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Designing a hybrid powertrain remains a complex task. It is an intricate system involving numerous variables that are spread over different levels: architecture, component technologies, sizing, and control. There is currently a lack of frameworks or tools that help in exploring the entire design space and in finding the global optimal solution throughout these levels. This article proposes a systematic methodology that tries to answer a part of this need. Starting from a set of chosen components, the methodology automatically generates all the possible graphs of architectures using constraint-programming techniques. A tailored representation is developed to picture the graphs. They are then transformed into other types of representation (tables describing the connections and the powertrain modes). Based on these representations, the architectures are automatically filtered and the most promising ones are selected. They are automatically assessed and optimized using a specifically developed general hybrid model that calculates the performance and fuel consumption of all the generated architectures. This model is inserted inside a bi-level optimization process: a Genetic Algorithm is used on the sizing and components level, while the Dynamic Programming is used on the control level. A case study is performed and the capability of the methodology is proven.

The series-parallel architecture is the most interesting for hybrid electric vehicles, allowing the lowest fuel consumption. Unlike passenger cars, this architecture is not commercially available on the heavy-duty vehicles market. This is due to technical limitations associated with unsufficient load capability of the geartrain. To address this issue, new transmissions, such as the electrical variable transmission, have been developed. The novelty of this paper relies on the hybridization of a long-haul truck using the electrical variable transmission. This study aims to investigate the potential of using this new transmission for trucks. For that aim, fuel consumption benchmarking of three powertrain topologies is performed, considering: (a) a gearless topology; (b) a geared topology that uses one gearbox inserted between the engine and the mechanical input port of the electrical variable transmission; (c) a geared topology similar to the second one, but, with an additional multi-stage gearbox inserted to the mechanical output port of the electrical variable transmission. For a fair comparison between the different topologies, a bi-level optimization process has been used, incorporating the optimization of both components sizing and control. Results show that the fuel consumption of the gearless powertrain is higher than the engine-powered truck due to higher losses in the electrical variable transmission. While maximum fuel reduction of 14.2% was obtained by a geared topology that uses two gearboxes. Furthermore, emphasis is given to understand the effect of the powertrain component sizing on fuel consumption. Depending on the defined sizing, a possible fuel reduction is achieved from 3.3% to 14.2% for the two geared topologies. The reduction of CO2 emissions is found to be proportional to the fuel savings. Considering a long-haul mission, the last findings prove that the electrical variable transmission exhibits potential to reduce fuel consumption, if an adequate powertrain topology and its sizing are well defined.

Among Series-Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle (SPHEV) powertrains, the Power-Split architecture with a planetary gear has an exemplary energetic efficiency in mixed driving conditions. Nevertheless, a simple SPHEV architecture can be realized without a planetary gear. It consists of 2 Electric Machines (EM) mounted on the engine shaft and separated by a clutch. With no power-split operation, this architecture allows the vehicle to operate in pure electric, or series hybrid, or parallel hybrid mode. It was proven to be less efficient than a reference Power-Split SPHEV: the Toyota Hybrid System (THS). The aim of this paper is to investigate the potential of efficiency improvement of the simple SPHEV powertrain by topology modification: the addition of gears for the components or a gearbox with few number of ratios. Two new variants of SPHEVs are proposed. The versions of SPHEVs and the reference THS are optimized by a bi-level optimization technique using Genetic Algorithm and Dynamic Programming. Compared to the simple SPHEV, results show an efficiency worsening in one variant and an efficiency improvement in another variant with a fuel consumption comparable to the one of THS. A global sensitivity study is then performed on the worsened variant. The sensitivities of the added gears are determined and an elimination of some is suggested. A new variant with fewer gears is therefore proposed and optimized. The efficiency is improved but remains less than the one of THS.

The transportation sector is a major contributor to both air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Hybrid electric vehicles can reduce fuel consumption and CO2 emissions by optimizing the energy management of the powertrain. This study examines the trade-off between regulated pollutant emissions and hybrid powertrain efficiency. In the first part of the work, three-dimensional dynamic programming is used with a weighted objective function to determine the optimal distribution of a power request between the thermal engine and the electric motor. In the second part, we modify the control variable in order to take into account the engine actuators (intake pressure, air fuel ratio, and ignition timing). The purpose of this second control problem is to identify the potential differences between conventional solutions and optimal engine control in the context of hybridization. The thermal dynamics of the three-way catalyst are taken into account in order to model the aftertreatment efficiency. Experimental campaigns are conducted on spark-ignition engines to introduce simplified models for emissions, exhaust gas temperature, catalyst heat transfers and efficiency. The convergence of the results is analyzed with respect to the discretization parameters. Parametric studies evaluate the influence of the weighting factor, driving cycle (NEDC, WLTC), electric motor and battery sizing, as well as emission and catalyst modeling parameters. We assess the impact of including the sparkignition engine’s actuators as control variables, focusing on the interdepence between the three parameters (intake pressure, air fuel ratio, and ignition timing). We discuss the difference between the optimal engine control that we calculated for a hybrid vehicle and the standard approach in a conventionnal powertrain., Le secteur des transports est un des principaux contributeurs aux émissions de gaz à effet de serre et à la pollution de l’air. Les véhicules hybrides électriques ont été introduits pour réduire la consommation de ressources fossiles et les émissions de CO2 en optimisant l’efficacité énergétique de la motorisation. Cette thèse s’intéresse au compromis qui peut exister entre cet objectif et la réduction des émissions de polluants réglementés. Dans la première partie du travail, la programmation dynamique à trois dimensions est utilisée avec une fonction objectif qui pondère les deux critères pour déterminer la répartition optimale de puissance entre le moteur thermique et la machine électrique. La seconde partie consiste à introduire les paramètres de contrôle rapproché du moteur thermique (pression d’admission, richesse et avance à l’allumage) dans la méthode d’optimisation. L’objectif est d’identifier les différences potentielles entre la commande optimale du moteur hybridé et les stratégies habituellement utilisées pour les véhicules conventionnels. La dynamique thermique du catalyseur trois voies est modélisée pour évaluer l’efficacité du système de dépollution. Des campagnes de mesures sur deux moteurs à allumage commandé permettent de formuler des modèles simplifiés des émissions de la température des gaz, des coefficients de transferts thermiques et des efficacités du catalyseur. La convergence des résultats est validée au regard des paramètres d’optimisation (finesse de la discrétisation en particulier). Des études paramétriques permettent d’évaluer l’influence sur les résultats du facteur de pondération, du cycle de conduite (NEDC, WLTC), du dimensionnement des composants, et de certains paramètres de modélisation. L’optimisation du contrôle rapproché du moteur est analysée, en particulier concernant l’interdépendance entre les trois variables considérées. La différence entre les stratégies conventionnelles de contrôle du moteur et les résultats obtenus est discutée.

Designing hybrid powertrains is a complex task, which calls for experts from various fields. In addition to this, finding the optimal solution requires a system overview. This can be, depending on the granularity of the models at the component level, highly time-consuming. This is even more true when the system’s performance is determined by its control, as it is the case of the hybrid powertrain. In fact, various possibilities can be selected to deliver the required torque to the wheels during the driving cycle. Hence, the main obstacle is to achieve optimality while keeping the methodology fast and robust. In this work, novel approaches to exploit the full potential of hybridization are proposed and compared. The first strategy is a bi-level approach consisting of two nested optimization blocks: an external design optimization process that calculates the best fuel consumption value at each iteration, found through control optimization using an improved version of dynamic programming. Two different systemic design strategies based on the iterative scheme are proposed as well. The first approach is based on model reduction while the second approach relies on precise cycle reduction techniques. The latter enables the use of high precision models without penalizing the calculation time. A co-optimization approach is implemented afterwards which adjusts both the design variables and parameters of a new efficient rule-based strategy. This allows for faster optimization as opposed to an all-at-once approach. Finally, a meta-model based technique is explored.; La conception des chaînes de traction hybrides est une tâche complexe, qui fait appel à des experts de différents domaines s'appuyant sur des compétences et des outils distincts. En plus de cela, la recherche d'une solution optimale nécessite un retour système. Cela peut être, selon la granularité des modèles de composants, très coûteux en temps de calcul. Ceci est d'autant plus vrai lorsque la performance du système est déterminée par sa commande, comme c'est le cas du véhicule hybride. En fait, différentes possibilités peuvent être sélectionnées pour fournir le couple requis aux roues pendant le cycle de conduite. Ainsi, le principal obstacle est d'atteindre l'optimalité tout en conservant une méthodologie rapide et robuste. Dans ces travaux de thèse, de nouvelles approches visant à exploiter le potentiel complet de l'hybridation sont proposées et comparées. La première stratégie est une approche bi-niveaux composée de deux blocs d'optimisation imbriqués: un processus d'optimisation des paramètres de design externe qui calcule la meilleure valeur de consommation de carburant à chaque itération en se basant sur une version améliorée de la programmation dynamique pour l'optimisation de la commande. Deux stratégies de conception systémique différentes basées sur le schéma itératif sont également proposées. La première approche est basée sur la réduction de modèle tandis que la seconde se repose sur des techniques précises de réduction de cycle. Cette dernière permet l'utilisation de modèles de haute précision sans pénaliser le temps de calcul. Une approche simultanée est ensuite mise en œuvre, qui optimise à la fois les variables de conception et les paramètres d'une nouvelle stratégie efficace à base de règles. Cette dernière permettra une optimisation plus rapide par rapport à l'optimisation directe de toutes les variables de décision. Enfin, une technique basée sur l'utilisation des méta-modèles est explorée.

