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White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) have been overabundant in eastern North America for more than five decades, resulting in depauperate understories and ricocheting effects on higher trophic levels. Even after deer populations are reduced, understory plant communities may fail to recover for an unknown length of time due to persistent legacy effects. We surveyed understory plant communities in six deer exclosures and paired reference plots in northwestern Pennsylvania to determine the degree to which 19 years of deer exclusion was sufficient for recovery of species richness, diversity, percent cover, and understory structural complexity. We observed a 2.3-fold increase in tree cover and a 60% reduction in fern cover in the ground layer, as well as a 114-fold increase in foliage density between 80 and 200 cm above ground level, in exclosures compared to reference plots. However, the exclosures did not permanently support higher overall percent cover, species richness, or diversity in the ground layer, nor did we detect any meaningful divergence in community composition between exclosures and reference plots. We conclude that 19 years of release from chronic over-browsing are sufficient to restore understory structural complexity, but recovery of diversity in the ground layer will require more time or direct intervention. Key words: white-tailed deer, exclosure, legacy effect, understory plant community, Allegheny National Forest, Introduction In eastern North American forests, overabundant whitetailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) are causing substantial declines in plant abundance, diversity, and reproduction, and are also altering plant species composition [...]

The outcome of encounters between predators and prey affects predation rates and ultimately population dynamics. Determining how environmental features influence predation rates helps guide conservation and management efforts. We studied where gray wolves (Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758) and coyotes (Canis latrans Say, 1823) killed white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) in northern Wisconsin, USA. We monitored 499 white-tailed deer for cause-specific mortality between 2011 and 2014 using VHF radio collars. We investigated the locations of 125 deer mortalities and determined that 63 were canid (wolf or coyote) kill sites. We analyzed spatial patterns of kill sites using resource selection functions in a model selection framework, incorporating environmental variables including vegetative cover, human development, snow depth, and water. We found no evidence that vegetative cover or human development affected predation risk; however, we did find that increasing snow depth resulted in increased relative predation risk. This finding is consistent with existing research on the influence of snow cover on white-tailed deer survival. Our results suggest that understanding the spatial and temporal patterns of white-tailed deer predation requires a better understanding of snow depth variation in space and time. As climate change scenarios predict changes in snowfall throughout the northern hemisphere, understanding the effect on predator--prey spatial dynamics will be important for management and conservation efforts. Key words: predation, white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, gray wolf, Canis lupus, coyote, Canis latrans, predator--prey dynamics, seasonal variation, spatial dynamics. Le dénouement de rencontres de prédateurs et de proies a une incidence sur les taux de prédation et, en définitive, sur la dynamique des populations. La détermination de l'influence d'éléments du milieu sur les taux de prédation aide à guider les efforts de conservation et de gestion. Nous avons étudié des lieux de prédation de cerfs de Virginie (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) par des loups gris (Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758) ou des coyotes (Canis latrans Say, 1823) dans le nord du Wisconsin (Etats-Unis). Nous avons suivi 499 cerfs de Virginie à l'aide de colliers émetteurs VHF de 2011 à 2014, afin de déterminer les causes de mortalité. Nous avons examiné les lieux de 125 morts de cerf et déterminé que 63 étaient des sites de prédation par des canidés (loup ou coyote). Nous avons analysé la répartition spatiale des lieux de prédation à l'aide de fonctions de sélection de ressources dans un cadre de sélection de modèles, en intégrant différentes variables environnementales, dont le couvert végétal, l'aménagement anthropique, l'épaisseur de la neige et la présence d'eau. Nous n'avons relevé aucun indice d'une incidence du couvert végétal ou de l'aménagement anthropique sur le risque de prédation; nous avons toutefois constaté qu'une plus grande épaisseur de neige se traduisait par un risque de prédation relatif accru. Cette constatation concorde avec des travaux existants sur l'influence du manteau neigeux sur la survie du cerf de Virginie. Nos résultats donnent à penser qu'une meilleure compréhension des variations de l'épaisseur de la neige dans l'espace et le temps est nécessaire à la compréhension des motifs spatiaux et temporels de prédation des cerfs de Virginie. Comme les scénarios de changement climatique prédisent des changements des chutes de neige dans tout l'hémisphère nord, la compréhension de l'effet de la dynamique spatiale des interactions prédateursproies sera importante pour les efforts de gestion et de conservation. [Traduit par la Rédaction] Mots-clés : prédation, cerf de Virginie, Odocoileus virginianus, loup gris, Canis lupus, coyote, Canis latrans, dynamique prédateurs-proies, variation saisonnière, dynamique spatiale., Introduction Animals make behavioral trade-offs to increase survival (Boyce and McDonald 1999; Kunkel and Pletscher 2000), and ultimately fitness (DeCesare et al. 2014). Prey animals balance foraging and vigilance behaviors [...]

