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We report on a very compact desk-top transmission extreme ultraviolet (EUV) microscope based on a laser-plasma source with a double stream gas-puff target, capable of acquiring magnified images of objects with a spatial (half-pitch) resolution of sub-50 nm. A multilayer ellipsoidal condenser is used to focus and spectrally narrow the radiation from the plasma, producing a quasi-monochromatic EUV radiation (λ = 13.8 nm) illuminating the object, whereas a Fresnel zone plate objective forms the image. Design details, development, characterization and optimization of the EUV source and the microscope are described and discussed. Test object and other samples were imaged to demonstrate superior resolution compared to visible light microscopy.

Over the last decades, remarkable efforts have been made to improve the resolution in photon-based microscopes. The employment of compact sources based on table-top laser-produced soft X-ray (SXR) in the “water window” spectral range (λ = 2.3–4.4 nm) and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) plasma allowed to overcome the limitations imposed by large facilities, such as synchrotrons and X-ray free electron lasers (XFEL), because of their high complexity, costs, and limited user access. A laser-plasma double stream gas-puff target source represents a powerful tool for microscopy operating in transmission mode, significantly improving the spatial resolution into the nanometric scale, comparing to the traditional visible light (optical) microscopes. Such an approach allows generating the plasma efficiently, without debris, providing a high flux of EUV and SXR photons. In this review, we present the development and optimization of desktop imaging systems: a EUV and an SXR full field microscope, allowing to achieve a sub-50 nm spatial resolution with short exposure time and an SXR contact microscope, capable to resolve internal structures in a thin layer of sensitive photoresist. Details about the source, as well as imaging results for biological applications, will be presented and discussed.

An Nd:YAG pulsed laser was employed to irradiate a nitrogen gas-puff target. The interaction gives rise to the emission of soft X-ray (SXR) radiation in the ‘water window’ spectral range (λ= 2.3÷4.4 nm). This source was already successfully employed to perform the SXR microscopy. In this work, a Silicon Carbide (SiC) detector was used to characterize the nitrogen plasma emission in terms of gas-puff target parameters. The measurements show applicability of SiC detectors for SXR plasma characterization.

Application of a compact laser plasma source of soft X-rays and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) in imaging with nanometer resolution is demonstrated. The source is based on a gas puff target irradiated with nanosecond laser pulses from a small commercial Nd:YAG laser. Soft X-ray radiation in the ‘water window’ spectral range and EUV near 10 nm are generated efficiently without production of target debris. Nanoscale imaging of biological samples as well as micro- and nanostructures using transmission soft X-ray and EUV microscopy based on Fresnel optics and soft X-ray contact microscopy is demonstrated.

A laser-plasma double stream gas-puff target source coupled with Fresnel zone plate (FZP) optics, operating at He-like nitrogen spectral line λ=2.88nm, is capable of acquire complementary information in respect to optical and electron microscopy, allowing to obtain high resolution imaging, compared to the traditional visible light microscopes, with an exposition time of a few seconds. The compact size and versatility of the microscope offers the possibility to perform imaging experiments in the university laboratories, previously restricted to large-scale photon facilities. Source and microscope optimization, and examples of applications will be presented and discussed.

A compact, desktop size microscope, based on laser-plasma source and equipped with reflective condenser and diffractive Fresnel zone plate objective, operating in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) region at the wavelength of 13.8 nm, was developed. The microscope is capable of capturing magnified images of objects with 95-nm full-pitch spatial resolution (48 nm 25–75% KE) and exposure time as low as a few seconds, combining reasonable acquisition conditions with stand-alone desktop footprint. Such EUV microscope can be regarded as a complementary imaging tool to already existing, well-established ones. Details about the microscope, characterization, resolution estimation and real sample images are presented and discussed.

A silicon carbide (SiC) detector was calibrated in terms of quantum efficiency (QE) as well as its spectral responsivity at two different wavelength radiations ( $\lambda _{N_{2}} = 2.88$ nm and $\lambda _{N_{e}}= 1.35$ nm), using two different calibrated Si detectors, sensitive to the soft X-ray radiation ( $\lambda = 0.1\div 10$ nm). An Nd:YAG laser was employed to irradiate a nitrogen and a neon gas-puff target, producing a plasma, which is emitting radiation used for estimation of the detector parameters. A possibility to characterize a new generation of not commercial SiC detectors, with a higher band gap with respect to Si, employing a gas-puff target source, will be presented. Measurements show the SiC detectors QE, equal to 3.4 and 7.1 e/ph for 2.88- and 1.35-nm wavelength radiations, respectively. Calculations and results are reported and discussed.