The transportation sector is a major contributor to both air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Hybrid electric vehicles can reduce fuel consumption and CO2 emissions by optimizing the energy management of the powertrain. The purpose of this study is to examine the trade-off between regulated pollutant emissions and hybrid powertrain efficiency. The thermal dynamics of the three-way catalyst are taken into account in order to optimize the light-off. Experimental campaigns are conducted on a spark-ignition engine to introduce simplified models for emissions, exhaust gas temperature, catalyst heat transfers and efficiency. These models are used to determine the optimal distribution of a power request between the thermal engine and the electric motor with three-dimensional dynamic programming and a weighted objective function. A pollution-centered scenario is compared with a consumption-centered scenario for various driving cycles. The optimal torque distribution for the emissions-centered scenario on the world harmonized light-duty vehicles test cycle shows an 8–33% decrease in pollutant emissions while the consumption remains stable (0.1% increase). The consistency of the results is analyzed with respect to the discretization parameters, driving cycle, electric motor and battery sizing, as well as emission and catalyst models. The control strategies are promising but will have to be adapted to online engine control where the driving cycle and the catalyst efficiency are uncertain.

To meet the vehicle fleet-wide average CO2 targets, the stringent pollutant emissions standards, and the clients’ new demands, the automakers realized the inevitable need to offer more hybrid and electric powertrains. Designing a hybrid powertrain remains however a complex task. It is an intricate system involving numerous variables that are spread over different levels: architecture, component technologies, sizing, and control. The industry lacks frameworks or tools that help in exploring the entire design space and in finding the global optimal solution on all these levels. This thesis proposes a systematic methodology that tries to answer a part of this need. Starting from a set of chosen components, the methodology automatically generates all the possible graphs of architectures using constraint-programming techniques. A tailored representation is developed to picture these graphs. The gearbox elements (clutches, synchronizer units) are represented with a level of details appropriate to generate the new-trend dedicated hybrid gearboxes, without making the problem too complex. The graphs are then transformed into other types of representation: 0ABC Table (describing the mechanical connections between the components), Modes Table (describing the available modes in the architectures) and Modes Table + (describing for each available mode the global efficiency and ratio of the power flow between all the components). Based on these representations, the architectures are filtered and the most promising ones are selected. They are automatically assessed and optimized using a general hybrid model specifically developed to calculate the performance and fuel consumption of all the generated architectures. This model is inserted inside a bi-level optimization process: Genetic Algorithm GA is used on the sizing and components level, while Dynamic Programming DP is used on the control level. A case study is performed and the capability of the methodology is proven. It succeeded in automatically generating all the graphs of possible architectures, and filtering dismissed architectures that were then proven not efficient. It also selected the most promising architectures for optimization. The results show that the proposed methodology succeeded in finding an architecture better than the ones proposed without the methodology (consumption about 5% lower), Pour répondre aux objectifs de consommation des flottes de véhicules, au normes d’émissions de polluants et aux nouvelles demandes de l’usager, les constructeurs automobiles doivent développer des motorisations hybrides et électriques. Réaliser une chaine de traction hybride reste cependant une tâche difficile. Ces systèmes sont complexes et possèdent de nombreuses variables réparties sur différents niveaux : architecture, technologie des composants, dimensionnement et contrôle/commande. L’industrie manque encore d’environnements et d’outils pouvant aider à l’exploration de l’ensemble de l’espace de dimensionnement et à trouver la meilleure solution parmi tous ces niveaux. Cette thèse propose une méthodologie systématique pour répondre au moins partiellement à ce besoin. Partant d’un ensemble de composants, cette méthodologie permet de générer automatiquement tous les graphes d’architectures possibles en utilisant la technique de programmation par contraintes. Une représentation dédiée est développée pour visualiser ces graphes. Les éléments de boites de vitesse (embrayages, synchroniseurs) sont représentés avec un niveau de détails approprié pour générer de nouvelles transmission mécaniques sans trop complexifier le problème. Les graphes obtenus sont ensuite transformés en d’autres types de représentation : 0ABC Table (décrivant les connections mécaniques entre les composants), Modes Table (décrivant les modes de fonctionnement disponibles dans les architectures) et Modes Table + (décrivant pour chaque mode le rendement et le rapport de réduction global des chemins de transfert de l’énergie entre tous les composants). Sur la base de cette représentation, les nombreuses architectures générées sont filtrées et seules les plus prometteuses sont sélectionnées. Elles sont ensuite automatiquement évaluées et optimisées avec un modèle général spécifiquement développé pour calculer les performances et la consommation de toute les architectures générées. Ce modèle est inséré dans un processus d’optimisation à deux niveaux ; un algorithme génétique GA est utilisé pour le dimensionnement des composants et la programmation dynamique est utilisée au niveau contrôle (gestion de l’énergie) du système. Un cas d’étude est ensuite réalisé pour montrer le potentiel de cette méthodologie. Nous générons ainsi automatiquement toutes les architectures qui incluent un ensemble de composants défini à l’avance, et le filtrage automatique élimine les architectures présupposées non efficaces et sélectionnent les plus prometteuses pour l’optimisation. Les résultats montrent que la méthodologie proposée permet d’aboutir à une architecture meilleure (consommation diminuée de 5%) que celles imaginées de prime abord (en dehors de toute méthodologie)

Depuis leur "lancement" en 1997, les véhicules électriques hybrides n'ont pas cessé de se développer et de plus en plus de modèles sont maintenant disponibles. Des méthodes numériques de dimensionnement des composants et des architectures peuvent cependant encore améliorer leurs performances ou permettre de trouver les meilleurs compromis pour faciliter encore leur développement. Ce manuscrit présente les travaux effectués pour le développement de méthodes de modélisation et de dimensionnement des véhicules hybrides et de leur composants. Nous partirons des briques élémentaires que sont les modèles des composants et de gestion de l'énergie utiles à la modélisation du système véhicule hybride. Nous proposerons ensuite des méthodologies de dimensionnement et d'optimisation multi-niveaux (architectures/composants/gestion de l'énergie) pouvant permettre, in fine, le choix de la meilleure architecture pour répondre à des objectifs donnés.

AAC 2019, 9th IFAC Symposium on Advances in Automotive Control, ORLEANS, FRANCE, 23-/06/2019 - 27/06/2019; As an alternative to power-split hybrid architectures, a simple series-parallel architecture named SPHEV 2 can be realized. In this paper, the sizing process of this architecture is briefly presented and a deeper analysis is made. Mathematical sensitivity analysis studies are conducted on the sizing parameters of the architecture in order to bring more understanding to the optimization results. Local and global sensitivities are performed to understand the influence of the sizing variables on the fuel consumption. An analysis of the sensitivities is also made.

This paper discusses the comparison of two series–parallel hybrid electrical vehicles. The first one is based on the Toyota hybrid system, while the second one is equipped with an electrical variable transmission. The problem with previous comparisons between these two transmissions is the lack of validated data used to support the comparison as well as a comprehensive study on the sizing of the electrical variable transmission for a given vehicle and load cycle. To tackle these issues, a validated model of an electrical variable transmission is used in combination with validated scaling laws to assess design changes. This scalable model is used to determine the optimal design and the impact of sizing on the fuel consumption of the vehicle. To exclude the impact of the chosen control methodology, dynamic programming has been used. This technique is not only used to optimize the operating points of the internal combustion engine, but also to find the optimal DC-bus voltage in order to optimize the system level efficiency. The comparison is performed for multiple driving cycles that all show the added value of the electrical variable transmission based hybrid electrical vehicle. On average, over the different driving cycles, a reduction in fuel consumption of 4.75% is achieved while using an electrical variable transmission.

