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The article focuses on the interplay between quality and quantity of literacy programs in the U.S. Unlike the British society who has shown its willingness to pay for the education of the best, Americans are more willing to pay for education for all. Also, the U.S. has been a country of immigrants, which means that the teaching years have had to be a forcing house in U.S. citizenship and an unfailing means of earning money in an occupation. It is a misfortune that the vast achievement of American education in overcoming its handicaps and in creating a nation which possesses unity without uniformity will not be given time to recuperate before being swamped by the numbers demanding higher education.

The article reflects on the efficacy and the importance of special classes for retarded children. It accounted the commencement of special classes in 1896 and its development which led to various research about the education for retarded children and the ineffectiveness of special classes. It stresses the influence of the article "Special Education for the Mildly Retarded: Is Much of It Justifiable?," written by L. M. Dunn on the growth rate of special classes. Dunn's article presented several suggestions on the creation of educational provisions for the minimally handicapped, mildly retarded child. In response to Dunn's article, other researchers called for the abolition of all special classes, for the consolidation of all handicapped children into the regular class and for the assumption of teacher educator's role by special educator.

Presents abstracts of research on education. They include "Liberty above equality: The counterterrorism in higher education policy," by Edgar Litt, "New hope for parents-a way to beat the costs of college," by Walter Shapiro and "Institutional discrimination: The case of achievement-oriented women in higher education," by Marie Groszko and Richard Morgenstern.

The article presents abstracts of research about education. They include "Education and Equality: Israel and the United States Compared," "Entry and Urban School Systems: The Context and Culture of New Markets" and "Basic Opportunity Grants for Higher Education: Will the Outcome Differ From the Intent?"

The article outlines factors that prevent women from having professional and managerial careers, and offers recommendations to further women's participation in the decision-making process in business, industry, government, and the professions. Factors discussed include a poverty of aspirations among women, lack of female models in decision-making outside the schools, the stereotyping of women in textbooks for elementary pupils, and demands on the woman's time, energy, and resourcefulness posed by her role of homemaker. Recommendations include coeducation all through the course of education, legally assured equal access to all forms of education and training, and determination of the extent of female underemployment.

The central theme of this article is: What changes in the educational system might diminish the existing social disparities of opportunity in obtaining an education. The point of departure for the discussion is the fact that there exists a continuing stable distribution of education among and between various social classes. The author suggests that the educational policy instrumented thus far has been inefficient in achieving a redistribution of education among the various social classes. This development has been largely due to the educational policys general insignificance in effecting the chances of success for those seeking an education. In face of this situation he proposes two determining conditions for the diminishment of social inequality in aquiring an education: in part, thorough changes in the educational structure, as shock effects; and in part, through altered student-teacher interaction. In light of the objective of equality the author then evaluates some of the main tendencies in Danish educational policy in recent years and proposes some elements for a new, more equality-oriented educational policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines Erik Jörgen Hansen's paper concerning Danish educational equalization. He starts by discussing a certain specified goal, social equality in the field of education. He then deals with a number of obstacles which according to him prevent the realization of the desired goal in existing school systems. Finally he proposes certain measures to clear away the obstacles or minimize their importance. The goals discussed by Hansen is social equality in the field of education. What this means to him he discusses at some length and comes out with a number of definitions. One of these, consistent equality, he then tries to operationalize. This means in its general version that equality is reached when the educational system is so constructed, that it for all leads to a result that does not make it possible to find any useful criterion according to which individuals can be singled out in relation to the education obtained. In a more limited way this goal can be said to have been reached if the individuals in various categories, examples are social groups, geographical area, sex and others, on the average, regardless of category, reach a completely identical educational result.

The article focuses on the issues and concerns related to the education of the culturally disadvantaged people in the U.S. If schools would conduct changes on educational differences there would be discontinuance of social class differences that limits equality of educational opportunity. Notable improvements has been provided to the culturally disadvantaged by many big cities, such as the use of tests which measure non-academic abilities, use of textbooks and other learning materials which recognizes the minority group members, special counseling opportunities and small intensive remedial classes in reading and through the use of school-community agents.

The article discusses the implications of the National Defense Education Act of 1958 or the Hill-Elliott Act for special education in the U.S. The new law is a combination of programs intended to strengthen certain areas of educational deficiency. However, realization of its potentialities will depend primarily on the following: willingness of Congress to appropriate necessary funds to sustain the programs it authorized; effectiveness with which the Office of Education administers these programs; and on the willingness of state and local school systems and of higher institutions to take advantage of the provisions of the Act.

