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Austwickia (Dermatophilus) chelonae is a filamentous, Gram-positive Actinobacteria in the Dermatophilaceae family. It has caused fatal granulomatous disease in diverse captive reptile species on three continents, but its presence in wild or free-ranging populations was unknown. An adult female gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) was presented euhydrated, but cachectic and infested with ticks, with two firm, encapsulated masses over the cranioventral neck and right stifle. The tortoise had moderate nonregenerative anemia and evidence of inflammation; plasma biochemistry data was within normal limits. Fine needle aspirate of the neck lesion revealed abundant necrosis and aggregates of cocci. Computed tomography delineated the masses and revealed an additional mass adjacent to the left zygomatic bone. After surgical excision, histology identified chronic granulomas with intralesional filamentous bacteria. Pan-bacterial 16S rRNA PCR and sequencing of the masses identified A. chelonae. Despite treatment with oxytetracycline and ceftazidime, the tortoise deteriorated and was euthanatized. An esophageal lesion consistent with A. chelonae was seen on postmortem examination, although it was determined that the tortoise ultimately succumbed to fungal pneumonia caused by Metarhizium robertsii, an entomopathogenic biotoxin sprayed as insect control. This case reveals A. chelonae is present in free-ranging chelonians in North America. This organism produces a toxin gene similar to diphtheria toxin, one of the most potent known biotoxins, which has not been previously identified outside the genus Corynebacterium. Novel PCR primers were designed for the toxin and rpoB genes, which were amplified and sequenced from two cases and compared with two available genomes. Selection analysis revealed that the toxin gene is under positive selection, which implies it interacts significantly with the immune system, making it a good candidate for immunodiagnostic test development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hepatozoon prevalence (occurrence) and parasitemia (intensity) levels were documented in 67 individuals of the threatened gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) for the first time in four South Florida, US, locations: Jonathan Dickinson State Park (JDSP), Pine Jog Preserve (PJP), Florida Atlantic University Preserve (FAUP), and Blazing Star Preserve (BSP). Sex ratios (males:females) per site were 0.44 at JDSP, 0.72 at PJP, 1.42 at FAUP, and 0.40 at BSP, but no significant differences in the carapace length were found between the two sexes (independent t-test; P=0.101). Hepatozoon sp. was found in 13% (9/67) of tortoises. Percentages of infected tortoises were 22% (5/23) males and 6% (2/33) females. Prevalence and parasitemia were low or nonexistent within sampled tortoises at each of the study sites, although the highest prevalence and parasitemia values were found in gopher tortoises at JDSP (23%, 4/17) which also harbored the highest infection levels, reaching 349/10,000 erythrocytes. No infection was detected within sampled gopher tortoises at PJP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Thinned pine stands have structural conditions consistent with open pine woodlands. • Prescribed fire and herbicide applied after thinning can extend open pine condition. • Duration of open pine condition is influenced by site index and planting density. • Connectivity of open pine patches can facilitate movement for many open pine species. • Gopher tortoises have an even flow of habitat in regenerating and thinned stands. Abstract Pine forests managed for economic return comprise 19% of southeastern U. S. forests and can provide vegetation structure and composition necessary for many wildlife species adapted to open pine conditions. However, in the absence of frequent fire and other disturbance in southeastern pine (Pinus spp.) forests, midstory hardwoods create closed canopy conditions limiting value of pine stands for many endemic, disturbance-adapted wildlife species. Limitations of past research investigating exact mechanisms for producing and maintaining open pine conditions in managed pine systems have led to a paucity of information regarding ecoregion applications and outcomes. This study evaluated (1) to what extent managed pine stands replicate open pine structural conditions and (2) to what extent managed pine stands provide habitat for the gopher tortoise, an open pine keystone species. We used summary statistics from existing literature to identify structural metrics provided by managed loblolly pine (P. taeda) stands and compared them to disturbance-maintained open pine woodlands. We used spatially-explicit forest management simulations to determine amount and configuration of open pine woodland conditions within two large (>9000 ha), economically-feasible managed pine landscapes in the East and West Gulf Coastal Plains ecoregions. As a case study, we estimated availability and connectivity of gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) habitat, in managed pine stands of the East Gulf Coastal Plains. Pine stands planted at ≤1310 stems/ha (≤530 stems/ac) provide up to four years of "excellent" open pine condition for wildlife following commercial thinning, based on desired conditions for southern pine forests, with temporal availability depending on site quality. Mid-rotation applications of prescribed fire and selective herbicide can extend "excellent" open pine condition initiated by commercial thinning up to an additional four years. Landscape metrics indicated that, under typical management practices, open pine stands can be spatially and temporally connected to the extent necessary to facilitate among-patch movement for many open pine-adapted species of conservation concern. Our landscape analyses indicated tortoises using primarily regenerating and thinned stands potentially can have a relatively even flow of suitable