Technology advancements increase the complexity of energy systems which bring additional varieties of sources and possible architectures to choose. If the economic and ecological context is also included, the automobile industry is in_uenced to align their production to hybrid or battery electric vehicles that have sophisticated energy management system. Thus, researchers and designers have oriented their studies for system design, optimisation and energy management that take into consideration the constructor tendencies : i) increasing vehicle performances, ii) having less polluting vehicles by reducing fuel consumption and iii) decreasing the time needed for design and validation process. Against these problematics, an approach that assists the system designer to fully characterize the energy management system of a HEV is proposed. This characterization consists : i) choosing powertrain architecture, ii) component (units) sizing and iii) energy management controller. In order to accomplish these tasks, a functional energetic modelling method is proposed. Proposed functional modelling level has a level of abstraction _just necessary_ which permits to have energetic analysis for a series of use case. This method relies on local control loops, a global controller and basic equations and it allows to have a modular optimisation for any architecture changes. The second-stage in the validation is completed by adapting the functional model in order to obtain the high-level controller for the multi-physical level with two offered steps : i) adjustment the functional elements' parameters and ii) interconnection the functional and multi-physical models. After the illustration of the demonstrator of a HEV, three strategies for energy management is proposed : i) based on rules, ii) based on PFC with power sharing function and iii) based on PFC with booster function. The proposed energy management strategies then compared by performance indicators (fuel consumption, number of on/off cycles of engine powertrain and corrected fuel consumption with variation of state of charge of electrical storage) with defined use cases., Les progrès technologiques augmentent la complexité des systèmes énergétiques, ce qui permet d'avoir variés sources et architectures possibles. Si le contexte économique et écologique est également pris en compte, l'industrie automobile est menée à aligner sa production sur des véhicules hybrides ou électriques qui disposent d'une gestion de l'énergie sophistiquée. Ainsi, les études pour la conception sont orientées à l'optimisation et à la gestion de l'énergie en tenant compte les tendances des constructeurs : i) augmenter les performances des véhicules, ii) avoir des véhicules moins polluants en réduisant la consommation de carburant et iii) diminuer le temps nécessaire à la conception et au processus de validation. Face à ces problèmes, une approche qui aide le concepteur à caractériser le système de gestion de l'énergie d'un VEH est proposée. Cette caractérisation consiste à : i) choisir l'architecture de la chaîne de traction, ii) le dimensionnement des composants (groupes) et iii) le contrôleur de gestion de l'énergie. Pour accomplir ces tâches, une méthode de modélisation énergétique fonctionnelle est proposée. Cette approche proposée à un niveau d'abstraction "juste nécessaire" qui permet d'avoir une analyse énergétique pour une série de cas d'utilisation. La méthode repose sur des boucles de contrôle locales, un contrôleur global et des équations de base et elle permet d'avoir une optimisation modulaire pour tout changement d'architecture. Prochaine étape de la validation est l'adaptation du modèle fonctionnel afin d'obtenir le contrôleur de haut niveau pour le niveau multi-physique avec deux étapes proposées : i) l'ajustement des paramètres des éléments fonctionnels et ii) l'interconnexion les modèles fonctionnels et multi-physiques. Après l'illustration du démonstrateur d'un VEH, trois stratégies de gestion de l'énergie sont proposées : i) fondée sur des règles, ii) fondée sur PFC avec fonctionnement de partage de besoin par priorisation et iii) fondée sur PFC avec fonctionnement boost. Les stratégies de gestion de l'énergie proposées sont ensuite comparées par indicateurs de performance (consommation de carburant, nombre de cycles marche/arrêt du groupe motopropulseur et consommation de carburant corrigée avec variation de l'état de charge du stockage électrique) avec des cas d'usages définis.

Road transportation has a huge impact on the environment. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) are an interesting alternative, especially for urban uses. However, HEV are complex systems to design because of the strong interaction between the component sizing, the energy management and the driving cycle.V. Reinbold previously developed a sizing methodology for HEV. The components and the energy management are simultaneously optimized to reduce the fuel consumption of the vehicle over a driving cycle. A specific electromagnetic model is used during the optimization process to describe accurately the electrical machine.As a continuation, we introduce firstly the possibility to deal with discrete variables such as the pole number of the electrical machine. Then, we develop a thermal model of the machine considering the convection exchanges around the end-windings. This analytical lumped parameter thermal network is used during the optimization process after being validated thanks to a finite element model. Uncertainty and sensitivity analysis are used to check the influence of some of the thermal parameters. Finally, the sizing methodology is applied to a series/parallel HEV including two electrical machines., Le transport routier est au cœur des enjeux environnementaux actuels. Les véhicules électriques hybrides (VEH) sont une alternative intéressante, notamment en milieu urbain. Cependant, la conception de tels systèmes est complexe car la chaîne de traction (composants et architecture), la mission et la gestion énergétique du véhicule sont intimement liées.Les travaux de V. Reinbold ont permis de mettre au point une méthodologie de dimensionnement de VEH. Les composants sont optimisés conjointement avec la gestion énergétique sur un cycle de fonctionnement afin de minimiser la consommation de carburant du véhicule. Une attention particulière est portée à la conception fine de la machine électrique via un modèle électromagnétique adapté à l’optimisation.Dans la suite de ces travaux, nous approfondissons plusieurs aspects du dimensionnement des VEH. Tout d’abord, nous introduisons la possibilité de gérer des paramètres discrets de la machine, comme le nombre de paires de pôles. Dans un second temps, nous développons un modèle thermique de la machine prenant notamment en compte les échanges autour des têtes de bobine. Ce modèle analytique par réseau de résistances thermiques est intégré puis utilisé dans le processus de dimensionnement par optimisation. Il a été préalablement validé via un modèle par éléments finis. Des méthodes d’analyse d’incertitude et de sensibilité sont appliquées afin de quantifier l’influence de certains paramètres thermiques. Enfin, nous appliquons la méthodologie de dimensionnement par optimisation à une architecture série/parallèle, intégrant deux machines électriques.

This works is focused in the conception of a hybrid vehicle with the ability to fly or roll over the ground when necessary. A revision of the present prototypes is made and then a new prototype is proposed with enhanced characteristics. The prototype consists of a quadrotor with two additional passive wheels without any other additional servomechanism. The modeling of each operation mode is exposed and then a model for the hybrid form is proposed. In the next section, some control algorithms have been developed for each operation mode: on ground or in air. These algorithms are validated via numerical simulation in the first instance. The last section describes the MOCA room and the system used for capturing the position and attitude of the vehicle. Also, experimental tests were made in order to validate the developed control strategies. It was also validated that the vehicle can follows aerial and terrestrial trajectories. Finally, an observer is implemented in order to identify the moment when the vehicle touches the ground. This knowledge is used to switch from air mode to ground mode without the need of additional sensors., Ce travail porte sur la conception d’un véhicule hybride qui puisse rouler ou voler si nécessaire. Une révision des prototypes actuels est faite et ensuite il est proposé un nouveau type de véhicule avec des propriétés améliorées. Ce véhicule se constitue d’un quadrirotor avec deux roues passives sans aucun servomécanisme additionnel. Le modèle de ce véhicule a été développé et quelques algorithmes de régulation automatique ont été développés pour chaque mode d’opération : par terre ou dans l’air. Ces algorithmes ont été validés dans un premier temps via des simulations numériques. La dernière section décrit la salle MOCA et le système utilisé pour obtenir la position et l’orientation du véhicule. En outre, on a fait des expériences pour valider les stratégies de commande développées. D’autres expériences ont été fait pour valider le fait que le véhicule peut suivre des trajectoires terrestres et aériennes. Finalement, un observateur a été utilisé pour identifier le moment où le véhicule fait contact avec le sol. Ce fait nous a permis de changer du mode aérien vers le mode terrestre sans besoin d’utiliser des capteurs additionnels.

International audience; The purpose of this study is to model battery packs integrated in a ten fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle fleet developed among the European project Mobypost dedicated to postal delivery applications. This project led to create and feeda big database as the vehicles were deeply monitored. Thanks to this database and Big-Bang Big-Crunch optimization algorithm this paper proposes a method to model battery using real driving cycle data in few minutes with a NRMSE less than 0.02.

TRA 2018, Proceedings of 7th Transport Research Arena , Vienne, AUTRICHE, 16-/04/2018 - 19/04/2019; This contribution is based on the European collaborative project TRANSFORMERS (Configurable and adaptable trucks and trailers for optimal transport), which received co-funding from the European Commission. The project has the goal of reducing energy use per tonne.kilometre of goods transported by up to 25%. This is achieved by innovations including: i) Configurable whole vehicle aerodynamics, ii) Improved loading efficiency measures, iii) A distributed, trailer mounted electric driveline known as 'hybrid-on-demand' for truck-semitrailer combinations. The combination of innovations gives the possibility of a semi-trailer combination which can be adapted or re-configured to suit individual transport missions. The paper focuses on providing background to the project, an overview of the innovations developed within the project, and the main conclusions that were drawn from the wide range of work undertaken within the project. It covers both the 'Energy Efficiency' and the 'Load Optimisation' trailers which were developed and tested within the project.

In the context of development of the hybrid electric vehicle, electric machines for traction are under extensive investigation. In particular, volume constraints are more and more severe and research is carried out towards compact structures. This work is focused on the study and the design of axial flux machine for a mild-hybrid application of an integrated starter generator mounted on the crankshaft. Its ratings in transient mode are 50 kW and 205 Nm. A literature review of axial flux machines is presented. A analysis of winding configurations with star of slots method is detailed. A beginning of analysis of switching-flux machine is proposed. The methodology of design is detailed. It is based on sensitivity analysis, parametric design and optimization of the machine. Utilized models are finite element model and response surface by design of experiments. Finally, a thermal study of the machine is carried out and some ideas are given to improve the thermal exchange by diphase cooling.; Dans le cadre du développement du véhicule électrique hybride, les machines électriques pour la traction sont l’objet d’un effort toujours plus important de recherche et de développement. En particulier, les contraintes d’encombrement allouées à ces machines sont toujours plus sévères et la recherche se porte vers des structures de machines compactes. C’est dans ce contexte que nos travaux se sont portés sur l’étude et le dimensionnement de machine à flux axial pour une application hybridation douce (Mild Hybrid) d’alterno-démarreur monté sur vilebrequin de puissance 50 kW et de couple 205 Nm en régime transitoire. Un état de l’art des machines à flux axial est présenté. Une analyse des configurations de bobinage avec la méthode de l’étoile des encoches est détaillée. Un début d’analyse de la machine à commutation de flux est proposé. La méthodologie de dimensionnement est étayée. Elle repose sur des études de sensibilité, un dimensionnement paramétrique, mais aussi une optimisation de la machine. Les modèles utilisés sont de type éléments finis et surface de réponse par plan d’expériences. Enfin, une étude thermique de la machine est effectuée et des pistes sont données pour l’amélioration de l’échange thermique par refroidissement diphasique.