The article cites a survey of state-subsidized home teaching services for handicapped children in the U.S. This survey was conducted in an attempt to evaluate the home instruction program in New York and to compare it with the provisions for instruction of the homebound in other states. Directors of special education at the state level were asked information on state aid formulas, types of handicapped children served, criteria for eligibility, limits on amount of instruction, and special certification requirements for teachers of homebound children.

The article discusses special education to visually handicapped children in the U.S. For the partially seeing student, he is expected to function and participate in society as a seeing person. Thus, the partially seeing student must be allowed to take part in the activities and experiences offered to all students. In addition to his special needs for the conservation of sight and special techniques for the most efficient use of what sight he has, the learning of this student must be based upon his developmental needs.

The article discusses on how education leaders dealt with the challenges of educating mentally retarded school children in 1941 in New York City, New York. During the period, democratic institutions have introduced an educational theory, citing that all children deserve equal educational opportunities. The Bureau for Children with Retarded Mental Development has administered an special education program for exceptional children since 1902.

The article focuses on the equalization of educational opportunity for high school slow learners in the U.S. Functioning democracy to all that are to be educated is the core of the American education system, yet its efficacy has been isolated among the intellectuals. Equality of educational opportunity through help and encouragement so that slow learners are given the chance to reach their goal is a proof of functioning democracy.

The article discusses the educational developments of women in Germany. In a convention in Weimar in 1875, it focused on the education for women for the reasons that they may properly raise their children, be in compatible companions of their husbands, and that they may not allay by their ignorance. The author also cited the conflicts concerning equal education of men and women in the country. The founding of the Realgymnasium, which later changed into a Gymnasium by its principal Helen Lange, conforms to the collegiate course of four years for women. Through this, similar sciences were achieved and soon was followed by others. There are now 15 colleges in Germany with a 4 to 6-year course and five grades of instruction including public, manual training, and public middle-schools.

The article presents a study which attempts to solve the problem of providing for the individual differences and needs of the mentally handicapped. Two general methods have been used, namely: placement in the regular grades and placement in special classes. Placing mentally-handicapped and typical children in the same class and providing them with common methods of instruction does not provide equality of opportunity to learn.

The article examines the decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court concerning cases involving the segregation of blacks and whites in public schools. An examination of the court decisions reveals that the courts follow the principle that separate schools for the white and colored races is constitutional provided that equal opportunities are offered each. The courts look into the facts of the cases carefully, and insist that there be substantial equality of opportunity.

This article focuses on the study regarding teaching of gifted science students in secondary schools. Segregation has many advantages in dealing with the gifted. It permits enrichment of the course by devices, highly impractical in the average class. With segregation there must be some allowance for a grading system that is comparable in difficulty with the system used in the regular science class. One of the principles of good teaching hammered home in most of the education course. The gifted student should be permitted by curriculum offerings to take advanced courses on the sciences. Gifted students should received equal educational opportunity.

The article focuses on the ideology of the Labour Party which influenced the national policies on comprehensive schools from 1944 to 1970 in Great Britain. It states that the two central moral principles of the party's ideology are fellowship and equality, wherein the emphasis of equality has focused on achieving equality in the educational system. This also explains the increase in the importance of secondary education since the 1950s and onwards.

This article focuses on the equality of education and opportunity. There has long been recognized in the U.S. the necessity for much greater equalization of opportunity for education than now exists. Much has been accomplished by publicly and privately supported institutions of higher learning through the provision of scholarships, loan funds, and plans for self-help. It is increasingly being recognized, however, that this task can be accomplished satisfactorily only through the large-scale participation by the Federal Government in the financing of programs for the equalization of educational opportunity. Just as one realizes that an enlightened citizenry is essential to the preservation of democracy in the U.S., and that American democracy is not safe so long as Americans do not make universal provision for equality of educational opportunity, so now are they forced by the impact of world events to recognize that this principle must be extended to all peoples as the first and most fundamental condition for the establishment of a world society in which men may be free and live at peace with their neighbors. The principle of equality of educational opportunity excludes any discrimination based on sex, race, social status, confession, or political opinion.

Examines the ideology of accountability in education in the United States. Argument for accountability; Equal educational opportunity; Possibility of an accountable socio-educational system.

