students) reported on multiple types of motivation (achievement goals, task value, perceived competence) for schooling more generally (Study 1) and in science (Study 2). Three profiles characterized by "Moderate-High All, Intrinsic and Confident", and "Average" All motivation were identified in both studies. Profiles characterized by "Very High All" motivation (Study 1) and "Moderate Intrinsic and Confident" (Study 2) were also present. Across studies, the "Moderate-High All" and "Intrinsic and Confident" profiles were associated with the highest academic engagement and achievement. Findings highlight the benefit of integrating across motivational theories when creating motivational profiles, provide initial evidence regarding similarities and differences in integrative motivational profiles across distinct samples, and identify which motivational combinations are associated with beneficial academic outcomes in two educational contexts.

This 5-year longitudinal study investigates the development of science identity throughout college from an expectancy-value perspective. Specifically, heterogeneous developmental patterns of science identity across 4 years of college were examined using growth-mixture modeling. Gender, race/ethnicity, and competence beliefs (efficacy for science tasks, perceived competence in science) were modeled as antecedents, and participation in a science career after graduation was modeled as a distal outcome of these identity development trajectories. Three latent classes ("High with Transitory Incline," "Moderate-High and Stable," and "Moderate-Low with Early Decline") were identified. Gender, race/ethnicity, and competence beliefs in the first year of college significantly predicted latent class membership. In addition, students in the two highest classes were significantly more likely to report being involved in science careers or science fields after college graduation than students in the "Moderate-Low with Early Decline" class.

The current study reviewed and synthesized studies employing a person-centered approach to studying achievement goals. Towards this end, a common labeling scheme was developed for goal profiles. Ten profile types were identified across studies and compared via meta-analytic techniques in terms of academic motivation, social/emotional well-being, engagement, and achievement. Two theoretically relevant profiles--Mastery High and Approach High--were relatively common and adaptive across all outcomes; the Performance/Work Avoidance Low profile was also generally adaptive. The Average All Goals and Low All Goals profiles, conversely, were consistently maladaptive. The pursuit of performance-approach, performance-avoidance, or work-avoidance goals alone was rare and generally maladaptive except with respect to achievement. Supplementary moderator analyses revealed that school level and goal model--but not analytic technique--were important variables to consider regarding both the prevalence and adaptive nature of goal profiles. This research synthesis provides insight into longstanding debates within the achievement goal literature and highlights the potential of person-centered analyses to complement findings from more predominant variable-centered research.

The relations of academic and social goal orientations to academic and social behaviors and self-concept were investigated among academically talented adolescents (N = 1,218) attending a mastery-oriented academic residential summer program. Results supported context effects in that academic mastery goal orientations predicted academic (in-class engagement, scholastic self-concept) and general outcomes (global self-worth self-concept) more than any other goal orientation. There were also gender differences such that academic mastery goal orientations predicted course performance and responsible classroom behavior only for girls, whereas for boys, academic mastery goal orientations were positively related to close friendship self-concept. The relation of social goal orientations to social outcomes also varied by gender. For instance, social development goal orientations were uniquely associated with social self-concept for girls, whereas there were some unique patterns regarding social demonstration-avoidance goal orientations for boys. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Children hold many personal theories about education: theories about themselves, knowledge, and the learning process. Personal theories help children predict what their actions will cause, and therefore relate to motivation, self-regulation, and achievement. Researchers typically examine how specific types of personal theories develop independently, but the similarities among personal theories suggest more systematic developmental processes. Accordingly, this article outlines a developmental systems model to organize existing personal theories research. We first identify and define personal theories related to education and then consider the nature of their development as a coherent, hierarchical structure that is shaped through educational experiences. This model provides parsimony while advancing a number of fields by providing clarity of concepts, insight across fields, and a better understanding of development and educational outcomes. We conclude by proposing new directions to understand how holistic sets of personal theories change over time and considering implications for educational interventions.