In the context of development of the hybrid electric vehicle, electric machines for traction are under extensive investigation. In particular, volume constraints are more and more severe and research is carried out towards compact structures. This work is focused on the study and the design of axial flux machine for a mild-hybrid application of an integrated starter generator mounted on the crankshaft. Its ratings in transient mode are 50 kW and 205 Nm. A literature review of axial flux machines is presented. A analysis of winding configurations with star of slots method is detailed. A beginning of analysis of switching-flux machine is proposed. The methodology of design is detailed. It is based on sensitivity analysis, parametric design and optimization of the machine. Utilized models are finite element model and response surface by design of experiments. Finally, a thermal study of the machine is carried out and some ideas are given to improve the thermal exchange by diphase cooling., Dans le cadre du développement du véhicule électrique hybride, les machines électriques pour la traction sont l’objet d’un effort toujours plus important de recherche et de développement. En particulier, les contraintes d’encombrement allouées à ces machines sont toujours plus sévères et la recherche se porte vers des structures de machines compactes. C’est dans ce contexte que nos travaux se sont portés sur l’étude et le dimensionnement de machine à flux axial pour une application hybridation douce (Mild Hybrid) d’alterno-démarreur monté sur vilebrequin de puissance 50 kW et de couple 205 Nm en régime transitoire. Un état de l’art des machines à flux axial est présenté. Une analyse des configurations de bobinage avec la méthode de l’étoile des encoches est détaillée. Un début d’analyse de la machine à commutation de flux est proposé. La méthodologie de dimensionnement est étayée. Elle repose sur des études de sensibilité, un dimensionnement paramétrique, mais aussi une optimisation de la machine. Les modèles utilisés sont de type éléments finis et surface de réponse par plan d’expériences. Enfin, une étude thermique de la machine est effectuée et des pistes sont données pour l’amélioration de l’échange thermique par refroidissement diphasique.

SIA Powertrain 2018, Orléans, FRANCE, 16-/05/2018 - 17/05/2018; Various architecture designs exist for hybrid and plug-in hybrid vehicle powertrains. Through-The-Road (TTR) layout is an interesting solution and is adopted in some vehicles. In TTR, both front and rear axles provide power to the wheels: one is associated to the engine traction system while the other is linked to the electric traction system. Different design variants of TTR exist. They differ in their fuel saving benefits and their required component sizing which affects the powertrain cost. In this paper, a general TTR powertrain architecture is considered and modelled. Different design variants are then optimized using a bi-level sizing and control optimization methodology. It is based on the genetic algorithm approach for the choice of sizing, combined with a global optimal energy management strategy (Dynamic programming) for the calculation of the first objective function, the fuel consumption. The second objective function is a powertrain cost index. The aim of the paper is to determine the trends in design modification and sizing variation that can allow minimizing the powertrain cost and fuel consumption.

In the paper, the global optimization of hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) components and control is performed using genetic algorithm and dynamic programming. Reluctance network modelling (RNM) is used to describe the behaviour of the electrical machine (EM). The pole number is considered as a design variable in the EM model. A software component is built from this model and is used in Matlab for a sizing by optimization. The influence of the EM pole number on the system optimization is analysed. Contrary to the low differences observed on the energy efficiency of the vehicle, the machine shape is highly impacted.

International audience; Regarded as the future of the automotive industry, electric cars are not far from a worldwide deployment. However some drawbacks still slow down this deployment such as batteries lifetime and autonomy which have to be increased in order to compete conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICE). Therefore, a well understanding of the battery aging phenomena is mandatory regarding the development of new hybrid achitectures and their energy management. In order to study those phenomena and understand the causes, ten fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles developed for postal delivery purpose among the european Mobypost project have been monitored during three years. This experimentation led to create a rich database. Using this database the remaining capacity of an entire fleet of vehicule have been calculated. Consequently the capacity fades could be estimated and illustrated in function of the temperature and the batteries cycle number, through a non linear regression with an error NRMSE of 0.129.

VPPC, BELFORT, FRANCE, 11-/12/2017 - 14/12/2017; A simple version of a Series-Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle (SPHEV) powertrain was proposed and studied in previous work. It consists of 2 Electric Machines (EM) mounted on the engine shaft and separated by a clutch. It is a relatively simple architecture that allows vehicle operation in pure electric, series hybrid and parallel hybrid modes. However, this architecture was proven to be less efficient than a reference Power-Split SPHEV architecture: the Toyota Hybrid System (THS). As a continuation, this paper investigates the potential of improvement of the simple SPHEV by the addition of gears and a gearbox.Two new variants of SPHEVs are therefore proposed. The three versions of SPHEVs and the reference THS are sized on a global optimal manner and compared. Results show that one variant of the simple SPHEV can have comparable fuel consumption to the THS.

For a hybrid electric vehicle, one of the most challenging aspects from a control perspective is the power split between the engine and the motors, problem referred to as energy management. The question that arises is how to exploit the additional degree of freedom - the electric path - such that the vehicle performance related to consumption is improved. The required robustness for the control strategies encourage the choice of model-based methods and in the present context of telemetry data acquisition, model predictive control emerges as an attractive option, motivated in addition by its ability to handle the constraints. Most of the current energy management strategies are application-oriented and therefore, a generic hybrid powertrain model would provide more flexibility. This thesis is developed on two main axes: the synthesis of a generic model and of a MPC-based control strategy for the energy management, with a self-tuning mechanism. If the torque split is the main control objective, other functionalities can be introduced, such as engine stop/start and coasting. The latter is usually handled in the literature with a map-based strategy, but here an analytical solution was proposed. A validation on a vehicle high-fidelity model for a mild hybrid with a dual-clutch transmission closes the work and shows the potential of the proposed strategy., Pour un véhicule électrique hybride, un des challenges les plus compliqués d’une perspective orientée contrôle est la distribution de puissance entre le moteur thermique et les machines électriques, problème appelé gestion d’énergie. La question qui surgit est comment exploiter le degré de liberté supplémentaire - la voie électrique - afin que la performance véhicule, liée à la réduction de la consommation carburant, soit améliorée. Le besoin de robustesse des stratégies de contrôle encourage le choix de méthodes basées sur des modèles et dans le contexte actuel de possibilité d’acquisition des données télémétriques, la commande prédictive à base de modèle apparaît comme une option attractive, motivée aussi par sa capacité à gérer des contraintes. La plupart des stratégies courantes de gestion d’énergie sont orientées application et par conséquent, un modèle générique du GMP hybride offrirait plus de flexibilité. Cette thèse se construit sur deux axes principaux : la synthèse d’un modèle générique et d’une stratégie de contrôle basée sur la commande prédictive pour la gestion d’énergie, avec un mécanisme de calibration auto-adaptable. Si la distribution de couple est l’enjeu majeur du contrôle, d’autres fonctionnalités peuvent être introduites, comme l’arrêt/démarrage du moteur et le découplage du GMP des roues. Cette dernière est généralement traitée dans la littérature avec une stratégie basée sur cartographies, mais ici une approche analytique innovante a été proposée. Une validation sur un modèle haute-fidélité d’un véhicule hybride léger (mild) avec une transmission double-embrayage clôture les travaux et montre le potentiel de la stratégie proposée.

For a hybrid electric vehicle, one of the most challenging aspects from a control perspective is the power split between the engine and the motors, problem referred to as energy management. The question that arises is how to exploit the additional degree of freedom - the electric path - such that the vehicle performance related to consumption is improved. The required robustness for the control strategies encourage the choice of model-based methods and in the present context of telemetry data acquisition, model predictive control emerges as an attractive option, motivated in addition by its ability to handle the constraints. Most of the current energy management strategies are application-oriented and therefore, a generic hybrid powertrain model would provide more flexibility. This thesis is developed on two main axes: the synthesis of a generic model and of a MPC-based control strategy for the energy management, with a self-tuning mechanism. If the torque split is the main control objective, other functionalities can be introduced, such as engine stop/start and coasting. The latter is usually handled in the literature with a map-based strategy, but here an analytical solution was proposed. A validation on a vehicle high-fidelity model for a mild hybrid with a dual-clutch transmission closes the work and shows the potential of the proposed strategy.; Pour un véhicule électrique hybride, un des challenges les plus compliqués d’une perspective orientée contrôle est la distribution de puissance entre le moteur thermique et les machines électriques, problème appelé gestion d’énergie. La question qui surgit est comment exploiter le degré de liberté supplémentaire - la voie électrique - afin que la performance véhicule, liée à la réduction de la consommation carburant, soit améliorée. Le besoin de robustesse des stratégies de contrôle encourage le choix de méthodes basées sur des modèles et dans le contexte actuel de possibilité d’acquisition des données télémétriques, la commande prédictive à base de modèle apparaît comme une option attractive, motivée aussi par sa capacité à gérer des contraintes. La plupart des stratégies courantes de gestion d’énergie sont orientées application et par conséquent, un modèle générique du GMP hybride offrirait plus de flexibilité. Cette thèse se construit sur deux axes principaux : la synthèse d’un modèle générique et d’une stratégie de contrôle basée sur la commande prédictive pour la gestion d’énergie, avec un mécanisme de calibration auto-adaptable. Si la distribution de couple est l’enjeu majeur du contrôle, d’autres fonctionnalités peuvent être introduites, comme l’arrêt/démarrage du moteur et le découplage du GMP des roues. Cette dernière est généralement traitée dans la littérature avec une stratégie basée sur cartographies, mais ici une approche analytique innovante a été proposée. Une validation sur un modèle haute-fidélité d’un véhicule hybride léger (mild) avec une transmission double-embrayage clôture les travaux et montre le potentiel de la stratégie proposée.

