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Based on effective field method, the dynamic effective elastic modulus of polymer matrix composites embedded with dense piezoelectric nano-fibers is obtained, and the interacting effect of piezoelectric surfaces/interfaces around the nano-fibers is considered. The multiple scattering effects of harmonic anti-plane shear waves between the piezoelectric nano-fibers with surface/interface are averaged by effective field method. To analyze the interacting results among the random nano-fibers, the problem of two typical piezoelectric nano-fibers is introduced by employing the addition theorem of Bessel functions. Through numerical calculations, the influence of the distance between the randomly distributed piezoelectric nano-fibers under different surface/interface parameters is analyzed. The effect of piezoelectric property of surface/interface on the effective shear modulus under different volume fractions is also examined. Comparison with the simplified cases is given to validate this dynamic electro-elastic model.

For a nano-sized piezoelectric film, the surface free energy at the surface/interface will exert great effect on the behavior of nano-sized piezoelectric structures. This paper concerns the effect of surface free energy at the surface/interface of square nanofibers on the electro-mechanical behavior of a piezoelectric thin film under anti-plane shear. Combining the electro-elastic surface/interface theory, the mapping method and the generalized self-consistent method, a closed-form solution of the effective electro-elastic moduli is obtained. Numerical examples are given to illustrate quantitatively the macro-effective electro-elastic moduli under different surfaces/interfaces when the size of the square nanofibers is on the order of nanometer. The effect of shape of square nanofibers on the effective electro-elastic moduli is also examined.

Dopaminergic mechanisms in the subthalamic nucleus (STN) are implicated in the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease. Here, electrophysiological responses of STN neurons to dopamine (DA) were investigated by using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in the rat brain slice preparation. Under current-clamp, DA depolarized membrane potential and increased the frequency of spontaneous action potentials of STN neurons. Under voltage-clamp, DA (3-300 microM) produced a reversible concentration-dependent inward current (I(DA); 6-40 pA) with an EC(50) of 13 microM. This DA-induced current had a negative slope conductance which reversed at -102 mV. It was partially reduced by barium and by superfusion with an elevated concentration of extracellular K(+). Moreover, TTX and glutamate receptor antagonists (CNQX and AP5) did not significantly affect the DA responses, indicating that I(DA) is not dependent upon afferent synaptic activity in the STN. Quinpirole, a D(2) receptor agonist, mimicked the DA action more effectively than did the D(1) agonist SKF-38393. The D(2) antagonist sulpiride, but not the D(1) antagonist SCH-23390, blocked responses induced by DA. Intracellular application of G-protein inhibitor GDP-beta-S also suppressed I(DA). GTP-gamma-S, added to the pipette solution, evoked a sustained inward shift in the absence of DA. These results suggest that DA increases the activity of STN neurons via activation of G-protein-coupled D(2)-like receptors which reduce a K(+) conductance.

(−)-Stepholidine (SPD), an active ingredient of the Chinese herb Stephania, is a dopamine D1 receptor agonist and a D2 receptor antagonist. The dual actions of SPD have been demonstrated in both cortical and subcortical structures, including the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area and basal ganglia dopamine systems. D1 receptor dysfunction in the mPFC and D2 receptor hyperactivity in the subcortex are thought to occur in sufferers of schizophrenia. Thus, the dual effects of SPD suggest that this compound might represent a novel antipsychotic agent.