This article reports that educational inequality is true for both boys and girls, that there is an inverse relationship between size of home town and educational achievement. In this study data designed to give at least partial answer to this question were obtained by a fourteen page questionnaire administered by the Department of Rural Sociology to the total student body of the State College of Washington during the early part of the first semester of the 1952-53 academic year. The analysis of data for purposes of this study deals exclusively with the responses of 741 male undergraduates. Those who were raised on a farm and/or were presently living on one were classified as farm; the remainder were classified as nonfarm. The vast majority of the farm boys (92.2%) along with the non-farm boys (90.5%) cited occupational preparation as their main reasson for coming to college. Other data, however, suggest that this does not necessarily mean that the farm more than the nonfarm boys consider college training to be of crucial importance. More farm (62.9%) than nonfarm boys (46.8%) believe that they could be happy on a job not requiring college preparation.

The article examines four points raised by the report of U.S. President Harry S. Truman's Commission on Higher Education and, against that background, offers a counter-proposal. The title which the Commission chose for its report, "Higher Education for American Democracy." The author asks, does the Commission intend to imply that the function of higher education shall hereafter be to support and popularize American democracy. Moreover, the report defines that the task of college faculties is to inspire in young people a consuming enthusiasm for the democratic way of life and at the same time develop in them an active appreciation of different cultures and other peoples. In the author's opinion, this is a new definition of the purpose of college teaching. If it means what it seems to mean, American institutions of higher education will hereafter have as their major objective the inculcation of a consuming enthusiasm for the democratic way of life. Another objection has to do with the extension of educational opportunity and the establishment of the goal of 4,600,000 students enrolled in some program of higher education by 1960.

The article presents information on a report submitted by a commission appointed by U.S. President Harry S. Truman on higher education. The report is a public document of the greatest concern to the future of American higher education, and what it says, not what members of the Commission hold as private views or meant to say, must be the basis of debate and judgment. All parties endorse the Commission's prime contention that neither the economic condition of a young person's parents nor his race, color, or creed should determine his educational opportunities. There is generous agreement, too, with several of the proposals for making educational opportunities available to more people, such as a national program of federally financed scholarships and fellowships, an expansion of community or junior colleges, and greatly increased opportunities and facilities open to adults. Debate regarding the report is limited to the following areas--enrollment predictions, that is, the number of qualified youth who might go to college if they had the money; liberal versus general education; the status of nonpublic education; the financial structure; the participation of government; and the philosophy of the report.

The article discusses equality in educational opportunities. The principle of equality of educational opportunity has long been a controlling element in the development of the public schools of this country. Throughout the period of British rule, educational developments were primarily concerned with the creation of endowed Latin grammar schools, institutions that were aristocratic in character in that they served the few rather than the many. If the public school is truly to serve as the common denominator of the educational program, it must provide equality of educational opportunity for all whom it is designated to serve regardless of differences in place of residence, economic status, race, color or creed. This is the goal toward which public-school systems and their programs must steadily move. Of even greater importance is retaining high-school youth in school is the effort to broaden and enrich the curriculum. Commercial courses, technical courses, courses in the creative and applied arts, courses in the semiskilled and skilled trades should be included as an integral part of the over-all program.

The article discusses the findings of a German commission of the Internationale Vereinigung für sozialen Fortschritt in its report titled "Vocational Education of Girls and Women for Tomorrow." Changes in gender roles, guarantees of equal educational opportunity, and chances for employment re-entry for women after work interruption are discussed.

The article discusses the report of the Commission for Urgent Social Policy Questions of the German Research Society and in particular its stance toward wealth redistribution. The Commission called for a halt to further consumptive social security benefits and instead for health and educational investments and equal educational opportunity irrespective of social origin.

The article explores the contributions of author and experimenter in the gradual emancipation of slaves Frances Wright on her reforms about the practical quality of man. It mentions her influences to the egalitarian idea and provides a historical and short contextual background on the subject. It also notes that Wright was primarily concerned with the rights for women and their enhancement towards education which has reflected in her work on "Course of Popular Lectures".

The article discusses the problems facing the field of elementary education in the U.S. in 1939. The inequality of opportunity in the educational system is one of these problems. The causes of this inequality are indicated. The effect of regional differences in reproduction rates cause on the system is also cited. In addition, this article explores the relations of the unequal distribution of the educational load to economic resources and income levels.

The article cites developments and issues in elementary education in the U.S. The University of Chicago's President Robert M. Hutchins has expressed his conviction about the duty to equalize educational opportunities among states. The Public School System has accumulated many extracurricular activities and embellishments. The Board of Education has released statements defending its economy program.

The article reports on the administration of equalization funds in state having recent administrative legislation. The summary of methods of distributing equalization aid in eight states having recent legislation is presented. It is concluded that flexibility of administration is a factor in the plans for the distribution of equalization aid.

The article studies the factors that are useful in determining the inequalities in educational opportunities in the county and city white elementary schools in Tennessee. These include the teachers' qualifications, their salaries, the value of school property per student enrolled, and length of the school term. Explanations for the large number of teachers who held permanent professional certificates were also given.