An integrative framework for investigating self-regulated learning situated in students' favorite and least favorite courses was empirically tested in a sample of 178 high school and 280 college students. Building on cognitive, clinical, social, and educational conceptions of self-regulation, the current paper integrated affective (e.g., reappraisal, suppression), behavioral (e.g., environmental, planning), and cognitive (e.g., cognitive focusing, metacognition) forms of regulation with self-regulated learning strategies (deep and surface processing, organization, engagement) to predict achievement. Overall, self-regulation was employed more frequently in favorite courses and by college students. Path models examined the associations of affective, behavioral, and cognitive regulation with learning strategies and achievement. These analyses suggested that affective, behavioral, and cognitive regulation were related to learning strategies, but the links to achievement were less robust. Moreover, there were significant indirect paths from behavioral and cognitive regulation to achievement through learning strategies, although some of these indirect paths were counter to expectations.

The concept of natural selection serves as a foundation for understanding diverse biological concepts and has broad applicability to other domains. However, we know little about students' abilities to transfer (i.e. apply to a new context or use generatively) this concept and the relation between students' conceptual understanding and transfer ability. Consequently, the purposes of this study were to describe the patterns of transfer displayed by high school biology students learning about natural selection over time, evaluate their overall level of success at transferring the concept across knowledge domains and examine the relation between conceptual understanding and level of transfer of the concept. Transfer ability and conceptual understanding were assessed using open-response items administered to 138 students in the United States. Based on the responses to these items, we identified particular patterns of surface and deep-level transfer and found that deep-level transfer was uncommon. Further, we found that deep-level transfer and conceptual understanding shared a small but significant relation; surface-level transfer was unrelated. Based on these results, we recommend that teachers explicitly focus on fostering transfer of the concept of natural selection and use specific teaching for transfer strategies, in addition to teaching for conceptual understanding.

Background: There is a growing body of research on situational interest (SI). Yet, we still know relatively little about how SI is supported in the classroom and the academic benefits of SI. Aim: The current study investigated (1) contextual antecedents of SI; (2) potential benefits of SI for academic outcomes; and (3) SI as a mediator of classroom practices to academic outcomes. Sample: Participants were 126 male and female adolescents (mean age = 14.6 years) who took part in a science course during a 3-week residential summer programme for talented adolescents. Method: Participants completed self-report measures prior to the start of the summer programme and at the end of the programme. Summer programme instructors completed ratings of students' engagement during the programme. Result: Multiple regression analyses were conducted to investigate the three study aims. After controlling for initial individual interest, perceived choice, instructor approachability, and course connections to real life were statistically significant predictors of SI during the summer programme, with varying associations observed based on the form of SI (triggered, maintained-feeling, and maintained-value). SI was positively related to individual interest and perceived competence in science at the end of the programme as well as teacher-rated engagement; SI also mediated the associations of classroom practices with these outcomes. Conclusion: Results suggest that classroom practices shape SI. In turn, SI supports motivation and engagement. Moreover, differentiated antecedents and outcomes of the three sub-components of SI were identified, highlighting the utility of this three-component approach for studying SI.

The current study investigated whether the developmental timing of a student's identification as gifted (i.e., when a student is first identified) was associated with later implicit beliefs about intelligence, and whether this relation is moderated by academic ability. A sample of 1,743 high-ability college students reported on whether and when they had been identified as gifted, academic ability (SAT scores), and implicit beliefs of intelligence. Timing of identification was unrelated to implicit beliefs; academic ability was the only significant predictor. Higher ability students who had been previously identified as gifted at any point in time reported implicit beliefs more toward entity beliefs than relatively lower ability students who had also been identified; however, this effect was quite small. Implicit beliefs did not vary by ability level for nonidentified students. These findings suggest that identification as gifted at any age modestly (but not necessarily meaningfully) relates to implicit beliefs for high-ability students.