Mortality rates of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) fawns have been quantified throughout North America. Few studies, however, have assessed cause-specific mortality of fawns after the first 3 months of life or during a severe weather event. During 2010-2014, we captured and radio-tracked 93 fawns in southern and central Illinois and recorded 18 mortality events. In order of importance, survival rates were affected by days since capture, year of drought, age at capture, week after capture (1 or 0 indicator), and region. Estimated overwinter (fall through spring) survival rate ([+ or -]SE) of fawns in both regions during 2010-2014 was 0.83 [+ or -] 0.04. However, estimated overwinter survival rates were depressed during 2012-2013, following the severe drought of 2012 (0.63 [+ or -] 0.11 or 0.66 [+ or -] 0.11 depending on the model). Main causes of mortality were capture-related and predation, though some dead deer also showed signs of hemorrhagic disease. We suspect that the extreme drought of 2012 created favorable conditions for fall--spring mortality of fawns, due to elevated disease transmission and lower forage quality and quantity for deer. In addition, drought may have contributed to predation by reducing abundance of alternative prey. Our results suggest that severe weather conditions during summer can substantially impact overwinter fawn survival. Key words: bobcat, drought, Lynx rufus, mortality, Odocoileus virginianus, Illinois, survival, predation, white-tailed deer. Les taux de mortalite de faons de cerf de Virginie (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) ont ete quantifies partout en Amerique du Nord. Peu d'etudes ont toutefois evalue la mortalite de faons associee a des causes precises apres les trois premiers mois de leur vie ou durant des evenements meteorologiques intenses. De 2010 a 2014, nous avons capture et suivi a l'aide de radioemetteurs 93 faons dans le sud et le centre de l'Illinois et enregistre 18 evenements de mortalite. En ordre d'importance, les facteurs suivants influencaient les taux de survie : le nombre de jours depuis la capture, une annee de secheresse, l'age au moment de la capture, la semaine apres la capture (indicateur 1 ou 0) et la region. Le taux de survie hivernale (de l'automne au printemps) estime ([+ or -]ET) des faons dans les deux regions de 2010 a 2014 etait de 0,83 [+ or -] 0,04. Les taux de survie hivernale estimes etaient toutefois plus faibles durant la saison 2012-2013, suivant l'intense secheresse de 2012 (0,63 [+ or -] 0,11 ou 0,66 [+ or -] 0,11, selon le modele). Les principales causes de mortalite etaient des causes reliees a la capture, ainsi que la predation, bien que certains cerfs morts aient aussi presente des signes de maladie hemorragique. Nous soupconnons la secheresse extreme de 2012 d'avoir cree des conditions favorables a une mortalite des faons de l'automne au printemps en raison de la transmission accrue de maladies, de la moins bonne qualite de la nourriture et d'une moins grande quantite de cerfs. La secheresse pourrait en outre avoir contribue a accroitre la predation en reduisant l'abondance d'autres proies. Nos resultats portent a croire que des conditions de mauvais temps durant l'ete peuvent avoir une incidence importante sur la survie hivernale des faons. [Traduit par la Redaction] Mots-cles : lynx roux, secheresse, Lynx rufus, mortalite, Odocoileus virginianus, Illinois, survie, predation, cerf de Virginie., Introduction Accurate estimates of vital rates are important for understanding wildlife population dynamics and for species management. For white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)), fawn production and survival rates are [...]