In order to be able to continue the use of cars, they have to increase their energy efficiency. One promising approach is the use of hybrid vehicles, which combine different energy sources and converters. Therefore, they have to be designed and tested on all the cycles they will encounter during the vehicle life. Energy management is an important point; there are deterministic, optimization based and predictive energy management approaches. The study of energy management requires the availability of complete, multi-physical and fast models. Other than by global optimization, it is possible to improve certain components individually, like internal combustion engine or Lithium-ion batteries, to replace them by a fuel cell or to recover thermal energy using a Stirling engine. All those aspects have to be integrated into vehicles in order to improve the energy efficiency.; Pour pouvoir continuer à utiliser les véhicules en vue des limitations, il est important qu’ils améliorent leur efficacité énergétique. Une piste prometteuse est de concevoir des véhicules hybrides qui combinent différentes sources et convertisseurs d’énergie. Pour cela, ils doivent être conçus et testés sur la totalité des cycles qu’ils rencontrent pendent leur durée de vie. La gestion d’énergie est cruciale, il y a les solutions déterministes, d’optimisation, et prédictive. L’étude de la gestion nécessite la disponibilité de modèles complets, multi-physiques et rapides. En dehors d’une optimisation globale, il est possible d’améliorer certaines composantes de fac¸on individuelle, comme le moteur à combustion interne ou les batteries Lithium-ion, de prévoir leur remplacement avec des piles à combustibles ou encore de valoriser les rejets thermiques grâce à un moteur Stirling. Tous ces aspects doivent être intégrés dans des véhicules afin d’améliorer leur efficacité énergétique.

ELECTRIMACS 2017, TOULOUSE, FRANCE, 04-/07/2017 - 06/07/2017; Commercial river ship presents good alternative to road transportation in terms of carbon dioxide emissions but not obviously concerning other pollutants. A solution to reduce fuel consumption and respect future pollutant norms can be to use a combined serial-parallel hybrid architecture. Engines dedicated to road transportation with their depollution systems can be used if high downsizing is performed. This paper investigated this possibility focusing on the management of a such hybrid architecture. A parametric studies is then presented to evaluate the fuel economy of such solution.

Over the last decade, the interest for low-carbon vehicle technologies has surged among both governments and automotive manufacturers across and beyond the European Union (EU). Great hopes have been put, first, on biofuel vehicles and more recently on electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) as key technologies to mitigate climate change, enhance energy security and nurture new industry branches within the automotive sector. So electrification of vehicles has been seen as a key strategy to reduce CO2 emissions from the transport sector.The main challenge toward EVs and HEVs is to keep driving for longer distance (which has been always fields for competition among traction industries) as well as lifetime battery cells as storage system. As a result, these indicate importance of power converter efficiency as a key gate for next generations of these up-coming vehicles. The next parameter is the quality of output voltage/current (especially by suppressing low-order harmonics) to reduce the size of filtering.The aim of this thesis is to achieve better efficiency and output voltage/current Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) by proposing novel power converter and associated Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) methods while imposing modification on power converter topology. As a result, dual-inverter is proposed to supply open-end motor from both sides. To this aim, three PWM methods are suggested as:The first one, Modified Space Vector Modulation (MSVM) for dual-inverter supplied by single dc source, improves efficiency by 4-5% (while having lower switching losses), and reduces Common Mode Voltage (CMV) levels by 66%, as well. The voltage/current harmonics are analytically analyzed which shows mainly better performance. Effective switching frequency is also reduced by 66% due to the reduction of number of commutations.In the second one, Near State PWM (NSPWM) is adapted for dual-inverter supplied by single dc source in order to eliminate triplen harmonics (therefore Zero Sequence Voltage, ZSV) and improve efficiency (by 3-4%) compared to Space Vector Modulation (SVM). Additionally due to avoiding use of zero vectors, CMV is improved by 66%. While having 8 commutations instead of 12 in SVM, effective switching frequency is improved by 33%.And finally, the third proposed method deals with NSPWM for dual-inverter supplied by two isolated dc sources wherein efficiency and CMV levels show the same performance as previous one. However, in this method, voltage THD is highly reduced compared to SVM. Triplen harmonics of the output voltage are inherently suppressed by the structure.These 3 proposed methods are analytically studied and their performances are step by step simulated in Matlab/Simulink environment. Then the methods are implemented in dualinverter fed open-end motor in laboratory setup; and the results are compared with these of SVM. Finally, it is found that novel proposed methods are so competitive solutions to be applied in HEVs and EVs and bring superior efficiency and voltage/current harmonic features., Durant ces dernières années, l'intérêt pour les technologies des véhicules à faibles émissions de carbone a fait un bond important à travers l'Union européenne (UE) et au-delà, encouragé en cela par les gouvernements et les constructeurs automobiles. De grands espoirs ont été mis plus récemment dans les véhicules électriques (VE) et les véhicules électriques hybrides (VEH) en tant que technologies clés pour atténuer le changement climatique, améliorer la sécurité énergétique et favoriser une nouvelle branche de l'industrie dans le secteur automobile. Ainsi, l'électrification des transports a été considérée comme une stratégie clé pour réduire les émissions de CO2 dans le secteur des transports. Le principal défi est d’augmenter l’autonomie des véhicules (ce qui a toujours été au coeur de la concurrence des industries du transport), ainsi que la durée de vie des volumineuses et coûteuses batteries. Par conséquent, ceci indique que le rendement du convertisseur de puissance est un des points clés à développer pour les générations des véhicules électriques à venir. L’autre paramètre influant est la qualité de la tension et du courant (en particulier la suppression des harmoniques basses fréquences) qui permet de réduire la taille des filtres d'entrée et de sortie de ces convertisseurs. L'objectif de cette thèse est de parvenir à un meilleur rendement en proposant de nouvelles structures de convertisseur de puissance et des commandes vectorielles modifiées ; le choix de deux onduleurs alimentant un moteur ouvert aux deux extrémités. Après l'analyse étape par étape, modèle théorique, simulation et enfin une mise en oeuvre expérimentale, il a été constaté que les nouvelles méthodes proposées sont compétitives et peuvent s’appliquer aux cas des VEH et des VE afin d’apporter des caractéristiques supérieures en termes d’efficacité et de qualité de tension et de courant.

This paper presents the comparative study of two hybrid energy storage systems (HESS) of a two front wheel driven electric vehicle. The primary energy source of the HESS is a Li-Ion battery, whereas the secondary energy source is either an ultracapacitor (UC) or a flywheel energy system (FES). The main role of the secondary source is to deliver/recover energy during high peak power demand, but also to increase battery lifetime, considered among the most expensive items in the electric vehicle. As a first step, a techno-economic comparative study, supported by strong literature research, is performed between the UC and the FES. The design and sizing of each element will be presented. The comparison criteria and specifications are also described. The adopted approach in this paper is based on an academic non-oriented point of view. In a second step, each of the HESS will be integrated in a more global Simulink model which includes the vehicle model, the traction control system (TCS), the regenerative braking system and the vehicle actuators. Simulation tests are performed for an extreme braking and vehicle starting-up operations. Tests are realized on two different surface road types and conditions (high and low friction roads) and for different initial system states. In order to show the most appropriate storage system regarding compactness, weight and battery constraints minimization, deep comparative analysis is provided.

OIPE 2014 - Optimization and inverse problems in electromagnetism, DELFT, PAYS-BAS, 10-/09/2014 - 12/09/2014; Hybrid electrical vehicles involve two sources of energy, usually gasoline and electricity. The energy management determines the power sharing between the internal combustion engine (ICE) and the electrical machine (EM). It is highly dependent on the driving cycle (i.e. the use of the vehicle). In this context, the optimal sizing of the EM is determined by: the driving cycle, the power-train characteristics (i.e. ratios and physical limitations e.g. maximum torque available) and the energy management. The key idea of this work is to involve the driving cycle and the environment of the electrical machine in a global multi-objective optimization process taking into account an optimal energy management (OEM).