The present studies investigated the effects of L-deprenyl, 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion (MPP+) and 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) on the efflux of dopamine and its metabolites in microdialysates of striatum and nucleus accumbens in rats. L-Deprenyl or L-amphetamine perfusion into striatum had no effects on basal dopamine efflux, though L-deprenyl reduced the basal efflux of dihydroxyphenylacetic acid and homovanillic acid. MPP+ or MPTP perfusion into striatum significantly increased the dopamine efflux, and the action of MPTP was more potent than that of MPP+. Pretreatment with L-deprenyl antagonized the actions of MPP+ and MPTP. The striatal dopamine efflux of rats was gradually restored by itself after the overflow caused by 2-h perfusion of the dopaminergic neurotoxins, while L-deprenyl could not accelerate the recovery. Perfusion with L-deprenyl or L-amphetamine, but not pargyline, into nucleus accumbens increased the dopamine efflux in a dose-dependent fashion, which could be antagonized by haloperidol pretreatment. MPP+ or MPTP perfusion into nucleus accumbens also increased the dopamine efflux, and the action of MPTP was also more potent than that of MPP+. Pretreatment with L-deprenyl could not antagonize the actions of MPP+ and MPTP. These findings suggest that L-deprenyl, MPP+ and MPTP induce differential effects on nigrostriatal and mesolimbic dopaminergic pathways in vivo. L-Deprenyl has neuroprotective rather than neurorestorative action against MPP+- and MPTP-induced dopamine overflow from striatum. Further, L-deprenyl-induced dopamine overflow from nucleus accumbens may explain the amphetamine-like reinforcing property of L-deprenyl.

Tyramine, an endogenous ligand for mammalian trace amine-associated receptors, may act as a neuromodulator that regulates neuronal activity in basal ganglia. Using whole-cell patch recordings of subthalamic nucleus (STN) neurons in rat brain slices, we found that bath application of tyramine evoked an inward current in voltage-clamp in over 60% of all STN neurons. The inward current induced by tyramine was mimicked by the D(2)-like dopamine receptor agonist quinpirole, but was only partially blocked by the D(2)-like receptor antagonist sulpiride. In contrast, the D(1)-like receptor agonist SKF38393 evoked no current in STN neurons. Inward current evoked by tyramine was significantly reduced by the catecholamine uptake inhibitor nomifensine, and by exhausting catecholamines in the brain via pretreatment with reserpine. Tyramine also reduced the amplitude of GABA(A) receptor-mediated IPSCs that were evoked by focal electrical stimulation of the slice. Inhibition of IPSCs by tyramine was mimicked by quinpirole and was blocked by sulpiride but not by SCH23390, a D(1) receptor antagonist. Moreover, tyramine-induced inhibition of IPSCs was reduced in slices pretreated with reserpine, and this inhibition could be restored by briefly superfusing the slice with dopamine. These results suggest that tyramine acts as an indirect dopamine agonist in the STN. Although inhibition of IPSCs is mediated by D(2)-like receptors, the dopamine-dependent inward currents evoked by tyramine do not fit a typical dopamine receptor pharmacological profile.

Previous studies have shown that N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor stimulation evokes Ca2+- and Na+-dependent burst firing in subthalamic nucleus (STN) neurons. Using whole-cell patch pipettes to record currents under voltage-clamp, we identified a time-dependent depolarization-activated inward current (DIC) that may underlie NMDA-induced burst firing in STN neurons in rat brain slices. Continuous superfusion with NMDA (20 microM) elicited a marked TTX-insensitive inward current when the membrane was depolarized to the level of -70 or -50 mV, from a holding potential of -100 mV. This current had a long duration, and its peak amplitude occurred at a test potential of -60 mV. DIC could not be evoked using the non-NMDA receptor agonist D,L-alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxalone-4-propionic acid (AMPA). DIC was blocked by either intracellular BAPTA or by removal of extracellular Ca2+, but selective blockers of T-type (mibefradil), L-type (nifedipine) and N-type (omega-conotoxin GVIA) Ca2+ channels did not. Perfusing slices with a low extracellular concentration of sodium abolished the NMDA-induced DIC, implying that both Ca2+ and Na+ are necessary for the expression of DIC. Transient receptor potential (TRP) channel blockers flufenamic acid and SKF96365 severely reduced DIC amplitude, whereas NMDA-gated currents were either increased or were unchanged. These results suggest that the activation of NMDA receptors enhances a Ca2+-activated non-selective cation current that may be mediated by a member of the TRP channel family in STN neurons.