Decades of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) overpopulation have dramatically homogenized forests across much of the eastern United States, creating depauperate forest understory communities. The rate at which these communities recover once deer browsing has been reduced remains an open question. We evaluate overbrowsing legacy effects by examining how forest herbaceous layers respond in terms of biodiversity, density, and community composition over 11 years using exclosures and control plots within a mature beech-maple forest. Although little recovery occurred in the first 5 years, total density and preferred browse density rebounded substantially during the final years of the study. Although community composition began to diverge between exclosure and control plots after 5 years, diversity failed to recover even after 11 years of excluding browsers. Our findings show that vulnerable species can increase after excluding browsers but only if those species were initially present. Biodiversity recovery may be extremely slow because preferred browse species have been nearly extirpated from many forests and thus are unable to recruit into refugia. We empirically demonstrate the extent of the ghost of herbivory past or legacy effect of browsing, i.e., the substantial time delay between herbivore abatement and community response after decades of high deer densities. Key words: white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, herbivory, understory, forest recovery. Des decennies de surpopulation du cerf de Virginie (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) ont radicalement homogeneise les forets dans la majeure partie de l'est des Etats-Unis, creant des communautes vegetales de sous-bois appauvries. On ignore a quelle vitesse ces communautes se retablissent une fois reduit le broutement du cerf. Nous avons evalue les effets d'un heritage de broutement excessif en examinant la reponse des strates forestieres herbacees en regard de la biodiversite, de la densite et de la composition vegetale sur une periode de 11 ans, au moyen d'exclos et de places-echantillons temoins dans une erabliere a hetre mature. Nous avons observe tres peu de signes de retablissement durant les 5 premieres annees, mais la densite totale de vegetation et la densite des especes preferees du cerf se sont substantiellement accrues au cours des six annees suivantes. Bien que la composition des communautes vegetales des exclos et des places-echantillons temoins ait commence a differer apres 5 ans, la diversite n'etait pas retablie meme apres 11 ans d'exclusion des brouteurs. Nos resultats montrent que la densite des especes vulnerables peut augmenter apres l'exclusion des brouteurs seulement si elles etaient preetablies. Le retablissement de la biodiversite peut s'averer extremement lent parce que les especes preferees des brouteurs ont ete presque eliminees de plusieurs forets et qu'il n'y a plus de refuges pour soutenir le recrutement. Nous demontrons empiriquement l'importance du spectre d'un passe d'herbivorisme ou de l'effet d'un heritage de broutement qui s'expriment par un long delai entre la diminution des herbivores et la reponse des communautes vegetales apres des decennies de fortes densites de cerfs. [Traduit par la Redaction] Mots-cles: cerf de Virginie, Odocoileus virginianus, herbivorisme, sous-bois, retablissement de la foret., Introduction In many areas of the United States, the population density of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) has dramatically increased over the past century to levels that are significantly [...]

Litter-dwelling arthropods play crucial roles in litter decomposition and nutrient cycling, and changes in their diversity or abundance can affect these processes. Previous studies have outlined individual effects of invasive plants and overabundant ungulates on litter-dwelling arthropod communities but have paid little attention to whether invasive plants and ungulates interact to affect these arthropod communifies. We examined how invasive Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii) and grazing by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) affected diversity, abundance, and taxonomic composition of litter-dwelling arthropod communities in a deciduous forest in southwestern Ohio. We also examined whether deer or honeysuckle affected substrate composition and depth of litter. We found no significant effect of honeysuckle, deer, or their interaction on arthropod diversity, bur exclusion of deer increased total arthropod abundance and abundance of Araneae, and thereby affected taxonomic composition of the litter community. These effects were likely related to greater plant cover and less soil compaction in areas from which deer were excluded. Honeysuckle negatively affected Araneae abundance and positively affected Acari abundance, possibly revealing an indirect effect of Araneae on Acari. A honeysuckle x deer interaction on abundance of Acari was important only during the first year of our study. There were no differences in arthropod abundance between honeysuckle-absent and honeysuckle-removed plots, indicating rapid restoration of the litter community after honeysuckle removal. Neither honeysuckle nor deer affected composition or depth of litter. Our findings suggest that current management techniques that control the effects of honeysuckle and deer on native plant communities by separate measures may be sufficient to reduce impacts on litter-dwelling arthropods., INTRODUCTION Above-ground and below-ground food webs often have been studied separately, although connections between these food webs are being revealed (Wardle, 2002; Coleman et al., 2004; Bardgett and Wardle, 2010). [...]

