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Social media (SM) has become a relatively ubiquitous part of our everyday lives. Adolescents and emerging adults are the heaviest users of SM, with 95% of adolescents aged 13-17 using smartphones and 85% using at least one SM platform. 96% of emerging adults (aged 18-29) report that they have a smartphone and 90% use at least one SM platform (Perrin, 2015). Additionally, a national survey found that almost half of adolescents (45%) report being online “almost constantly” and another 44% reporting they are online “several times a day” (Anderson et al., 2018). Given that SM use (SMU) has become a pervasive and growing part of young people’s lives researchers have focused on the effects of SMU on adolescents and emerging adults’ well-being and mental health. Studies have found a complicated association between SMU and psychosocial functioning (Baker & Algorta, 2016; Davila et al., 2012). Some studies have found that greater SMU is associated with greater depressive symptoms, worse well-being and lower subjective quality of life (Donnelly & Kuss, 2016; Mieczkowski et al., 2020; Shensa et al., 2017), as well as lower levels of self-esteem, increased anxiety and poor sleep (Andreassen et al., 2016.; Scott & Woods, 2019). However, other studies have reported positive outcomes linked with greater SMU, such as reduced loneliness, increased life satisfaction and improved well-being (Pittman & Reich, 2016; Valenzuela et al., 2009). This has led researchers to start a more nuanced discussion about the relationship between SMU and psychological well-being, particularly, how specific online behaviours may be differentially related to outcomes (Steele et al., 2020). One of the key areas of research to date is the relationship between passive and active SMU and well-being (Escobar-Viera et al., 2018). Active use is defined as SM engagement in which content is produced or shared (e.g. commenting on others’ pages or uploading a story). Active engagement may also be interactive (e.g. having a conversation with a friend) or non-interactive (e.g. uploading a photo to one’s own profile page). Passive use is defined as consuming content rather than producing it (e.g. browsing SM pages). Whilst passive SMU has been linked to poorer well-being in adolescents, including higher levels of depressed mood and anxiety (Frison et al., 2016, 2017; Thorisdottir et al., 2019), active SMU has been linked to better well-being, including feeling closer to others, reduced loneliness, greater positive emotions and higher self-esteem (Subrahmanyam et al., 2020). Studies have suggested that SM can also act as a means to social support (Baker et al., 2018; Li et al., 2021; Ranney & Troop-Gordon, 2012). For example, one study found that more social interactions on Facebook and faster reactions from friends to a user’s posts were associated with greater perceived social support and reduced loneliness (Seo et al., 2016). These findings therefore suggest that active engagement with SM may facilitate access to some of the technology’s documented benefits. However, researchers have gone beyond thinking that it is purely engaging in SM in an active or passive way that is important. Thus, there is growing interest with respect to the content of what is being actively/passively engaged with. For example, experimental studies have found that participants who (passively) browsed their own page or non-social content did not experience negative consequences on their mood or self-esteem; in fact, for some, it increased self-esteem (Chen et al., 2020; Gonzales & Hancock, 2011; Toma, 2013). Therefore, it is not necessarily just passive browsing that is related to negative outcomes of SMU; instead, passive browsing of particular content may also be relevant (Yang et al., 2021). Based on a review of the literature Yang et al. (2021) developed the Multidimensional Model of Social Media Use (MMSMU), with the aim of providing a framework to understand young people's SMU in relation to their psychological well-being. The model highlights the importance of three major dimensions in SMU: (i) activities performed on SM, (ii) motives for SMU, and (iii) communication partners connected through SM. They suggested that interactive (active) engagement is key for positive well-being in young people, and they suggest that further studies should design interventions that explore the effects of interactive use of SM on positive affect further (Kross et al., 2021). Studies have also measured the effects of abstaining from SM and found mixed results. For example, participants who abstained from or limited their use of Facebook reported greater feelings of disconnection (Sheldon et al., 2011) but increased life satisfaction and mood (Hunt et al., 2018; Tromholt, 2016). However, a study by Stieger and Lewetz (2018) did not find an association between abstaining from Facebook and loneliness and well-being. Whilst such studies highlight the potential benefits of reducing or stopping SMU for a period, this is unlikely to be sustainable, and further, may entail a parallel loss of SM’s benefits (Best et al., 2014). Consequently, we propose that a more sustainable intervention (of real-world utility) may instead involve encouraging SM users to make active and purposeful changes to their patterns of SMU. One framework that can be used to guide decision making and promote meaningful behaviour change is values-based action (Scheier et al., 2006). Values are defined as ‘guiding principles that are ongoing reflections of what an individual finds meaningful’ (Reilley et al, 2019). Living in line with one’s values is strongly correlated with greater psychological well-being (Ciarrochi, Fisher, & Lane, 2011; Chauhan, 2016), increased social functioning (McCracken et al., 2015), and reduced mental health difficulties (Michelson et al., 2011; Gloster et al, 2017). Researchers have explored the potential to elicit positive behavioural change through targeting of values using ‘values-based interventions’. These are defined as interventions that focus on clarifying what a person finds meaningful, providing a framework for guiding decision-making, promoting meaningful and committed action, as well as long-term behaviour change (Scheier et al., 2006). The evidence suggests that such interventions are effective in supporting positive behaviour change and creating positive outcomes in both non-clinical (Thul‐Sigler et al., 2019) and clinical (Ciarrochi et al., 2011; Rahal & Gon, 2020) populations. We suggest that such a values-based approach may be a useful way to support emerging adults to harness the benefits and ameliorate the risks of SMU, by promoting active/interactive engagement with valued people, content and activities. ‘Micro-interventions’ are ultra-brief behavioural strategies that target specific, mechanistically important psychological processes that are implicated in symptom maintenance. Such abbreviated interventions can have immediate impact on the targeted symptoms/area for change (Ayers et al., 2015; Strauman et al., 2015). Past studies assessing the use of such ‘micro-interventions’ have found significant effects, both at the time of intervention (e.g. Beadman, 2015) and also at one-week follow up (e.g. Kamboj et al., 2017). Previous studies have used ultra-brief interventions to facilitate positive, values-based, behaviour change, e.g., increasing prosocial and decreasing selfish behaviour in couples (Gloster et al., 2020). Further, a study by Chase et al. (2013) found that online values training and goal setting in an undergraduate population sample significantly improved their Grade Point Averages (GPA) over the next semester, whilst goal setting alone had no effect (compared to wait list control). The present study aims to test the impact of a values-based ‘micro-intervention’ on emerging adults’ engagement with SM. We are specifically interested in the potential application of a brief, online intervention, as this has the potential to maximise participant engagement, and potentially, the reach of such an approach. The study draws on literature that highlights both the risks and benefits of SMU for wellbeing (Tibber & Silver, 2022) as well as the putative mechanisms at play in this relationship, including passive vs. active/interactive engagement. Specifically, the study aims to develop and preliminarily test, an online values-based micro-intervention for emerging adults and evaluate its immediate to sustained effects on a range of outcome variables, including values-consistent behaviour, positive SMU (defined below), affect, general well-being and social connectedness. Participants either complete a values-based, or matched control intervention, followed by naturalistic exposure to SM. Immediate and sustained effects of condition will be analysed across time-points (pre-, post-intervention and at follow-up) in relation to self-reported online behaviour and wellbeing. All procedures will be carried out online.