To investigate the possibility whether THPB-18 (l-12-shloroscoulerine) possesses the D1 agonist-D2 antagonist action on meso-accumbens-mPFC DA system.Single unit spontaneous firing activity was recorded in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) neurons of naive and unilateral-6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-lesioned Sprague-Dawley rats. The effects of drugs applied intravenously or iontophoretically were determined by the change of firing rates.Under normal conditions, the systemic administration of THPB-18 produced a decrease-increase biphasic firing pattern in the NAc neurons during cumulative doses. High dose of THPB-18 was capable of reversing the inhibition induced by both D2 agonist LY171555 and D1/D2 agonist APO on NAc firing activity. Spiperone pretreatment could not block the high dose of THPB-18-induced firing rate increase, which was reversed by the D1 selective antagonist SCH23390. The tested NAc neurons were effectively inhibited by iontophoretically applied THPB-18 in 90 % of 6-OHDA-lesioned rats, while THPB-18 caused variable effects on the firing of NAc neurons in the neurons of unlesioned rats. The inhibitory effect of THPB-18 was blocked by iontophoretic application of SCH23390, but not D2 antagonist spiperone.Similar to L-stepholidine, THPB-18 also possesses the D1 agonistic-D2 antagonistic dual action on the VTA-NAc DA system.

We used whole-cell patch recordings in current clamp to investigate the ionic dependence of burst firing induced by N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) in neurons of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) in slices of rat brain. NMDA (20 microm) converted single-spike firing to burst firing in 87% of STN neurons tested. NMDA-induced bursting was blocked by AP5 (50 microm), and was not mimicked by the non-NMDA receptor agonist AMPA (0.6 microm). Tetrodotoxin (1 microm) converted bursts to oscillations of membrane potential, which were most robust when oscillations ranged between -50 and -70 mV. The NMDA bursts were blocked by an elevated extracellular concentration of Mg(2+), but superfusate containing no added Mg(2+) either reduced or increased burst firing, depending upon the amount of intracellular current injection. Block of K(+) conductances by apamin and tetraethylammonium prolonged burst duration, but iberiotoxin had no effect. NMDA-induced burst firing and membrane oscillations were completely blocked by superfusate containing no added Ca(2+), and they were significantly reduced when patch pipettes contained BAPTA. Selective antagonists for T-type (mibefradil, 10 microm), L-type (nifedipine, 3 microm), and N-type (omega-conotoxin GVIA, 1 micro m) Ca(2+) channels had no effect on NMDA burst firing. Superfusate containing a low concentration of Na(+) (20 mm) completely abolished NMDA-induced burst firing. Flufenamic acid (10 microm), which blocks current mediated by Ca(2+)-activated nonselective cation channels (I(CAN)), reversibly abolished NMDA-depended bursting. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that NMDA-induced burst firing in STN neurons requires activation of either an I(CAN) or a Na(+)-Ca(2+) exchanger.

The subthalamic nucleus (STN) receives direct dopaminergic innervation from the substantia nigra pars compacta, but the importance of this input in the pathophysiology of parkinsonism remains to be determined. We used whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in brain slices to study presynaptic dopaminergic modulation of synaptic inputs to the STN in unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-lesioned rats. Here, we report that dopamine was more potent for inhibiting GABA IPSCs and glutamate EPSCs in the STN ipsilateral to the lesion, and was less potent for suppressing IPSCs and EPSCs in the STN contralateral to the lesion, compared with the effects of dopamine in control STN. Dopamine reduced IPSCs with an IC50 value of 20.9 +/- 3.6 microM in control STN, whereas IC50 values were 0.83 +/- 0.15 and 55.1 +/- 11.1 microM in STN ipsilateral and contralateral to 6-OHDA lesions, respectively. Dopamine also inhibited EPSCs with an IC50 value of 12.8 +/- 2.8 microM in control STN, whereas IC50 values were 4.5 +/- 0.9 and 41.6 +/- 9.8 microM in STN ipsilateral and contralateral to 6-OHDA lesions, respectively. Results with paired stimuli to evoke EPSCs and IPSCs suggest that endogenous dopamine acts presynaptically to inhibit transmitter release in the STN. These results show that chronic dopamine denervation significantly alters the regulation of synaptic input to the STN. Our results also suggest that the STN may be an important target for levodopa therapy in Parkinson's disease.