* Premise of the study: Over-browsing of the understory vegetation by white-tailed deer has been a cause of decline in many plant populations. Liliaceae are particularly sensitive, yet individual species differ in their tolerance to deer herbivory. In this paper, we examine whether differences in clonal habit, carbon allocation patterns, and phenology influence the capacity of a species to tolerate and recover from repeated herbivory. * Methods: Flowering ramets of Clintonia borealis, Maianthemum canadense, and Trillium erectum were subjected to total defoliation for one or two springs. * Key results: Survival was highest in the nonclonal species, T. erectum, most probably due to its very large carbohydrate reserves. Nutrient reserves were less affected than carbohydrate reserves by defoliation, confirming the importance of carbohydrate reserves for survival. However, faster recovery following episodes of defoliation was observed not in the species that sprouted the earliest, T. erectum, but in the clonal species, M. canadense, which had the smallest carbohydrate reserves but also a lower shoot to root ratio than the other clonal species, C. borealis. All plants that were defoliated for 2 years only partially recovered in terms of leaf area, plant biomass, and carbohydrate and nutrient reserves, confirming the overall sensitivity of these species to simulated deer herbivory. * Conclusions: High carbohydrate reserves and consequently low shoot to root ratios appear to increase tolerance to herbivory, whereas clonal species recover faster than nonclonal species. The role played by carbohydrates reserves suggests that these species could benefit from slightly higher light conditions in areas subjected to high deer pressure. Key words: carbohydrate reserves; Clintonia borealis; deer herbivory; defoliation; Liliacaeae; Maianthemum canadense; nutrient reserves; recovery; Trillium erectum. doi: 10.3732/ajb.0900200

Much of our present knowledge of mixed migration strategies of northern populations of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) comes from short-term studies, which limits the observed variation of winter severity and thus our understanding of its potential influence on the migration behavior of study cohorts. From 1991 to 2006, we assessed the incidence of autumn migratory versus nonmigratory behavior of 335 adult (> 1.0 year old) females, what proportion were conditional versus obligate migrators, the importance of winter severity as a factor affecting the migratory response, and the effect of winter severity and study length on the classification of deer as conditional or obligate migrators and composition of study populations. Annual winter conditions ranged from historically mild to severe. The annual estimated proportion of deer migrating from spring-summer-autumn range to winter range was positively related to winter severity, and the cumulative probability of deer migrating tracked accumulating snow depths as winters progressed. However, the relationship was highly variable, largely attributable to the annual variation in migratory behavior of individuals radiomonitored for 2-7 years. Importantly, because of the variability of autumn-winter weather conditions, we noted that the proportion of deer we classified as obligate migrators was inversely related to the number of years individuals were monitored. Further, the composition (nonmigratory, conditional, and obligate migrators) of the study cohort was strongly influenced by the severity of winter conditions in the year of capture, as well as in subsequent winters of monitoring. Key words: autumn migration, interval-censored, long-term study, migration, Odocoileus virginianus, white-tailed deer, winter severity

Resource pulses can have both direct bottom-up and indirect top-down effects on their consumers, but comparatively few studies have investigated the top-down effects of naturally occurring resource pulses on plants. This study describes two years of field experiments conducted to determine the indirect effects of 17-year periodical cicadas (Magicicada spp.) on herbivory in American bellflowers (Campanulastrum americanum). In 2004, the area of damaged leaves on cicada-supplemented plants was 78% greater than the area of damaged leaves on control plants. In 2005, cicada-supplemented plants were more likely to experience herbivory by mammalian herbivores than control plants. When large herbivores were excluded, similar patterns of leaf herbivory were observed, but these differences were not statistically significant. These results suggest that the pulsed input of dead periodical cicada bodies increased rates of herbivory on bellflowers, and that this effect was largely mediated by the selective foraging of large mammalian herbivores. More broadly, this study suggests that pulses of limiting resources can have both positive direct effects on plants and negative indirect effects due to selective herbivory, and that the net effects of pulsed resources on plants may depend on the composition and behavior of the surrounding herbivore community. Key words: bottom-up effects; Campanulastrum americanum; fertilization; foliar nitrogen; Magicicada spp.; periodic cicada; pulsed resources; resource pulses; satiation; selective herbivory; top-down effects; white-tailed deer.