A compact microscope based on nitrogen double stream gas puff target soft X-ray source, which emits radiation in the water-window spectral range, at the wavelength of λ = 2.88 nm, is presented. The microscope, employing ellipsoidal grazing incidence condenser and a Fresnel zone plate objective, is capable of capturing images with a 60 nm spatial resolution and exposure time as low as a few seconds. Examples of different applications of the SXR microscopy, and its applicability for various fields of science, are presented and discussed.

We present our recent results, related to nanoscale imaging in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and soft X-ray (SXR) spectral ranges and demonstrate three novel imaging systems recently developed for the purpose of obtaining high spatial resolution images of nanoscale objects with the EUV and SXR radiations. All the systems are based on laser-plasma EUV and SXR sources, employing a double stream gas puff target. The EUV and SXR full field microscopes—operating at 13.8 nm and 2.88 nm wavelengths, respectively—are currently capable of imaging nanostructures with a sub-50 nm spatial resolution with relatively short (seconds) exposure times. The third system is a SXR contact microscope, operating in the “water-window” spectral range (2.3–4.4 nm wavelength), to produce an imprint of the internal structure of the investigated object in a thin surface layer of SXR light sensitive poly(methyl methacrylate) photoresist. The development of such compact imaging systems is essential to the new research related to biological science, material science, and nanotechnology applications in the near future. Applications of all the microscopes for studies of biological samples including carcinoma cells, diatoms, and neurons are presented. Details about the sources, the microscopes, as well as the imaging results for various objects will be shown and discussed.

In the last 30 years much effort was made in order to develop compact laser-produced plasma sources emitting short wavelength radiation, from the soft X-ray (SXR, λ = 0.1–10 nm), especially in the so-called “water window” (λ = 2.3–4.4 nm) and in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV, λ = 10–120 nm) spectral ranges. Investigations in the nanometer scale, employing short wavelengths, drive the need for developing table-top microscopes, to overpass the limitations imposed by large facilities, such as their high complexity, maintenance costs and the limited user access. In this paper we present our recent results related to nanoscale imaging using such table-top and desk-top EUV/SXR microscopes. Their construction is based on a double stream gas puff target laser plasma source. The double stream gas puff target EUV and SXR sources, coupled with Fresnel zone plates (FZPs) represent a suitable platform for microscopy experiments in transmission mode, employing SXR and EUV radiation. It represents a possible complementary technique to synchrotrons and free-electron laser facilities. The sources, which are very easy to be used by a single user, allow for efficient generation of plasma radiation with high SXR/EUV flux. Presented herein compact microscopes, based on that source, allow one to capture SXR and EUV images of various samples, with 50–60 nm half-pitch spatial resolution (corresponding to a Rayleigh resolution of 100–120 nm) and exposure time of the order of few seconds. Thus, herein, we would like to present our recent developments and progress in compact desk-top SXR/EUV microscopy employing laser plasma gas puff target sources, showing examples of acquired images and possible applications.

A compact size microscope based on nitrogen double stream gas puff target soft X-ray source, which emits radiation in water-window spectral range at the wavelength of λ = 2.88 nm is presented. The microscope employs ellipsoidal grazing incidence condenser mirror for sample illumination and silicon nitride Fresnel zone plate objective for object magnification and imaging. The microscope is capable of capturing water-window images of objects with 60 nm spatial resolution and exposure time as low as a few seconds. Details about the microscopy system as well as some examples of different applications from various fields of science, are presented and discussed.

Using a table-top size soft X-ray (SXR) microscope, based on a laser plasma source with a double stream gas-puff target and a Fresnel zone plate objective, series of images of test samples were acquired. Characterization and optimization of the acquisition parameters were studied and evaluated in terms of signal to noise ratio (SNR). Conclusions for the optimization of SXR imaging were reached. Similar SNR measurements might be performed to characterize other SXR imaging systems as well. Software enabling live calculation of the SNR during the image acquisition might be introduced in future in the compact imaging systems for optimal image acquisition or for benchmarking purposes.