The primary aim of this project is to test key aspects of Tibber and Silver’s (2022) trans-diagnostic cognitive behavioural model of the role of social media use in emerging adult mental health and wellbeing. The model proposes that certain motivations for engagement, online behaviours, and modes of engagement (amongst other factors) are differentially associated with positive and negative online experiences, and further, that certain platforms and platform features may interact with these processes. The model presents a more nuanced view of social media use in emerging adults than typically explored in the existing research and clinical literature, taking into account a broad array of contextual factors (person-related and technology-related) in the proposed association between social media and mental health / wellbeing outcomes. This is in contrast to more ‘causasionist’ approaches to understanding the impacts of social media, which have typically assumed that the technology is inherently helpful or harmful, and has dominated much of the existing debate (Orben & Przybylski, 2020). The model aims to provide a tool that clinicians and public health services might use to help formulate emerging adults’ social media use, with the ultimate purpose of informing interventions to help them use social media in ways that are more likely to accrue the potential benefits and ameliorate the potential harms of the technology. The aim of the project is to test key predictions proposed by the model, and potentially indicate adjustments / adaptations needed. The outcomes will also identify areas of future research needed to strengthen the model, and therefore its clinical utility as a model of formulation.

Social media use has been associated with both benefits and risks for emerging adults. Given abstinence from social media is an unrealistic expectation we propose a values-based approach to social media use could be effective in reducing its harmful consequences. Values-based interventions promote behaviours that are in line with an individual’s most cherished and valued life goals rather than constrictive behaviours driven by fears and wants. They are effective in reducing distress and increasing the frequency of behaviour in line with values with multiple populations (Raha & Gon, 2020). Values can provide a framework for guiding decision making and therefore promote meaningful action and long-term behaviour change (Scheier et al., 2006). Living in line with one’s value also has a strong correlation with greater psychological well-being (Ciarrochi, Fisher, & Lane, 2011). Previous studies have tested values-based interventions with both non-clinical and clinical populations and found positive outcomes in terms of greater values consistent behaviour, improved affect and greater tolerance of pain in clients with chronic pain (Rahal & Gon, 2020). However, to date no studies have developed or tested the impact of a values-based intervention on social media use. Therefore, the current study aimed to examine the effects of a micro-intervention that will help emerging adults to clarify and engage in values-consistent behaviour when using social media. We aim to examine a web-based program for emerging adults that is a one-off session of self-guided values clarification and values-consistent goal identification (committed action) and evaluate the session’s effectiveness in promoting values-consistent behaviour online as well as the impact on mood and social connectedness. We will also evaluate whether participants pre-existing levels of psychological flexibility moderate their levels of values-consistent behaviour.