To assess the effects of deer browsing on understory composition, we examined hardwood forests with documented differences in browse intensity within two regions of the Hiawatha National Forest in Michigan's Upper Peninsula. A deciduous twig damage assessment confirmed that two sites within the southern region experienced high white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) browse intensity (44-49% of twigs browsed) and two sites within the northern region incurred low browse intensity (0.5% and 0.6% of twigs browsed). We used within-site sample means and site-level rarefaction curves to compare understory species richness in these two forests. The forest experiencing low browse intensity had higher woody species richness on a per plot basis than the heavily browsed forest, but the converse was observed for herbaceous species richness. Site-level evaluation with rarefaction curves confirmed the plot-scale results for herbaceous species, but different patterns in woody species richness emerged due to differences in the distributions of species across the four sites. When graphed as a function of cumulative number of plots, we again found that a low browse site had the highest woody plant species richness, but a high browse site had the highest richness values when richness was graphed as a function of cumulative number of stems sampled. This study demonstrates that although species richness is a useful tool for describing ecosystems, results for the same sites can differ based on how species are grouped and on the scale of analysis.

Both herbivory and windthrow disturbances have individually been shown to dramatically alter the structure and composition of forest communities; however, the interaction of these two factors has scarcely been examined. Windthrow disturbance creates microsites such as fallen logs and treefall mounds and pits that may hinder movement and limit visibility of large mammals, thereby reducing the impact of browsing by white-tailed deer. In an old growth Pennsylvania forest that was severely wind-damaged in 1985, a previous study based on sampling in 1994 demonstrated reduced browsing and greater Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr seedling density on treefall mounds (Long et al., 1998). In this study we surveyed mounds to see if they continue to be effective browsing refugia 9 y later. We also determined whether other types of microsites and nearby microsites provide protection from browsing and tested for an associational density refuge, whereby seedlings of a preferred species are less browsed when surrounded by a high density of saplings. Tsuga canadensis seedlings occurred more frequently on microsites, particularly logs and mounds, whereas randomly selected points occurred most frequently off microsites. Tsuga canadensis seedlings that established off microsites were more heavily browsed than seedlings on mounds or logs. Seedling heights were greatest on mounds and shortest on logs. Although growing on a microsite acted as refugia from browsing, having multiple surrounding microsites did not. Additionally, seedling browse damage was not decreased by having multiple nearby saplings, suggesting no associational defense. Nevertheless, certain microsites continue to provide refugia from browsing 18 y after disturbance and, thereby, enhance regeneration of Tsuga canadensis.

Effects of multiple herbivores were isolated in a rare, old-growth, maritime forest that has been affected by high white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations for several decades. Three decades of change in the plant community was described using permanent plots and nearly two decades of recovery using deer exclosures. Additional short-term exclosure experiments were used to separate the effect of rabbit and vole herbivory and the influence of canopy type on understory vegetation. We assessed whether natural enclosures formed by high densities of greenbrier (Smilax rotundifolia and S. glauca) provide spatial refugia for plant species from deer. Significant differences in fenced plots indicate that deer, rabbits and voles individually affect the understory vegetation, though rabbits and voles are secondary to deer that are the major herbivore in the American holly (Ilex opaca) forest. Plant cover decreased within permanent plots from 1967 to 1986; during the same time period deer densities increased drastically island-wide. Since plots were fenced in 1986 no additional significant changes were detected, but this is likely due to an inadequate sample size, The cover of all species depended on the interaction of fencing and canopy type with significantly higher plant cover in fenced plots beneath mixed or exclusively deciduous canopy. The proportion of woody stems surpassing 0.5 m tall was significantly higher when stems were fenced. Browsing impacts were apparent on approximately a quarter of the vegetation in June 2003. Plant cover, richness and diversity were higher within natural greenbrier enclosures. Overall the exclosure studies indicate the potential natural recovery that could occur within the forest if deer herbivory were limited. Few species have been extirpated, although several are confined to the greenbrier enclosures. Under the current level of herbivory, the maritime holly forest composition will be altered, changing the characteristic canopy of a critically imperiled plant community.