In this work we present three experimental, compact desk-top imaging systems: SXR and EUV full field microscopes and the SXR contact microscope. The systems are based on laser-plasma EUV and SXR sources based on a double stream gas puff target. The EUV and SXR full field microscopes, operating at 13.8 nm and 2.88 nm wavelengths are capable of imaging nanostructures with a sub-50 nm spatial resolution and short (seconds) exposure times. The SXR contact microscope operates in the “water-window” spectral range and produces an imprint of the internal structure of the imaged sample in a thin layer of SXR sensitive photoresist. Applications of such desk-top EUV and SXR microscopes, mostly for biological samples (CT26 fibroblast cells and Keratinocytes) are also presented. Details about the sources, the microscopes as well as the imaging results for various objects will be presented and discussed. The development of such compact imaging systems may be important to the new research related to biological, material science and nanotechnology applications.

Laser plasma sources of soft x-rays an d extreme ultraviolet (EUV) developed in our laboratory for application in various areas of technology and science are presented. The sources are based on a laser-irradiated gas puff target approach. The targets formed by pulsed injection of gas under high-pressure are irradiated with nanosecond laser pulses from Nd:YAG lasers. We use commercial lasers generating pulses with time duration from 1ns to 10ns and energies from 0.5J to 10J at 10Hz repetition rate. The gas puff targets are produced using a double valve system equipped with a special nozzle to form a double-stream gas puff target which secures high conversion efficiency without degradation of the nozzle. The use of a gas puff target instead of a solid target makes generation of laser plasmas emitting soft x-rays and EUV possible without target debris production. The sources are equipped with various optical systems, including grazing incidence axisymmetric ellipsoidal mirrors, a “lobster eye” type grazing incidence multi-foil mirror, and an ellipsoidal mirror with Mo/Si multilayer coating, to collect so ft x-ray and EUV radiation and form the radiation beams. In this paper new applications of these sources in various fields, including soft x-ray and EUV imaging in nanoscale, EUV radiography and tomography, EUV materials processing and modification of polymer surfaces, EUV photoionization of gases, radiobiology and soft x-ray contact microscopy are reviewed. Keywords: laser plasmas, soft x-rays, extreme ultraviolet (EUV), laser plasma soft x-ray and EUV sources, soft x-ray microscopy, EUV radiography and tomography, EUV processing materials, radiobiology, soft x-ray contact microscopy, EUV photo-ionized plasmas

Radiation with shorter illumination wavelength allows for extension of the diffraction limit towards nanometer scale, which is a straightforward way to significantly improve a spatial resolution in photon based microscopes. Soft X-ray (SXR) radiation, from the so called ”water window” spectral range, λ=2.3-4.4 nm, which is particularly suitable for biological imaging due to natural optical contrast, providing much better spatial resolution than one obtained with visible light microscopes. The high contrast is obtained because of selective absorption of radiation by carbon and water, being constituents of the biological samples. We present a desk-top system, capable of resolving 60 nm features in few seconds exposure time. We exploit the advantages of a compact, laser-plasma SXR source, based on a double stream nitrogen gas puff target, developed at the Institute of Optoelectronics, Military University of Technology. The source, emitting quasi-monochromatic, incoherent radiation, in the “water widow” spectral range at λ = 2.88 nm, is coupled with ellipsoidal, grazing incidence condenser and Fresnel zone plate objective. The construction of the microscope with some recent images of test and real samples will be presented and discussed.

The wavelength diffraction limit, described by the Rayleigh criterion, can be overcome if short wavelength radiations are employed, thus it is possible to resolve smaller features by the use of radiation in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and soft X-ray (SXR) spectral ranges. In particular way, radiation from the “water window” spectral range, which extends between K-absorption edges of carbon and oxygen (280÷540 eV), could be used in order to obtain high-contrast biological imaging. Laser-plasma double stream gas puff target source is suitable for SXR microscopy in the “water window” spectral range, which recently allowed to develop a system, operating at He-like nitrogen spectral line λ=2.88 nm, which permits to obtain images with half-pitch spatial resolution of ∼ 60 nm, exposure time as low as a few seconds and represents an important alternative for high resolution imaging for biomedical applications, material science and nanotechnology using a very compact laser source. The goal of measurements, presented herein, is to show SXR images of various biological samples, proving high contrast in the “water window” and characterize in more detail such compact microscopy system, based on a laser plasma source with a double stream gas puff target and a Fresnel zone plate (FZP) objective. The influence of various acquisition parameters on the quality of the obtained SXR images, expressed in terms of a signal-to-noise (SNR) will be demonstrated. Moreover, because the measurements are performed on SXR images, similar measurements might be performed as a benchmark in order to characterize different imaging systems as well.