The article focuses on the results of the survey that shows the educational opportunities available in communities and the ability of local school units to support schools in the U.S. It resulted in a consideration given to the need for equalization of educational opportunities. However, it was acknowledged that there is no compatibility between the equalization of educational opportunities and the recognition of local effort.

The article proposes an historical overview of educational experience in the United States, with special reference to the patterns of educational inequality, early efforts in behalf of the children of the poor, and the federal interventions in which possible solutions were proposed. In a multi-racial, ethnically variegated society, the American experience in its schools has been an experience of cultural assault, discriminatory rejection of educational opportunity for many children, and the continuation of social and economic advantage for a white Anglo-Saxon, Protestant, middle-class patrician elite. It was not until the 1950s that these practices were decisively challenged, and massive efforts were made to provide better educational opportunity to the poor. The evolving patterns of educational inequality in the American experience extend beyond American blacks. The exclusion of blacks did not resolve the ongoing challenges to the uniformity of American character which in the last decades of the nineteenth century continued to appear on every side. Immigrants presented special problems to the schools, particularly in industrial-urban contexts.

The article presents a discussion on equality and inequality. There is much confusion about human equality and inequality. Some of it is simply intellectual confusion and some is the product of emotional attitudes. Equality is an emotive word and thought about it sometimes reflects the feelings about status. The man who is, or thinks he is, of inferior status, praises equality for one kind of reason. He wants to be as good as the next man. The person who is, or thinks he is, of superior status may believe the inequality which recognizes his own individual status to be a good thing. Mixed up with this there are strongly felt but extremely vaguely conceived ideas about the essential equality of human beings. These confusions and emotional attitudes affect the thinking about many things, including education, about equality and inequality of pay, holidays, esteem, opportunity, the existence of privileged public schools and experimental schools, the tripartite division and its alternatives, the importance, even the validity, of intelligence and attainment tests. And more subtly ideas of equality can affect attitudes of teacher to pupil. The teacher is tempted to pay more attention to the bright, attractive and responsive pupils. At times a teacher has to remind himself to be more just, more humane and sympathetic. After all, he may say, the fact that the boy is stupid does not affect his worth as a human being.

In February 1948, upon the request of Ben D. Wood, Director of the College Testing Program of the American Institute of Accountants, its President appointed a Test Advisory Committee of this association. The committee was created to work with the Committee on the Selection of Personnel of the American Institute in the preparation of new tests and to act as adviser upon such matters as the Institute committee might place before it. In the article, the author discusses briefly the effects of any national, regional, or wide-range testing program on accounting education, for the purpose of the present discussion, a mythical program. Certain it is that at present people have neither educational nor instructional equality in several institutions, and certain it is that they should pause to restudy methods. Accounting in theory and in practice has grown by leaps and bounds, but much of the educational method has not kept pace with it and people must look forward to more coordination and less variability in their instruction. A testing program, worthy of the name is one means toward the end people should be seeking.

In this article, author shares his experience of educational charity for studying of relations between the Jewish and the non-Jewish worlds. It discusses that the libraries have the collection of books written in languages other than Hebrew, so that non-Jewish would also understand. It mentions the collection of books on many different aspects of "the Jewish Question" and the "Antisemitism."

This article presents some cross-state evidence on factors influencing the size distribution of income in an economy. Data from the 1960 census make it possible to correlate cross-state measures of income inequality with various hypothesized determinants of inequality. As educational inequality gets larger, income inequality becomes less sensitive to educational inequality, and, for the states with the greatest educational inequality, this sensitivity vanishes. It is not apparent why a number of preliminary regressions, using cross-product terms as well as squared terms, did not indicate that this curvature effect was due to interactions among variables. Unlike the minorities of the previous two variables, the unemployed do not approach majority status, and the curvature in this variable is the opposite of that of the previous two variables. For states with large numbers of unemployed, the combined effect of the linear and the squared terms in this variable is positive, as would be expected. For states with relatively little unemployment income inequality becomes insensitive to unemployment.