This thesis presents a comparative study between four recent real-time energy management strategies (EMS) applied to a hybrid electric vehicle and to a fuel cell vehicle applications: rule-based strategy (RBS), adaptive equivalent consumption minimization strategy (A-ECMS), optimal control law (OCL) and stochastic dynamic programming (SDP) associated to driving cycle modeling by Markov chains. Pontryagin’s minimum principle and dynamic programming are applied to off-line optimization to provide reference results. Implementation and parameters setting issues are discussed for each strategy and a genetic algorithm is employed for A-ECMS calibration.The EMS robustness is evaluated using different types of driving cycles and a statistical analysis is conducted using random cycles generated by Markov process. Simulation and experimental results lead to the following conclusions. The easiest methods to implement (RBS and OCL) give rather high fuel consumption. SDP has the best overall performance in real-world driving conditions. It achieves the minimum average fuel consumption while perfectly respecting the state-sustaining constraint. A-ECMS results are comparable to SDP’s when using parameters well-adjusted to the upcoming driving cycle, but lacks robustness. Using parameter sets adjusted to the type of driving conditions (urban, road and highway) did help to improve A-ECMS performances., Ce mémoire présente une étude comparative de quatre stratégies de gestion énergétique temps réel, appliquées d'une part à un véhicule hybride thermique-électrique, et d'autre part à un véhicule électrique à pile à combustible : contrôle basé sur des règles empirique (RBS), minimisation de la consommation équivalente (A-ECMS), loi de commande optimale (OCL) établie à partir d'une modélisation analytique du système et programmation dynamique stochastique (SDP) associée à une modélisation des cycles de conduite par chaîne de Markov. Le principe du minimum de Pontryaguin et la programmation dynamique, applicables hors ligne, sont mis en œuvre pour fournir des résultats de référence. Les problèmes d’implémentation numérique et de paramétrage des stratégies sont discutés. Une analyse statistique effectuée sur la base de cycles aléatoires générés par chaînes de Markov permet d’évaluer la robustesse des stratégies étudiées. Les résultats obtenus en simulation, puis sur un dispositif expérimental montrent que les méthodes les plus simples (RBS ou OCL) conduisent à des consommations élevées. SDP aboutit aux meilleures performances avec en moyenne la plus faible consommation de carburant dans les conditions réelles de conduite et un état énergétique final du système de stockage parfaitement maîtrisé. Les résultats d’A-ECMS sont comparables à ceux de SDP en moyenne, mais avec une plus grande dispersion, en particulier pour l'état de charge final. Afin d'améliorer les performances des méthode, des jeux de paramètres dédiés aux différents contextes de conduite sont considérés.

This paper will present the regenerative braking quantification, design control, and simulation of a hybrid energy storage system (HESS) for an electric vehicle (EV) in extreme conditions. The EV is driven by two 30-kW permanent magnet synchronous motors. The HESS contains a Li-Ion battery and ultracapacitor (UC) storage element sources as well as a dissipative resistor. The UC will be mainly involved in braking and traction modes. The role of the resistor is to protect the dc bus and the battery according to the voltage and current constraints. The sizing of the elements takes into consideration the extreme braking conditions of the vehicle while respecting the Economic Commission for Europe Regulation No. 13 Harmonized. Controllers are being used in order to regulate the various electrical variables of the overall system. A sequential logic controller is also being introduced. The role of the sequential logic controller is to activate the different existing regulation controllers and to ensure the switching between the storage elements depending on the system states. Simulation tests will be performed covering a wide operation range for variable braking load, according to vehicle speed and road type, and extreme braking conditions.

This deliverable D4.7 is an update of D4.3 on driving control strategies, based on data monitored on the real TRANSFORMERS vehicle. This report is an update of the deliverable D4.3: Theoretical validation of the driving controls strategy and safety/stability assessment by simulation and benchmarking [1]. D4.3 discussed the difference in dynamic behaviour of a tractor-semitrailer between a conventional semi-trailer combination and one in which one of the trailer axles is driven: the hybrid on demand (HoD)-trailer. The report D4.3 focussed on the theoretical background of the HoD-trailer concept. This report serves two purposes: 1. Verification of the simulation model (developed in D4.3) using experimental results 2. Validation of the conclusions of D4.3 with respect to possible stability issues of the TRANSFORMERS vehicle, compared to conventional tractor + semi-trailer vehicles A subset of the manoeuvers that have been proposed in deliverable D6.5 [2] is tested in under sub-task4.4.4: " single lane-change, " ISO double lane-change ('chicane'), " turning manoeuver, " emergency braking. Due to technical and modelling issues, the emergency braking experimental results could not be compared with the numerical model results. The other tests have been performed successfully and showed that : 1. The numerical model of the tractor + semi-trailer combinations fits well, both for the conventional combination and the TRANSFORMERS vehicle. 2. The conclusions of D4.3 are valid for the Transformer vehicle:a. The dynamical behaviour of the hybrid on demand (HoD) combination is close to the behaviour of the conventional tractor + semi-trailer combination. b. No additional stability control measures are needed in addition to the common measures such as traction control, anti-lock braking control and drive-train logic (i.e. strategy to use the HoD-trailer). c. If, for any reason, the tractor's or semi-trailer's stability controller must be activated, the HoD-semi-trailer system should be switched off. In these cases, the energy regeneration should also be disabled.

Energy storage systems are a key point in the design and development of electric and hybrid vehicles. In order to reduce the battery size and its current stress, a hybrid storage system, where a battery is coupled with an electrical double-layer capacitor (EDLC) is considered in this paper. The energy management of such a configuration is not obvious and the optimal operation concerning the energy consumption and battery RMS current has to be identified. Most of the past work on the optimal energy management of HEVs only considered one additional power source. In this paper, the control of a hybrid vehicle with a hybrid storage system (HSS), where two additional power sources are used, is presented. Applying the Pontryagin’s minimum principle, an optimal energy management strategy is found and compared to a rule-based parameterized control strategy. Simulation results are shown and discussed. Applied on a small compact car, optimal and ruled-based methods show that gains of fuel consumption and/or a battery RMS current higher than 15% may be obtained. The paper also proves that a well tuned rule-based algorithm presents rather good performances when compared to the optimal strategy and remains relevant for different driving cycles. This rule-based algorithm may easily be implemented in a vehicle prototype or in an HIL test bench.

Fuel consumption of a hybrid electrical vehicle (HEV) depends on the driving cycle (i.e. the use of the vehicle), on the powertrain components and on the energy management. The paper proposes an optimal component sizing process taking into account the entire system. An optimal energy management is used in order to minimize the fuel consumption on a driving cycle. This optimization approach of the HEV uses Radial Basis Function models which allow a fast constrained optimization.

IEEE VPPC 2016, the 13th Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, Hangzhou, CHINE, 17-/10/2016 - 20/10/2016; Most of the commercial river ships dedicated to load transport are propelled by a conventional power train architecture. Two mains engines are connected to two propellers, and one or more electrical generators provide the on-board power (electricity, hydraulic pressure ...) to the servitudes. In a lot of operations, the main engines and the auxiliary engines are not employed to their maximum abilities and operate on bad efficiency areas. Hybrid solutions with batteries can then improve the operations of the engines allowing to shut them off, or to operate them in better efficiency area. This paper evaluates the potential of hybrid solutions dedicated to Inland Waterways Transport regarding the potential of fuel economy. Measurements have been performed to model the components of the ship and its operations (uses cycle). Then different hybrid architectures have been modeled, sized and compared to the conventional power-train.

INDIN 2016 - IEEE 14th International Conference on Industrial Informatics, Poitiers, France, 19-/07/2016 - 21/07/2016; This paper presents the regenerative braking design control and simulation of a hybrid energy storage system (HESS) for an electric vehicle (EV). The EV is driven by two 30 kW permanent magnet synchronous motors. The HESS contains a Li-Ion battery and an Ultra-Capacitor (UC) sources. In extreme braking conditions, the UC should be able to recover all the power delivered by the motors. When the maximal state of charge of the UC is achieved, the energy will be then recuperated by the battery. The introduction of a braking resistor would help the system to respect the voltage and current constraints and to protect the battery. This paper will validate the combination of the designed controllers ensuring the switching between the storage and dissipative elements while respecting the electrical constraints of the overall system, in particular for critical braking conditions. A Simulink model will be developed and validated.

REDEC 2016 - 3rd International Conference on Renewable Energies for Developing Countries, Zouk Mosbeh, LIBAN, 13-/07/2016 - 15/07/2016; This paper presents the integration of previously developed Matlab/Simulink® design model and control blocks in order to simulate the entire braking energy transfer of a two front wheel-driven electric vehicle. The overall system modules consist of a hybrid energy storage system, two interior permanent magnet synchronous motors and the vehicle model. Other blocks like braking forces distribution module and electrical/mechanical braking forces quantification will also be briefly described. The types and conditions of roads are also integrated in order to study the vehicle behavior. Simulation results validate the global control strategy performance and consistency of the integration taking into consideration the multi-domain aspects of the system.