Some 30 y after wolves (Canis lupus) were implicated in decimating wintering white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in a 3000-[km.sup.2] area of northeastern Minnesota, wintering deer still have not recolonized the area. From 1976 to 2004, we aerially radio-tracked wolves there during 250 h and recorded 2 deer (in 1985 and 2000) killed or eaten by wolves during February and March. We observed no other deer or deer sign, but regularly observed deer, deer sign and wolf-killed deer in adjacent wolf-pack territories. Although habitat in the study area generally remains poor, some regeneration has taken place, and deer have increased adjacent to the area. However, wolf numbers have persisted by preying on moose (Alces alces). We could detect no reason other than wolf predation and deer migration traditions for why wintering deer have not recolonized the area.

We compared the germination rates of running buffalo clover (Trifolium stoloniferum) seeds that had been passed through the digestive tract of a captive white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) with those that had not. We found no significant difference among germination rates of seeds passed through deer and those not, nor with seeds that were cold-stratified prior to planting and those that were not. Although white-tailed deer are viable vectors for running buffalo clover seed, our data suggest that the rates of ingested seed germination and survival are low. Dispersal and establishment of new populations by white-tailed deer herbivory may not contribute quickly or significantly to the recovery of running buffalo clover at present.

Comparisons of corn crop-loss reporting methods produced no statistically significant differences between on-the-ground estimates and mean estimates reported by farmers. Data were obtained from 222 randomly sampled cornfields in Pennsylvania. Categories include average wildlife-related losses and losses produced by white-tailed deer.

An overview is presented on the effects of hunting, poaching and coyote predation on Nova Scotia's white-tailed deer populations. Implications for wildlife management are also discussed, such as adjusting antlerless hunting permit allotments to balance hunting and nonhunting loss estimates.

Research indicates that philopatry and high survival rates of white-tailed deer in suburban areas contribute to their overabundance in metropolitan regions. Data were obtained from 208 marked deer from Chicago, Illinois forest preserves between 1994-1998. Philopatry consisted of dispersals of less than 9 km, with deer-auto collisions producing the highest mortality rate.

A habitat suitability index for white-tailed deer was tested using foraging intensity and pellet-group count levels in the presence and absence of hunting and timber harvesting. The model performed well for foraging intensity except under timber harvesting conditions, and was negatively correlated with pellet count except under hunting conditions.

A comparison of mule deer and white-tailed deer populations near Denver, Colorado, show mule deer outnumber white-tailed deer by a ratio of four to one, and mule deer fawns survive white-tailed deer fawns by a ratio of two to one. These baseline figures account for the three-to-one difference in perceived population growth rates between the mule deer and the white-tailed deer, respectively.

Stochastic recruitment was studied in white-tailed deer along an environmental gradient.

White-tailed deer use of clearings in relation to forage availability was examined.

High-density deer populations in forest communities can have a major effect on forest structures and are of increasing concern to management agencies protecting native plant communities. The effect of deer foraging varies widely, depending upon deer numbers and availability of alternative forage plants. A new study investigates whether summer deer grazing intensity can be predicted from estimates of winter deer density and from the composition of the forest's surrounding landscape. Results show that deer density is not the only consideration in management, with low densities of forage plant species in the surrounding area making parks and preserves especially vulnerable.

Helicopter surveys have been used for some time to gain information about population density which is vital to the effective management of white-tailed deer populations. However, aerial surveys are not practical for small landholdings or leasings, and under these circumstances it may be preferable to census deer using infrared monitors that trigger automatic cameras. Research on this subject has established that a single helicopter survey would probably not provide an accurate estimate of population, sex or age.