The many new proposals advanced during the past few years for financing higher education have been promoted, almost without exception, by appealing to their important and favorable equity consequences. What is meant by the term "equity"? To what degree will various proposals help achieve greater equity, however equity is defined? What kinds of side effects might these proposals produce in the process of achieving greater equity? Questions like these are difficult to answer because no systematic framework for analyzing equity and equity effects has evolved. Traditionally, equity has been viewed as a normative matter, and consequently, little attention has been given to developing the tools required to analyze it. The need for answers to the questions posed persists, however, and this paper offers a starting point in the search for answers. It might best be viewed as an essay on equity as applied to the provision and finance of higher education. This paper focuses on undergraduate higher education. While there is jointness in the production of undergraduate education and such activities as graduate and professional education, research, public service, and the array of other activities known as higher education, it is also quite apparent that most undergraduate students are enrolled at institutions almost exclusively concerned with undergraduate teaching. It is not inappropriate, therefore, to concentrate only on undergraduate education. The focus is, moreover, on students rather than instiutions of higher education, because public policy presumably seeks to benefit students by producing more or less higher education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper an attempt is made to estimate the degree of inequality of educational opportunity at the secondary school level. Data from the 1⁄1,000 sample of the 1960 Census are used to estimate the probabilities of falling behind in school or dropping out for children from different family backgrounds. For children whose parents have little education or income, the probabilities are more than 20 times greater than for children from well-to-do families where both parents have graduated from high school. The determinants of the dropout and retardation rates are also investigated, with the discussion focusing on the possible effects of new transfer programs, such as the negative income tax. While the short-run effects are likely to be quite small, the long-run effects may be important, especially for the Negro retardation rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on equality of educational opportunity. Educational problems raised by the notion "equal educational opportunities" are many. The problems are not only of a practical nature, how to achieve equal opportunities, but also of a philosophical kind relating to the general indeterminacy of educational aims. In so far, as differential educational achievements are not solely reflective of differential abilities, the education system is both socially unjust and economically wasteful. Thus, one of the most important tasks of education is to give each child an equal opportunity to realize his innate potential regardless of irrelevant factors such as class, income, religion, race or early handicaps. However, definitions that have been made of the notion of equal educational opportunity have undergone considerable changes and clarification is needed of how different interpretations have developed. The new interpretation of equality of educational opportunity is unsatisfactory. It is based on a notion of talent that cannot be defined, on the idea of a pool of inestimable size, and on testing procedures only partially valid. The author says that it continues to be based on a moral premise of social justice, beyond this it is a principle ever-changing in its implications and its interpretations.

The article presents response of the author in reply to criticism by Glen G. Cain and Harold W. Watts of the report entitled "Equality of Educational Opportunity" or "The Coleman Report." First of all, he clarifies that calling it Coleman Report is itself incorrect. He further justifies the analysis in the chapter-3 of the report, which related an achievement output of school to various input factors. He mentions that the source of policy interest in this analysis is obvious: if these relationships can give information about the effect of various resource inputs on achievement, then the results are of some aid to policy. He strengthens his argument by citing that a number of economists with an interest in "production functions" in education have paid special attention to it. He further argues over the objection of Cain and Watts regarding inadequate specification of the theoretical model and statistical inviability of the report and defends his point with the argument that the role of a theoretical model in such research is very ambiguous.

This article addresses the issue of equality in the U.S. education system. Social class segregation within schools and among schools is itself a denial of equal opportunity, regardless of the funds and facilities involved. Students whose home environments do not predispose them toward formal education can yet acquire academic motivation from classmates who have it. The deprivation is mutual, for there are many things of value that the upper class student can learn from the lower class student. The important consideration, therefore is the effect of segregation, not the cause. If segregation is constitutional because it is inherently unequal, then the causes of that segregation in public schools would appear to be beside the point or of secondary importance at best. Generosity, magnanimity and human understanding will allow the dismissal of racial inequality.

Comments on the research on educational and psychological testing published in the February 1968 issue of the journal "Review of Educational Research."Discussion about the studies of Equal Educational Opportunity and of international comparisons in mathematics achievement; Advantages of providing separate chapters for reviewing research on tests designed for different age levels and different purposes; Effect of the diversity of categories used by the different authors on the readers.

The article presents information about research studies related to the association between the U.S. government and education. A research study focused on federal laws and proposals related to education. Several studies discussed federal aid to education. A research was conducted that proposed a formula for federal aid distribution to provide equal educational opportunities in various states. However, some studies opposed the concept of federal aid to education. Some researchers believed that federal aid resulted in government control over education. Veteran education was also the topic of several studies.

This article focuses on the problems of equality of opportunity in education. The only reasonable way to correct the educational inequalities growing out of financial inequalities is to provide a federal aid to education. The details of the analysis with relevance to the differences in the educational opportunity and attainment. This research shows the relation of inequalities of educational opportunity and attainment to social and economic conditions. Also, stressed the importance of differential fertility in creating an imbalance in the educational load. The research also concentrates on the significance of the comprehensive program found in a report of the National Resources Planning Board.