This PhD presents the design of a disc rotor electric machine for the traction of hybrid vehicles. A complete state of the art enables the selection of the internal rotor axial flux machine which is the most suited to this application. Different geometries of the magnetic circuit are successively studied and compared with finite elements simulations. To maximize the efficiency of the machine losses generated in the magnetic circuit are studied. An analytic model on the skin effect in the copper conductors is proposed and validated with finite elements simulations. A second analytic model estimates the eddy current losses in the permanent magnets for every operating point of the machine based on only three finite element simulations enabling an important time-saving. Two dimensioning methods are compared: the manual dimensioning based on a tries/errors method and the multi-objectives optimization. This last method automates the dimensioning and enables a more refined optimization and a strong improvement of the performances. For example, the torque density has been improved by 29% in that case. The designed axial flux machine is compared to a state of the art radial flux machine for hybrid vehicle. This comparison shows the potential of the axial flux machine with an improvement of the torque density by more than 20%. Finally two prototypes have been built and measured to validate the simulations.; Cette thèse présente le dimensionnement d’une machine électrique à rotor disque pour la traction de véhicules hybrides. Un état de l’art complet sur les machines électriques à rotor disque permet de montrer que la machine à flux axial à rotor central est la plus adaptée. Différentes géométries du circuit magnétique sont successivement étudiées et comparées par simulations par éléments finis. Pour maximiser le rendement de la machine, les pertes d’origine électromagnétique sont étudiées. Un modèle analytique des pertes par effet de peau dans les conducteurs de cuivre est proposé et validé par éléments finis. Un second modèle analytique estime les pertes par courant induits dans les aimants permanents pour tous les points de travail de la machine se basant sur uniquement trois simulations par éléments finis permettant ainsi un gain de temps important lors du dimensionnement. Deux méthodes de dimensionnement sont comparées : le dimensionnement manuel par essais/erreurs et l’optimisation multi-objectifs. Cette dernière méthode automatise le dimensionnement et permet une optimisation plus pointue et une forte amélioration des performances. Dans ce cas, la densité de couple a par exemple été augmentée de 29%. La machine à flux axial dimensionnée est comparée avec une machine à flux radial pour véhicules hybrides. Cette comparaison révèle le potentiel de la machine à flux axial avec notamment une densité de couple augmentée de plus de 20%. Enfin, deux prototypes ont été construits et mesurés pour valider les simulations.

Power-split hybrid electric vehicles (PS-HEV) are the most efficient solution to reduce fuel consumption using electric hybridisation of vehicles. However, different architectures exist or can be developed and it is difficult to perform a fair comparison between these solutions. A global design approach, optimising the size of the components and using optimal energy management can be a good way to compare different PS-HEV architectures. This paper presents a method to size and design HEV in an optimal manner and to compare this vehicle on different objectives: fuel consumption, battery size, and global volume of the system. The method is then applied to four SP-HEV based on existing architectures (Toyota Hybrid System, Opel Ampera) and on alternative solutions (electrical variable transmission and serial-parallel architecture).

Eco-driving is an efficient and economical way to reduce vehicles' energy consumption. Eco-driving techniques have been practised for decades. However, only conventional vehicles have been deeply studied particularly by using optimisation and modelling to identify the energetically best speed profiles. In this paper, eco-driving of hybrid vehicles is addressed. The complexity of speed profile optimisation problem is increased as we have to consider the two energies consumed on-board, i.e., fuel and electricity. Considering an existing hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) with its own energy management strategy, we propose here an original approach based on dynamic programming, vehicle modelling and an equivalence factor between the consumed fuel and electricity. Results show that the defined factor should be carefully chosen in order to achieve the best fuel economy.

TRA2014 Transport Research Arena 2014 Transport Solutions : from Research to Deployment - Innovate Mobility, Mobilise Innovation, PARIS-LA DEFENSE, FRANCE, 14-/04/2014 - 17/04/2014; This book is part of a set of six books called the 'Research for Innovative Transports' set. This collection presents an update of the latest academic and applied research, case studies, best practices and user perspectives on transport carried out in Europe and worldwide. The volumes are made up of a selection of the best papers presented at TRA2014. In this volume 1, recent research works are reported around the triptych : 'transport, energy and environment', which demonstrates that vehicle technologies and fuels can still improve, but it is necessary to prepare their implementation (e.g. electro-mobility), to think of new services, and to involve all actors, particularly enterprises, who whill be the drivers of innovation. Mitigation strategies are studied to promote innovative, multimodal and clean transports and services. Research progress is reported on air pollution, vibrations and noise, their mitigation and assessment methodologies.

Cost, weight and size reduction constrained designers of power electronic for micro hybrid vehicle to use power MOSFET under extreme conditions like avalanche mode. This paper shows the influence of the solder voids onto the die temperature distribution of a specifically designed power MOSFET. In the first part of this paper, a methodology is presented to perform fast dynamic temperature measurements during MOSFET avalanche (400 A–80 μs). In the second part of the paper, a comparison between experimental results and finite elements electro-thermal simulation is shown for power MOSFET operating in high conduction mode (500 A–100 ms). Finally the correlated numerical model is used to evaluate the sensitivity to solder voids of the chip temperature distribution.

The implementation of Fuel Cell (FC) systems in transportation systems, as aircrafts, requires some better understanding and mastering of the new generator behaviours in low temperature environments. To this end, a PEMFC stack is tested and characterised in a climatic chamber. The impacts of the low temperatures over different FC operation and start-up conditions are estimated using a specific test bench developed in-lab. Some descriptions concerning the test facilities and the experimental set-up are given in the paper, as well as some information about the test procedures applied. Some examples of test results are shown and analysed. The experiments are derived from aircraft requirements and are related with different scenarios of airplane operation. Finally, some assessments concerning the FC system behaviour in low temperature conditions are made, especially with regard to the constraints to be encountered by the next embedded FC generators.

Hybridization of power sources for embedded applications becomes an interesting solution to respect environmental legislation and achieve a higher energy efficiency. However, the choice for components sizing and the energy management strategy need to meet specifications while reducing costs. To solve this optimization problems including several types of variables can be complex because of non linearities included in the formulated problem. Therefore the use of effective solving tools, able to provide a reliable solution, is required. In this thesis, a global optimization method is proposed for the design and the optimal control of hybrid vehicles based on combinatorial optimization, particularly on integer linear programming. From a non-linear optimization problem, the initial problem is reformulated into a multitude of integer linear sub-problems for which a parallel Branch & Bound algorithm is executed. In order to solve large-scale problems, a second algorithm based on the Branch & Cut is developed. This method is used for the study of a hybrid power supply system of a mini-excavator electric. The optimization problem, where energy constraints and aging constraints are implemented, is evaluated according to several parameters and specifications. Finally, this approach is also applied for the optimization of trajectories for a synchronized multi-actuators system., L'hybridation des sources de puissance dans le domaine des applications embarquées s'est imposée comme une solution adéquate pour répondre aux législations environnementales et atteindre une meilleure efficacité énergétique. Toutefois, le choix dans le dimensionnement des composants et la stratégie de commande doivent répondre à un cahier des charges, souvent complexe et hétérogène, tout en limitant les coûts du système. La résolution de ce problème d'optimisation incluant de nombreuses variables peut s'avérer complexe à cause des non-linéarités présentes dans le problème formulé. Il faut donc disposer d'outils de résolution efficaces et capables de fournir une solution fiable. Dans cette thèse, nous proposons une méthode d'optimisation globale pour le dimensionnement et la commande optimale de véhicules hybrides basée sur l'optimisation combinatoire, et en particulier sur la programmation linéaire en nombres entiers (PLNE). A partir d'un problème d'optimisation non linéaire, le problème initial est reformulé en une multitude de sous-problèmes linéaires en nombres entiers sur lesquels un algorithme de Branch & Bound parallèle est exécuté. Afin de résoudre des problèmes de grande taille, un second algorithme basé sur le Branch & Cut est développé. Cette méthode est déployée pour l'étude d'un système d'alimentation hybride d'une mini-excavatrice électrique. Le problème d'optimisation, dans lequel des contraintes énergétiques et des contraintes de vieillissement sont implantées, est évalué suivant différents paramètres du cahier des charges. Enfin, cette approche est également appliquée pour l'optimisation de trajectoires d'un système multi-actionneur synchronisés.