We found that students perceived stronger learning orientation messaging when teachers created a positive social climate focused on science learning and used strategies to support all students' participation and collaboration. In the next section, two teachers who helped co-design M-PLANS share how they use student collaboration to establish foundational structures for a positive classroom community that, in turn, reaps continuous rewards by providing students with a safe environment in which to collaborate in scientific sense-making. This varied not just across different teachers' classrooms but also by lesson; on days when a teacher used more supportive social structures, students perceived a greater emphasis on learning orientation that day compared with other days. After learning about instructional design principles for supporting student motivation, middle school science teachers tried implementing new strategies in their classrooms. [Extracted from the article]

Research on underachieving gifted students has uncovered a large number of characteristics differentiating gifted underachieving and achieving students. However, less is known about the way in which underachievement develops across schooling. Using a person-centered theoretical framework and key constructs from current motivational theories, we propose that there are multiple developmental trajectories in underachievement that arise from early school experiences. Two primary pathways are proposed: (a) a Maladaptive Competence Beliefs Pathway whereby underachievement results from the development of particular beliefs about giftedness and maladaptive coping behaviors, and (b) a Declining Value Beliefs Pathway in which underachievement develops from declining value beliefs and increasing perceptions of costs associated with academics. Avenues for future empirical research with these pathways are discussed.

In current research on achievement goal theory, most researchers differentiate between performance-approach and performance-avoidance goal orientations. Evidence from prior research and from several previously published data sets is used to highlight that the correlation is often rather large, with a number of studies reporting correlations above .50. The large magnitude of this correlation raises questions and warrants further investigation. The size of the correlation also varies substantially across studies; thus, several potential moderators were considered. Minimal evidence for moderation was found, with little variability in relations as a function of fear of failure, culture, and specificity of the goal assessment. There was some evidence of variability in the correlation based on age, perceived competence, and assessment instrument. The article concludes by highlighting theoretical, methodological, and instructional questions that arise as a result of the large correlation and making recommendations and guidance for research, instructional practice, and theory advancement. (Contains 2 tables and 8 footnotes.)

Changes in high school students' (n = 94) conceptions of natural selection were examined as a function of motivational beliefs (individual interest, academic self-efficacy), basic prior knowledge, and gender across three assessments (pre, post, follow-up). Results from variable-centered analyses suggested that these variables had relatively little effect on enduring conceptual change; however, academic self-efficacy supported short-term conceptual change for girls. Results from person-centered analyses provided a different picture. Four profiles of motivational beliefs and basic prior knowledge were created using hierarchical cluster analysis: (a) low interest/efficacy, low knowledge; (b) moderate interest/efficacy, low knowledge; (c) moderate-low interest, moderate efficacy, high knowledge; and (d) high interest/efficacy, moderate knowledge. For girls, high interest and efficacy paired with moderate basic prior knowledge (Cluster 4) resulted in the greatest conceptual change. For boys, either moderate interest and efficacy paired with high knowledge (Cluster 3) or high interest and efficacy paired with moderate knowledge (Cluster 4) resulted in the greatest enduring conceptual change. (Contains 2 tables and 3 figures.)

The current study investigated differences in metacognition between high school gifted (n = 44) and typical (n = 23) students and examined local calibration accuracy as a potential mechanism for partially explaining superior exam performance by gifted students. Metacognition was measured using student self-reports of metacognitive awareness, acquired at the start of a semester-long course on biology, and students' global (pre- and posttest) and local (item-by-item) confidence judgments to assess monitoring across four biology exams over the course of one semester. Gifted students outperformed typical students on both local and global postdictive measures of calibration. However, there were no statistically significant differences in global predictive judgments or calibration bias. Local, item-by-item calibration accuracy partially mediated the relation between giftedness and exam performance. Implications for both theory and practice are discussed. (Contains 2 tables, 2 figures, and 1 note.)

This study extends prior research on both individual self-regulation and socially shared regulation during group learning to examine the range and quality of the cognitive and behavioral social regulatory sub-processes employed by six small collaborative groups of upper-elementary students (n = 24). Qualitative analyses were conducted based on videotaped observations of groups across a series of three mathematics tasks. Variation in the quality of social regulation as a function of group processes (positive and negative socioemotional interactions, collaborative and non-collaborative interactions) was also considered. Findings suggested that the synergy among the social regulatory processes of planning, monitoring, and behavioral engagement was important for differentiating quality variation between groups. Positive socioemotional interactions and collaboration also appeared to facilitate higher quality social regulation. Implications for comprehensively supporting high quality social regulation, alongside positive socioemotional interactions and collaboration, in small group contexts are discussed. (Contains 4 tables and 7 footnotes.)