habitat conditions and opportunities to move to adjacent or nearby open stands when currently-occupied stands reach canopy closure. The disturbance regimes inherent in pine plantation management create diverse landscapes that conserve plant and wildlife biodiversity while meeting economic objectives. Therefore, pine plantations may complement current conservation efforts for open pine woodland species dependent on or tolerant of large-scale disturbance and shifting habitat conditions while offering refuge for high vagility species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The lack of sensitive and specific markers of inflammation poses a diagnostic challenge in sick or injured reptile patients. The objective of this study was to investigate the diagnostic performance of blood analytes associated with inflammation in healthy (n = 24) and sick (n = 38) gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus). Receiver operating characteristic analysis identified the following as the best-performing diagnostic tests: erythrocyte sedimentation rate (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.812; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.693, 0.900), absolute mature heterophils (AUC = 0.771; 95% CI = 0.646, 0.869), total leukocytes (AUC = 0.767; 95% CI = 0.642, 0.866), lactate (AUC = 0.766; 95% CI = 0.641, 0.864), and absolute immature heterophils (AUC = 0.755; 95% CI = 0.628, 0.856). These results support the clinical application of additional tools for the diagnosis and monitoring of inflammatory disease in gopher tortoises. Clinicians may consider adding erythrocyte sedimentation rate and lactate to the minimum database for this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently available tests for the diagnosis of inflammatory disease in reptiles are limited and poorly sensitive. However, a number of hematological and plasma biochemical analytes are validated in the diagnosis of inflammation in mammals. The objective of this study was to establish reference intervals for erythrocyte sedimentation rate, lactate, heat-precipitated fibrinogen, hematology, and plasma protein electrophoresis based on total protein by biuret method in 23 clinically healthy, captive gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus) after successful rehabilitation and to determine differences by age, sex, and season. In order to investigate biological differences, samples were collected in April, July, and November. There were no sex differences in any measured analyte; however, there were significant differences by age and season. Immature animals (<2 kg) had significantly higher total protein, albumin : globulin ratio, pre-albumin, albumin, and α-1 globulin than adults. Tortoises sampled in the spring season had significantly higher total solids (refractometer) and lower eosinophils compared with animals sampled in the summer. Further investigation is required to determine the clinical utility of these analytes in the diagnosis of inflammation in this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Wanderings of Odysseus in Books 9 to 12 of the Odyssey (the Apologue), success is garnered by acts of trickery which help the hero overcome foes / surpass obstacles, while victims of tricks are depicted in helpless, supplicative, soporific, or weakened states. In tandem with this, I observe how the absence of polymetic prowess, demonstrated either through a focus on isolated bie (physical strength) or through what is otherwise represented as a certain mindlessness or foolishness, leads to failure in the interactions. The Wanderings in Odyssey 9 to 12 have the important function in the Odyssey of solidifying Odysseus' outstanding quality as a polymetic hero, acting as a proving ground for this means of heroic achievement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As native ecosystems are degraded throughout the world, the importance of managing, conserving, and restoring wildlife habitat escalates. We must carefully consider which approach to habitat conservation is optimal, given that resources for habitat conservation are limited. One enticing option involves channeling limited resources to manage for a single umbrella species, assuming that a number of other species within the same ecosystem would also benefit. The danger inherent to this approach is that care must be taken when selecting an umbrella species that maximizes ecosystem-wide benefits. This paper presents a combination of methods to quantitatively evaluate if keystone species, given their integral role in affecting the ecosystem where they reside, can also function as effective umbrellas for habitat management. In a case study, we evaluate two imperiled keystone species, the gopher tortoise ( Gopherus polyphemus ) and the red-cockaded woodpecker ( Leucontopicus borealis ), within a global biodiversity hotspot, the longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris ) ecosystem of North American coastal plain. We 1) develop spatial habitat models in MaxEnt for 10 terrestrial vertebrate wildlife species of conservation interest across an 11 million hectare region, 2) identify the preferred umbrella candidate with spatially-explicit correlation and range overlap analyses using ENMTools, and 3) evaluate the effectiveness of the chosen umbrella species with a test of niche similarity and quantitative habitat suitability comparisons in ArcGIS. Our results suggest the potential for an endemic keystone species to effectively function as an umbrella species. Specifically, we identified the gopher tortoise as the preferred umbrella, given the overlap in suitable habitat for 9 of 10 species evaluated in this ecosystem. These results are significant for habitat management within this region, but most importantly, this application of spatially-explicit modeling to quantitatively measure habitat suitability is an advance in approaches to habitat conservation planning. We encourage others to use these accessible methods and consider evaluating keystone