A compact, desktop size, microscope, based on nitrogen double-stream gas puff target soft X-ray source, which emits radiation in water window spectral range at the wavelength of λ = 2.88 nm, is demonstrated. The microscope employs ellipsoidal grazing incidence condenser mirror for sample illumination and Fresnel zone plate objective. The microscope is capable of capturing magnified images of objects with 60 nm spatial resolution and exposure time as low as a few seconds. Details about the source and the microscope as well as a few examples of different applications are presented and discussed.

Microscopes operating at short wavelengths, in the extreme ultraviolet and soft x-ray spectral region, require careful condenser positioning to avoid possible artifacts related to enhancing or diminishing certain spatial frequencies in the image plane. Various methods are often used to visualize the condenser illumination pattern, including direct visualization on a CCD camera; however, these are not always straightforward to use. We present and discuss a novel and convenient method to image a condenser illumination pattern upstream the sample plane, using two zone plates with matched numerical apertures. This imaging system, operating herein in the water-window spectral range in telescope configuration, allows us to change the distance between the conjugated planes, thus overcoming limitations related to the geometry of the vacuum system. This geometry, which is optimized for the highest possible spatial resolution allowed by the zone-plate objective, is not necessarily particularly good for visualization of the condenser illumination pattern. The presented method was demonstrated with a compact, gas puff target source based soft x-ray microscope, which is capable of resolving 60 nm features (half-pitch resolution), requires a few seconds exposure time, and is debris-free due to the gaseous nature of the target for soft x-ray generation. The method, presented herein, may solve mentioned vacuum system geometry limitations. Also, it can easily be extended to other systems and other wavelengths, provided a proper optic is used. Modes of operation and the results are presented and discussed.

In this work we present recent results on nanoscale imaging in the extreme ultraviolet and soft X-ray spectral ranges, describing three novel imaging systems dedicated for high spatial resolution imaging of nanoscale objects with the extreme ultraviolet and soft X-ray radiations. The extreme ultraviolet and soft X-ray full field microscopes operate at 13.8 nm and 2.88 nm wavelengths and are capable of imaging of nanostructures with a sub-50 nm spatial resolution. A soft X-ray contact microscope operates in the “water-window” spectral range from 2.3 to 4.4 nm wavelength, to obtain images of an internal structure of the investigated object in a thin surface layer of soft X-ray light sensitive photoresist. The development of such compact imaging systems may, in the near future, be important from the point of view of new research related to biological, material science, and nanotechnology applications. Such preliminary applications are also shown in the studies of biological samples, including carcinoma cells, diatoms, and neurons.

In this work we present experimental, compact desk-top SXR microscope, the EUV microscope which is at this stage a technology demonstrator, and finally, the SXR contact microscope. The systems are based on laser-plasma EUV and SXR sources, employing a double stream gas puff target. The EUV and SXR full field microscopes, operating at 13.8 nm and 2.88 nm wavelengths, respectively, are capable of imaging nanostructures with a sub-50 nm spatial resolution with relatively short (seconds) exposure times. The SXR contact microscope operates in the "water-window" spectral range, to produce an imprint of the internal structure of the sample in a thin layer of SXR light sensitive photoresist. Applications of such desk-top EUV and SXR microscopes for studies of variety of different samples - test objects for resolution assessment and other objects such as carbon membranes, DNA plasmid samples, organic and inorganic thin layers, diatoms, algae and carcinoma cells, are also presented. Details about the sources, the microscopes as well as the imaging results for various objects will be presented and discussed. The development of such compact imaging systems may be important to the new research related to biological, material science and nanotechnology applications.