Table S1: Shapiro-Wilk statistics for Typically Developing and Dyslexic Groups; Table S2: Results for group differences with age as a covariate; Table S3: Partial correlations between motion coherence thresholds and internal noise and sampling estimates, controlling for age; Figure S1: Scatterplots showing dependent variables plotted against age, for typically developing children (grey) and dyslexic children (blue), in the motion tasks (left column) and the orientation tasks (right column)

Aim: This study was part of a broader project to examine the acceptability, feasibility and impact of a transdiagnostic mental health drop-in centre offering brief psychological assessment and treatment for children and young people and/or their families with mental health needs in the context of long-term physical health conditions (LTCs). The aims of this investigation were to characterise: (i) the use of such a centre, (ii) the demographics and symptoms of those presenting to the centre, and (iii) the types of support that are requested and/or indicated. Methods: A mental health “booth” was located in reception of a national paediatric hospital over one year. Characteristics of young people with LTCs and their siblings/parents attending the booth were defined. Emotional/behavioural symptoms were measured using standardised questionnaires including the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Participants subsequently received one of four categories of intervention: brief transdiagnostic cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT), referral to other services, neurodevelopmental assessment or signposting to resources. Results: One hundred and twenty-eight participants were recruited. The mean age of young people was 9.14 years (standard deviation: 4.28), 61% identified as white and 45% were male. Over half of young people recruited scored in the clinical range with respect to the SDQ. Presenting problems included: anxiety (49%), challenging behaviour (35%), low mood (22%) and other (15%). Conclusions: A considerable proportion of young people with LTC in a paediatric hospital scored in the clinical range for common mental health problems, indicating a potential for psychological interventions.

People with schizophrenia (SZ) experience abnormal visual perception on a range of visual tasks, which have been linked to abnormal synaptic transmission and an imbalance between cortical excitation and inhibition. However, differences in the underlying architecture of visual cortex neurons, which might explain these visual anomalies, have yet to be reported in vivo. Here, we probed the neural basis of these deficits using fMRI and population receptive field (pRF) mapping to infer properties of visually responsive neurons in people with SZ. We employed a difference-of-Gaussian model to capture the center-surround configuration of the pRF, providing critical information about the spatial scale of the pRFs inhibitory surround. Our analysis reveals that SZ is associated with reduced pRF size in early retinotopic visual cortex, as well as a reduction in size and depth of the inhibitory surround in V1, V2, and V4. We consider how reduced inhibition might explain the diverse range of visual deficits reported in SZ. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT People with schizophrenia (SZ) experience abnormal perception on a range of visual tasks, which has been linked to abnormal synaptic transmission and an imbalance between cortical excitation/inhibition. However, associated differences in the functional architecture of visual cortex neurons have yet to be reported in vivo. We used fMRI and population receptive field (pRF) mapping to demonstrate that the fine-grained functional architecture of visual cortex in people with SZ differs from unaffected controls. SZ is associated with reduced pRF size in early retinotopic visual cortex largely due to reduced inhibitory surrounds. An imbalance between cortical excitation and inhibition could drive such a change in the center-surround pRF configuration and ultimately explain the range of visual deficits experienced in SZ.

Schizophrenia has been linked to impaired performance on a range of visual processing tasks (e.g. detection of coherent motion and contour detection). It has been proposed that this is due to a general inability to integrate visual information at a global level. To test this theory, we assessed the performance of people with schizophrenia on a battery of tasks designed to probe voluntary averaging in different visual domains. Twenty-three outpatients with schizophrenia (mean age: 40±8 years; 3 female) and 20 age-matched control participants (mean age 39±9 years; 3 female) performed a motion coherence task and three equivalent noise (averaging) tasks, the latter allowing independent quantification of local and global limits on visual processing of motion, orientation and size. All performance measures were indistinguishable between the two groups (ps>0.05, one-way ANCOVAs), with one exception: participants with schizophrenia pooled fewer estimates of local orientation than controls when estimating average orientation (p = 0.01, one-way ANCOVA). These data do not support the notion of a generalised visual integration deficit in schizophrenia. Instead, they suggest that distinct visual dimensions are differentially affected in schizophrenia, with a specific impairment in the integration of visual orientation information.