On-going oil stock depletion and growing environmental concerns lead automakers to develop more efficient powertrains. Today, one of the most promising way forward consists in research on hybrid systems. The present work is focused on thermal/electric hybridization for HEV vehicle and presents an optimal methodology to identify key guidelines and design efficient systems. Defining the most promising efficient powertrain requires a systemic design which is based in this study on three main levers : powertrain architecture, energy management and electric components design. Different powertrains architectures are compared to the lowest fuel consumption that can be reached by each powertrain for a given driving cycle. Their optimal energetic performances are determined by using optimal control strategies and dynamic programming. The simulations results show that the most promising hybrid powertrain is the parallel one. At each step of time of the drivings cycles, the parallel hybrid powertrain behavior is more closely analyzed so as to provide technical specifications for an optimal sizing of the electric components. It points out the operating point and the driving cycles for which the electric machine has to be optimized. Two electric machines topologies derived from a starter-alternator architecture, are modeled by using reluctance network to provide losses map and compare CO2 saving of the vehicle. This approach has both identified areas for powertrain architecture improvement and components design optimization to achieve a better global efficiency of the system. It is shown that a starter-alternator could provide 33% of CO2 saving compared to a conventional car.; Les préoccupations environnementales croissantes et la raréfaction des énergies fossiles amènent les constructeurs automobiles à proposer des véhicules efficients hybridant des chaînes de traction conventionnelles. Ces travaux de recherche sont focalisés sur l'hybridation thermique/électrique. Ils présentent une méthodologie de conception optimale pour identifier des voies de progrès et orienter la définition de futures chaînes de traction à haut rendement énergétique. Ils sont basés sur une démarche d'ingénierie systémique qui s'appuie sur trois principaux leviers: l'architecture de la chaîne de traction, la stratégie de gestion énergétique et la définition des organes électriques de puissance. Différentes architectures de chaînes de traction hybrides électriques sont comparées en se basant sur la consommation minimale atteignable par chacune d'entre elles sur cycles automobiles. Pour déterminer ces seuils de consommation, une stratégie de commande optimale basée sur un algorithme de programmation dynamique est développée. Les résultats montrent l'intérêt de l'hybridation parallèle pour concevoir une chaîne de traction efficiente.Les sollicitations des organes électriques de puissance sont déterminées et analysées pour en spécifier le dimensionnement optimal. Deux structures de machines électriques ont été modélisées par réseaux de réluctances pour établir des cartographies de pertes et comparer la performance en émissions de CO2 du véhicule. Cette approche permet d'identifier des axes d'améliorations et on montre qu'une solution de type alterno-démarreur permettrait des gains d'environ 33% en émissions de CO2 par rapport au véhicule conventionnel.

Hybrid vehicles are developing with increasing use of energy storage elements based on lithium-ion battery. In this context, the use of battery is atypical and highly dependent on energy allocation strategies within the vehicle. Among these vehicles, the mild hybrid category retains heat engine for the autonomy that offer and adds to it an electric machine associated with a reversible storage system, to allow the kinetic energy recovery of the vehicle. The object of this work involves the development of algorithms for determining the states of charge (SoC) and health (SoH) and function (SoF) of each cell that compose a lithium-ion battery pack. These features are implemented in a Battery Management System (BMS) for industrial production. In order to reduce production costs, our work attempts to limit the computing power and the measuring sensors necessary for these states determination. From battery measurements in a "mild hybrid" use, developed methods allow the states determination, as well as some of the internal parameters of cells. This application is characterized by high currents and maintaining a SoC of around 50%, in order to maximize the availability of the battery and to minimize aging. The use of observers and estimators, using a simplified model cell, allows us to achieve satisfactory results with a reduced computing power, Les véhicules hybrides se démocratisent avec une utilisation croissante des éléments de stockage à base de lithium-ion. Dans ce contexte d'exploitation, le type d'usage est atypique et dépend fortement des stratégies de répartition des énergies au sein du véhicule. Parmi les hybridations, la catégorie "mild hybrid" conserve la motorisation thermique pour l'autonomie qu'elle apporte, et lui adjoint une machine électrique associée à un élément de stockage réversible, afin de permettre une récupération de l'énergie cinétique du véhicule. L'objet de ces travaux porte sur la mise en place d'algorithmes destinés à la détermination des états de charge (SoC), de santé (SoH) et de fonction (SoF) de chacune des cellules qui compose un pack batterie lithium-ion. Ces fonctionnalités sont implantées dans un système de gestion dénommé BMS pour Battery Management System. Dans un souci de réduction des coûts de production, nos travaux s'attachent à limiter la puissance de calcul et les moyens de mesure nécessaires à la détermination de ces états. À partir de mesures effectuées lors d'une utilisation de la batterie dans une application "mild hybrid", les méthodes développées permettent la détermination des états, ainsi que d'une partie des paramètres internes aux cellules. Cette utilisation est caractérisée par de forts courants et un maintien de l'état de charge autour de 50 %, ceci afin de maximiser la disponibilité de la batterie et d'en minimiser le vieillissement. L'utilisation d'observateurs et de méthodes en boucle ouverte, à partir d'une modélisation simplifiée de cellule, nous permet d'obtenir des résultats satisfaisants avec une puissance de calcul réduite

EVER 2015 - Tenth International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies, MONACO, MONACO, 31-/03/2015 - 02/04/2015; International audience; Li-ion batteries are continually developed for a wide range of use. New variants appear on the market, including Li-ion technologies that allow supplying very high electrical power. By consequence, the battery can be used as an energy buffer in vehicles. The autonomy is limited and it is necessary to determine the State of Charge of each element that makes up a battery, although these elements (Li-ion cells) are never fully discharged or charged. In this unusual context, a solution may be to use a Kalman filter at the cost of significant computing power. More computation-wise economical observers can beings used, in particular Luenberger observers. The results obtained for this type of specific use, give similar final results, with a significant gain on the computing power required.

Innovatives "Voiture du Futur", PARIS, FRANCE, 31-/03/2015 - 31/03/2015; Le contexte législatif et réglementaire européen vise à limiter le bruit environnemental auquel la population est exposée. Les Îhicules électriques (VE) et hybrides (VH) sont une solution possible pour réduire le bruit de trafic. On assiste à une croissance du parc de ces Îhicules, et l'amélioration de leur autonomie conduit à les rencontrer en dehors des villes. Objectifs : Surtout étudié à ce jour en contexte urbain pour des préoccupations sécuritaires liées au faible bruit, l'impact sonore de ces Îhicules doit encore être exploré sur les réseaux nationaux. Outre une description de l'émission de bruit, le projet FOREVER avait pour objet de déterminer les données d'entrée nécessaires à leur prise en compte dans les modèles européens d'évaluation du bruit, et d'établir des prévisions sonores en fonction de l'évolution du parc électromobile. Résultats : Des mesures effectuées sur quelques Îhicules (légers ou de moyen tonnage) électriques ou hybrides ont permis de caractériser leur émission sonore à différentes allures. En comparaison aux Îhicules thermiques classiques, le bruit de propulsion des VE est significativement réduit en dessous de 40-50 km/h. La sollicitation du moteur électrique en récupération d'énergie amène une contribution sonore en décélération et freinage. Les pneumatiques « écologiques » ou ceux spécifiques aux VE ne semblent pas réduire le bruit de roulement. Conclusions : La réduction importante du bruit de propulsion aux vitesses urbaines se traduit par un bénéfice faible - voire négligeable - sur le bruit de trafic, occultée par la présence des Îhicules thermiques conventionnels. Sur les réseaux nationaux, l'effet est notable uniquement dans les zones à vitesse limitée ou en situation de congestion. Aux autres vitesses, une réduction du bruit ne pourra résulter que d'une baisse future du bruit de roulement.

TRB 94th Annual Meeting Compendium of Papers , WASHINGTON DC, ETATS-UNIS, 11-/01/2015 - 15/01/2015; This article attempts to review the multi-scale modeling concept as an adaptive strategy in traffic flow modeling. The central objective of multi-scale model is to describe and predict traffic phenomena (e.g. individual accelerations, queuing) that occur at different scales by switching between different modeling paradigms. Particular emphasis in this paper is placed on resolving inconsistencies that arise in the process of integrating models, which we address by applying the so-called mesoscopic LWR model (Lighthill, Whitham and Richards model (1,2) as the coarse scale model in our framework. The mesoscopic model is fully consistent at the macroscopic scale with the classic LWR model but it does facilitate tracking of individual vehicles. This characteristic makes it possible to combine this model with microscopic models because there essentially is no disaggregation/aggregation process needed. This implies that for example travel infonnation (e.g. destination) can be carried over this model without loss of infonnation. Also vehicle heterogeneity can be incorporated in the mesoscopic model and as a result preserved in the process of switching between models. The paper provides a brief ovetview of mesoscopic LWR model and its solution by the Variational theory. General boundary condition including internal boundaries (e.g. moving bottlenecks) and interfaces between models are analyzed and evaluated. Furthennore, the solution of some cases, in which the stationary and moving bottlenecks interact, is provided. The paper concludes with a case study that demonstrates the integration of microscopic and mesoscopic models in a multi-scale model and investigate the influence of various boundary conditions on traffic features.

The project FOREVER aims primarily to provide data and information on the potential future noise impacts of electric vehicles on national roads. Work Package 2 (WP2) of the project is intended to identify the noise emission levels from electric and hybrid-electric vehicles. This involves a review of the state-of-the-art in vehicle noise evaluation methods and how these can be applied to electric vehicles, considering the issue from the perspective of operation in controlled conditions rather than just strict type-approval conditions. The study includes practical testing carried out on a range of electric and hybrid-electric vehicles to determine noise emission levels. The objective is to derive input data for use within noise prediction models such as CNOSSOS-EU. Two vehicle categories, light and medium heavy vehicles, are considered in the study which focuses entirely on external noise. The noise impacts from the perspective of human listeners, e.g. communities near national road ways, were also considered through a series of subjective participant trials. These studies investigated how the change in the character of noise emission of electric vehicles is perceived by human listeners. A system of perceptual dimensions similar to past research was used to assess the noise emission of electric vehicles.