The technique of deep brain stimulation (DBS) has become a preferred surgical choice for the treatment of advanced Parkinson's disease. The subthalamic nucleus (STN) is presently the most promising target for such DBS. In this study, whole-cell patch-clamp recordings were made from 46 STN neurons in rat brain slices to examine the effect of high-frequency stimulation (HFS) of the STN on glutamatergic synaptic transmission in STN neurons. HFS, consisting of trains of stimuli at a frequency of 100 Hz for 1 min, produced three types of synaptic plasticity in 17 STN neurons. First, HFS of the STN induced short-term potentiation (STP) of evoked postsynaptic current (EPSC) amplitude in four neurons. STP was associated with a reduction in the EPSC paired-pulse ratio, suggesting a presynaptic site of action. Second, HFS of the STN generated long-term potentiation (LTP) of EPSC amplitude in eight neurons. Although the EPSC paired-pulse ratio was reduced transiently in the first 2 min following HFS, ratios measured 6-20 min after HFS were unchanged from control. This suggests that LTP is maintained by a postsynaptic mechanism. Third, HFS produced long-term depression (LTD) of EPSC amplitude in five STN neurons. LTD was associated with a significant increase in EPSC paired-pulse ratios, indicating a presynaptic site of action. These results suggest that HFS can produce long-term changes in the efficacy of synaptic transmission in the STN. HFS-induced synaptic plasticity might be one mechanism underlying the effectiveness of DBS in the STN as a treatment of advanced Parkinson's disease.

(−)-Stepholidine (SPD), with D 1 agonistic action, elicited an excitatory firing activity of nucleus accumbens (NAc) neurons by intravenous administration, but this effect was hardly observed by iontophoresis of SPD into the NAc. The present study intends to determine whether D 1 receptors in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) are involved in the action of SPD on the firing activity of NAc neurons in the chloral hydrate-anesthetized male rats. The results showed that the intra-mPFC microinjected SCH-23390 (D 1 antagonist, 30 mM), but not the D 2 antagonist spiperone (30 mM), significantly attenuated the enhanced firing activity induced by intravenous injection of SPD (2 mg/kg). Similarly, the excitatory firing of NAc neurons was also exhibited by the microinjection of either SPD or D 1 agonist SKF-38393 into the mPFC. The SPD-induced excitatory effect was in a dose-dependent way from 277.8 ± 51.3% (10 mM) to 1105.4 ± 283.5% (30 mM) of NAc basal firing, which was completely reversed by SCH-23390 (i.v.). Furthermore, the direct D 1 agonistic action of SPD on the mPFC neuron was observed with microiontophoresis. These results indicate that SPD possesses a direct agonistic action on the mPFC D 1 receptors, by which it modulates the firing activity of NAc neurons.

(−)-Stepholidine(SPD), isolated from the Chinese herb Stephania, is demonstrated to be a DA antagonist, but it also shows D1 agonistic action on rotational behavior in unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesioned rats. The present study further ascertains its D1 agonistic property on firing activity of globus pallidus (GP) in control and 6-OHDA-lesioned rats. In the control rats, the firing activities of the GP neurons elicited by DA agonists (i.v.), such as apomorphine (D1/D2), SKF38393 (D1), and LY171555 (D2), were readily reversed by SPD (4 mg kg , i.v.); but SPD, per se, induced variable alterations. In the 6-OHDA-lesioned rats, apomorphine, SKF38393 and LY171555 displayed the marked inhibition as well as excitation on the unit firing. The individual firing variations (87.1 ± 17.8, 55.1 ± 15.7 and 62.1 ± 16.7%, respectively) were much larger than those in the control group, and were completely abolished by SPD (2 mg kg ). However, SPD also showed D1 partial agonistic action on the GP neuron firing. Moreover, the preblockade of D2 receptors with spiperone (0.5 mg kg , i.v.), SPD exhibited the D1 agonist action which was reversed by the D1 antagonist SCH23390. These results suggest that SPD has a dual action on the GP neuron firing in the 6-OHDA-lesioned rats, i.e., antagonist to D2 DA receptors and partial agonist to D1 receptors.