species as umbrellas to optimize their approach for managing, conserving, and restoring ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The gopher tortoise tick, Amblyomma tuberculatum , has a unique relationship with the gopher tortoise, Gopherus polyphemus, found in sandy habitats across the southeastern United States. We aimed to understand the overall bacterial community associated with A. tuberculatum while also focusing on spotted fever group Rickettsia . These tortoises in the Southern Mississippi region are a federally threatened species; therefore, we have carefully trapped the tortoises and removed the species-specific ticks attached to them. Genomic DNA was extracted from individual ticks and used to explore overall bacterial load using pyrosequencing of bacterial 16S rRNA on 454-sequencing platform. The spotted fever group of Rickettsia was explored by amplifying rickettsial outer membrane protein A ( rompA ) gene by nested PCR. Sequencing results revealed 330 bacterial operational taxonomic units (OTUs) after all the necessary curation of sequences. Four whole A. tuberculatum ticks showed Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes as the most dominant phyla with a total of 74 different bacterial genera detected. Together Rickettsiae and Francisella showed >85% abundance, thus dominating the bacterial community structure. Partial sequences obtained from ompA amplicons revealed the presence of an uncharacterized Rickettsia similar to the Rickettsial endosymbiont of A. tuberculatum . This is the first preliminary profile of a complete bacterial community from gopher tortoise ticks and warrants further investigation regarding the functional role of Rickettsial and Francisella-like endosymbionts in tick physiology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents research on the investigation of the prevalence of the upper respiratory tract disease (URTD) in the gopher tortoise in Georgia. It discusses the role of pathogens Mycoplasma agassizii and Mycoplasma testudineum in the disease of the species, implications of the study in determining presence of URTD in tortoises in sites where both pathogens are present and conservation efforts in translocation of the specie.

The article presents a study on the behavior of gopher tortoise populations with high prevalence of antibodies to Mycoplasma agassizii in Georgia. It discusses findings on the effects of upper-respiratory-tract disease (URTD) on thermoregulatory behavior of tortoises, prevalence of antibodies to a second pathogen, Mycoplasma testudineum, associated with URTD and population density of gopher tortoise. It also discusses the implication of the study on the transmission of pathogens.

Engaging private landowners in conservation activities for imperiled species is critical to maintaining and enhancing biodiversity. Market-based approaches can incentivize conservation behaviors on private lands by shifting the benefit-cost ratio of engaging in activities that result in net conservation benefits for target species. In the United States and elsewhere, voluntary conservation agreements with financial incentives are becoming an increasingly common strategy. While the influence of program design and delivery of voluntary conservation programs is often overlooked, these aspects are critical to achieving the necessary participation to attain landscape-scale outcomes. Using a sample of familyforest landowners in the southeast United States, we show how preferences for participation in a conservation program to protect an at-risk species, the gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus), are related to program structure, delivery, and perceived efficacy. Landowners were most sensitive to programs that are highly controlling, require permanent conservation easements, and put landowners at risk for future regulation. Programs designed with greater levels of compensation and that support landowners' autonomy to make land management decisions can increase participation and increase landowner acceptance of program components that are generally unfavorable, like long-term contracts and permanent easements. There is an inherent trade-off between maximizing participation and maximizing the conservation benefits when designing a conservation incentive program. For conservation programs targeting private lands to achieve landscape-level benefits, they must attract a critical level of participation that creates a connected mosaic of conservation benefits. Yet, programs with attributes that strive to maximize conservation benefits within a single agreement (and reduce risks of failure) are likely to have lower participation, and thus lower landscape benefits. Achieving levels of landowner participation in conservation agreement programs that deliver lasting, landscape-level benefits requires careful attention not only to how the program structure influences potential conservation benefits, but also how it influences landowners and their potential to participate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a case study about fungal keratitis in a gopher tortoise (gopherus polyphemus). The subject was presented for trauma and blindness. Ophthalmic and histologic examinations reveal bilateral corneal ulcerations and scarring, and a necrotic conjunctivitis with intralesional fungal hyphae. It suggests that this was the first report of fungal keratitis in a wild reptile and a gopher tortoise.

The article provides information on the force of infection issue of the upper respiratory tract disease (URTD) and its impact to the gopher tortoises' survivability. It mentions the morbid impact of the URTD to the population of wild animals, particularly the gopher tortoises. Researchers have determined that the force of infection and its impact to these creatures remained uncertain. In addition, the researchers have found out that the seropositivity of these tortoises have higher chance to survive from the URTD compared to the tortoise with no seropositivity.