Researchers have assessed techniques for capturing white-tailed deer in an urban environment using the Pneu-Dart delivery system and a mixture of ketamine hydrochloride and xylazine hydrochloride. Attention was given to factors including search times, distance and direction travelled by darted deer and recovery rates. It was found that darting methodology did not have an impact on recovery rates when using transmitter-equipped darts. The use of these darts allowed an improvement in rates of retrieval of missed shots and darts that did not lodge properly in unrecovered deer.

There is now growing public awareness in the US of the potential for using immunocontraception to control excessively large urban populations of white-tailed deer. This issue attracts considerable controversy, and can often split residents of urban areas where white-tailed deer are causing damage. Researchers are in a position to provide unbiased information about immunocontraception, but residents of affected areas are often unwilling to look beyond their own narrow views. If an immunocontraception project is implemented, it can prove very expensive because of the conflict it entails.

Problems with controlling white-tailed deer numbers at the Landings, a residential community situated on Skidway Island, GA, began in the late 1970s following a ban on hunting. Deer damage began to cause concern among local residents in the late 1980s, and the elected Board of Directors for the Landings set up a deer committee in Jul 1990. There was some controversy about whether deer control measures should be implemented, but deer control started in Aug 1994. Since then, 1,127 deer have been removed through hunting.

The Missouri Department of Conservation established a task force in 1989 to assess the extent of problems with white-tailed deer in urbanized areas and to draw up guidelines for managing urban deer. Considerable attention has been given to establishing population goals, taking into account the fact that urban Missourians often like to see deer. It has been possible to establish a protocol for setting up hunts if hunting is deemed to be necessary to control deer numbers on public areas.

Researchers have investigated the potential of contraceptives for controlling the growth of white-tailed deer populations in suburban settings. The implementation of a contraception program to limit deer numbers in Irondequoit, a suburb of Rochester, NY, involved using an adaptive management approach. This has four main steps, including gaining the approval of stakeholders for an agreed population size and making initial predictions about the impact of various management techniques. Adaptive management places strong emphasis on application of available data to make the best possible predictions.

The Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection encountered considerable hostility when it decided to implement a controlled hunt to reduce white-tailed deer numbers on Bluff Point Coastal Reserve, a 326-ha peninsula on the coast of Groton, CT. A hunt held in 1990 had to be stopped because of claims that the herd had been eliminated, and great care was therefore taken to inform the public about the need to reduce the herd before a further controlled hunt took place in Jan 1996. The 1996 hunt also attracted protestors, but it was possible to kill 233 deer.

There has been a significant rise in numbers of white-tailed deer in the Cuyahoga Valley National Recreation Area in Ohio since the 1970s. It became clear in the late 1980s that there was a danger that large deer populations would soon have a negative impact on natural resources in the park. This prompted a variety of research projects, including monitoring of deer populations and of vegetation. The Cuyahoga Valley Communities Council also responded by creating a Deer Management Task Force in Sep 1993.

It was necessary for wildlife managers at Gettysburg National Military Park and Eisenhower National Historic Site in Pennsylvania to address many issues when considering how to deal with excessive numbers of white-tailed deer. The National Park Service and the Pennsylvania Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit at Pennsylvania State University created a cooperative research scheme in 1985, and research looked at issues including deer movements and habitat use. Work on a draft Environmental Impact Statement began in 1993, and public opinion was sought. A deer reduction programme removed 503 deer during the first year and 355 during the second year.

Excessive numbers of white-tailed deer have had a negative impact on the ecology of Brown County State Park in Indiana. It was decided in Mar 1992 by the Department of Natural Resources to establish a committee to address this problem. The activities of the committee were hampered by moves by a state alliance of environmental organizations to link deer densities within the park to forest wildlife management practices outside the park. Problems were also caused by lack of accurate information about deer population levels. However, it was eventually possible to remove 392 deer through a one-day hunt.

Virginia's Conservation and Research Center, which covers around 1,400 ha of pastures and deciduous forests and is situated on the west slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains, has had a problem with excessive numbers of white-tailed deer since the 1970s. It initially turned to hunting in the 1980s to deal with this problem, but this attracted opposition from animal-rights groups. Early failures in deer management prompted extensive research, and considerable attention has been given to the impact of high deer densities on ecosystem processes.