Two studies (Study 1: n = 137; Study 2: n = 192) were conducted to investigate how upper-elementary students' affect during small group instruction related to their social-behavioral engagement during group work. A circumplex model of affect consisting of valence (positive, negative) and activation (high, low) was used to examine the relation of affect to social loafing and quality of group interactions. Across both studies, negative affect (feeling tired or tense) was associated with higher rates of social loafing. Neutral to deactivated positive affect, such as feeling happy or calm, was positively related to positive group interactions, while deactivated negative affect (tired) was negatively associated with positive group interactions. Follow-up cross-lagged analyses to examine reciprocal relations suggested that positive group interactions altered affect on subsequent group tasks, but affect was not related to changes in positive group interactions. These quantitative findings were supplemented with a qualitative analysis of six small groups from Study 2. The qualitative analyses highlighted the reciprocal and cyclical relations between affect and social-behavioral engagement in small groups. (Contains 1 table and 4 figures.)

Three studies were conducted to develop and validate scores on a new measure appropriate for assessing adolescents' situational interest (SI) across various academic settings. In Study 1 (n = 858), a self-report questionnaire was administered to undergraduates in introductory psychology. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) supported a three-factor model that differentiated between interest generated by (a) the presentation of course material that grabbed students' attention (triggered-SI), (b) the extent to which the material itself was enjoyable and engaging (maintained-SI-feeling), and (c) whether the material was viewed as important and valuable (maintained-SI-value). CFA analyses in Study 2 (n = 284) and Study 3 (n = 246) also supported the three-factor situational interest model for middle and high school students in mathematics. Moreover, situational interest was shown to be distinct from individual interest and was a statistically significant predictor of change in individual interest across the school year. (Contains 6 tables and 1 figure.)

The Teaching for Transformative Experiences in Science (TTES) model is designed to foster transformative experiences (e.g., experiences with science content involving the application of that content in ways that expand perception and value in everyday experience). This study presents a case study of a high school biology teacher learning to implement the TTES model in conjunction with a conceptual change model and evaluates the impact of these models on students' learning and engagement. In collaboration with the authors, the teacher created three instructional conditions: (a) control (2 classes, 40 students), (b) cognitive conflict (CC, 2 classes, 42 students), and (c) combined TTES and cognitive conflict (TE, 2 classes, 44 students). Descriptive data illustrate how the teacher implemented the models, particular challenges that arose, how the teacher's prior beliefs and goals shaped the implementation, and how experience with the models altered the teacher's beliefs and engagement with the content. Comparative analyses across conditions illustrate that students in the TE condition displayed more transformative engagement in class but did not report a greater level of independent transformative experiences. Regular-level students in the intervention conditions (CC, TE) displayed greater change in basic knowledge and regular-level students in the TE condition displayed more enduring transfer. Honors-level students in the intervention conditions (CC, TE) displayed greater conceptual change, but not greater transfer. (Contains 4 tables, 4 figures and 8 footnotes.)

This study investigated the prevalence of transformative experiences, antecedents of transformative experience, and the relation between transformative experience and deep-level learning (conceptual change and transfer) for high school biology students (N = 166). Results suggested that the high school students in our sample typically engaged in low levels of transformative experience with respect to biology, but those students who strongly identified with science and who endorsed a mastery goal orientation were more likely to report engagement in higher levels of transformative experience. Furthermore, a higher level of engagement in transformative experience was positively associated with (a) conceptual change in understanding the concept of natural selection, but not inheritance, at the post- and follow-up assessments and (b) transfer at the follow-up assessment. (Contains 4 tables, 1 figure, and 9 footnotes.)

A theoretical framework that incorporates emotional responses and emotion regulation into achievement goal theory is proposed as an alternative view to understanding the inconsistent pattern of findings linking achievement goal orientations to academic outcomes. In this critical review and synthesis, the relation of achievement goal orientations to debilitating emotional responses, as well as the use of emotion regulation strategies to alter debilitating emotions, is examined. Although mastery, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goal orientations are considered, the regulation of debilitating emotions is proposed as especially critical for understanding how performance-approach goal orientations relate to academic-related processes and achievement. Finally, this framework is broadened to incorporate research on how the social context and intraindividual factors shape the resultant pattern of achievement goal orientations, emotional responses, and emotion regulation.