Integrated pest management (IPM) can be a useful alternative technique for white-tailed deer management. This technique, which requires clear, precise targets to be identified, offers an interdisciplinary approach to the decision-making process. The IPM planning process provides selected management alternatives, and indicates cases where deer management problems can be addressed by linking alternatives or components of alternatives and by working with the private sector and federal, state and local agencies.

There has been a significant rise in the number and types of potential stakeholders in the decision-making process for establishing deer management goals as the problem of suburban white-tailed deer management has become increasingly serious in the US. There is now strong emphasis on innovative approaches to public involvement in suburban communities in deer management issues. It has been shown that the Citizen Task Force method can make a positive contribution to a local deer management program.

There has been growing interest in quality deer management in Texas since the 1970s. This state has the largest population of white-tailed deer in North America, and these deer are causing considerable ecological damage in some areas. Recent research has assessed various educational approaches to deer management directed at different stakeholder groups in the state. Some educational programs focus on producers, while others are aimed at consumers or young people. It has been established that there is a clear need for continuing education for wildlife professionals.

An analysis of approaches to the management of white-tailed deer populations in Pennsylvania can be used to highlight deer management difficulties being faced in many US states. Significant progress has been made in the technical aspects of deer management, but there has been a very slow response to the social and decision-making aspects of deer management. Wildlife management agencies such as the Pennsylvania Game Commission must now focus on making ordinary people aware of the consequences of excessively large deer populations.

Research into the impact of translocation on female white-tailed deer has tested the view that female deer related as matrilineal groups will stay closer to the release site and show a higher survival rate than unrelated females. Attention was also given to whether the presence of translocated deer has an impact on the traditional ranges of resident deer. It was established that translocating deer in social groups does not lead to a fall in the number that subsequently die.

Researchers have focused on the summer home ranges of eight social groups of female white-tailed deer in Huntington Wildlife Forest, Newcomb, NY, to test the prediction that female deer will not move into neighbouring low-density areas where other social groups are present. The findings support the view that areas of reduced density will remain because deer on the surrounding landscape will not respond to densities in neighbouring areas. It was established that social groups are mainly independent of each other in terms of geography, behaviour and genetics.

It is vital to improve understanding of the ecological links between deer and other ecosystem components if specific issues relating to deer overabundance are to be resolved. Research on this subject has looked specifically at the information requirements of resource managers responsible for white-tailed deer in the northeastern United States. It is vital that researchers from different disciplines join together to form partnerships with managers, recognizing that scientists can play a valuable role in designing and justifying experimental management schemes.

Research into the links between trends in deer populations and the attitudes of hunters towards deer management has used population data accumulated over 13 years for white-tailed deer in Pennsylvania. It was established that many hunters are opposed to reducing deer populations. Many have no clear understanding of the connection between deer and their habitat or of the impact of excessive deer numbers on forested ecosystems. This indicates that it is vital for special interest groups to support efforts by the Pennsylvania Game Commission to manage deer populations.

Wildlife managers in North America have for most of the 20th century sought to protect the white-tailed deer. It is now becoming clear that their actions have had some negative repercussions. Deer are now becoming a nuisance in suburban areas, for example, and are causing extensive damage to crops and tree seedlings. Recent research on this subject has looked in particular at whether deer are acting as a 'keystone' herbivore to make significant changes to ecological communities. It may be worthwhile devoting some part of the revenue from hunting licenses to implementing monitoring programs.

Transmitter darts of 2 cc capacity, used to capture white-tailed deer, need only 4.0 person-hours per deer and achieve 100% recovery as compared to 3 cc standard darts which need 20.5 person-hours and allow only 52% recovery. The transmitter darts are used for wildlife management and facilitate public safety as they permit dart retrieval. The use of transmitter darts is very effective in environments with dense vegetation.

A study of white-tailed deer in South Texas revealed that tepary bean was nutritious but could not last due to the unsuitability of the season. The study indicated that the siratro and tepary bean are not consistent food sources for sandy loam soil. Common cowpeas still do better. Lablab purpureus survives despite grazing by white-tailed deer even better than cowpeas and is similar in taste and chemical composition. Thus lablab is a suitable alternative to cowpeas for the diet of deer living on sandy loam soil.