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Litter-dwelling arthropods play crucial roles in litter decomposition and nutrient cycling, and changes in their diversity or abundance can affect these processes. Previous studies have outlined individual effects of invasive plants and overabundant ungulates on litter-dwelling arthropod communities but have paid little attention to whether invasive plants and ungulates interact to affect these arthropod communifies. We examined how invasive Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii) and grazing by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) affected diversity, abundance, and taxonomic composition of litter-dwelling arthropod communities in a deciduous forest in southwestern Ohio. We also examined whether deer or honeysuckle affected substrate composition and depth of litter. We found no significant effect of honeysuckle, deer, or their interaction on arthropod diversity, bur exclusion of deer increased total arthropod abundance and abundance of Araneae, and thereby affected taxonomic composition of the litter community. These effects were likely related to greater plant cover and less soil compaction in areas from which deer were excluded. Honeysuckle negatively affected Araneae abundance and positively affected Acari abundance, possibly revealing an indirect effect of Araneae on Acari. A honeysuckle x deer interaction on abundance of Acari was important only during the first year of our study. There were no differences in arthropod abundance between honeysuckle-absent and honeysuckle-removed plots, indicating rapid restoration of the litter community after honeysuckle removal. Neither honeysuckle nor deer affected composition or depth of litter. Our findings suggest that current management techniques that control the effects of honeysuckle and deer on native plant communities by separate measures may be sufficient to reduce impacts on litter-dwelling arthropods., INTRODUCTION Above-ground and below-ground food webs often have been studied separately, although connections between these food webs are being revealed (Wardle, 2002; Coleman et al., 2004; Bardgett and Wardle, 2010). [...]

* Premise of the study: Over-browsing of the understory vegetation by white-tailed deer has been a cause of decline in many plant populations. Liliaceae are particularly sensitive, yet individual species differ in their tolerance to deer herbivory. In this paper, we examine whether differences in clonal habit, carbon allocation patterns, and phenology influence the capacity of a species to tolerate and recover from repeated herbivory. * Methods: Flowering ramets of Clintonia borealis, Maianthemum canadense, and Trillium erectum were subjected to total defoliation for one or two springs. * Key results: Survival was highest in the nonclonal species, T. erectum, most probably due to its very large carbohydrate reserves. Nutrient reserves were less affected than carbohydrate reserves by defoliation, confirming the importance of carbohydrate reserves for survival. However, faster recovery following episodes of defoliation was observed not in the species that sprouted the earliest, T. erectum, but in the clonal species, M. canadense, which had the smallest carbohydrate reserves but also a lower shoot to root ratio than the other clonal species, C. borealis. All plants that were defoliated for 2 years only partially recovered in terms of leaf area, plant biomass, and carbohydrate and nutrient reserves, confirming the overall sensitivity of these species to simulated deer herbivory. * Conclusions: High carbohydrate reserves and consequently low shoot to root ratios appear to increase tolerance to herbivory, whereas clonal species recover faster than nonclonal species. The role played by carbohydrates reserves suggests that these species could benefit from slightly higher light conditions in areas subjected to high deer pressure. Key words: carbohydrate reserves; Clintonia borealis; deer herbivory; defoliation; Liliacaeae; Maianthemum canadense; nutrient reserves; recovery; Trillium erectum. doi: 10.3732/ajb.0900200

Much of our present knowledge of mixed migration strategies of northern populations of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) comes from short-term studies, which limits the observed variation of winter severity and thus our understanding of its potential influence on the migration behavior of study cohorts. From 1991 to 2006, we assessed the incidence of autumn migratory versus nonmigratory behavior of 335 adult (> 1.0 year old) females, what proportion were conditional versus obligate migrators, the importance of winter severity as a factor affecting the migratory response, and the effect of winter severity and study length on the classification of deer as conditional or obligate migrators and composition of study populations. Annual winter conditions ranged from historically mild to severe. The annual estimated proportion of deer migrating from spring-summer-autumn range to winter range was positively related to winter severity, and the cumulative probability of deer migrating tracked accumulating snow depths as winters progressed. However, the relationship was highly variable, largely attributable to the annual variation in migratory behavior of individuals radiomonitored for 2-7 years. Importantly, because of the variability of autumn-winter weather conditions, we noted that the proportion of deer we classified as obligate migrators was inversely related to the number of years individuals were monitored. Further, the composition (nonmigratory, conditional, and obligate migrators) of the study cohort was strongly influenced by the severity of winter conditions in the year of capture, as well as in subsequent winters of monitoring. Key words: autumn migration, interval-censored, long-term study, migration, Odocoileus virginianus, white-tailed deer, winter severity

Resource pulses can have both direct bottom-up and indirect top-down effects on their consumers, but comparatively few studies have investigated the top-down effects of naturally occurring resource pulses on plants. This study describes two years of field experiments conducted to determine the indirect effects of 17-year periodical cicadas (Magicicada spp.) on herbivory in American bellflowers (Campanulastrum americanum). In 2004, the area of damaged leaves on cicada-supplemented plants was 78% greater than the area of damaged leaves on control plants. In 2005, cicada-supplemented plants were more likely to experience herbivory by mammalian herbivores than control plants. When large herbivores were excluded, similar patterns of leaf herbivory were observed, but these differences were not statistically significant. These results suggest that the pulsed input of dead periodical cicada bodies increased rates of herbivory on bellflowers, and that this effect was largely mediated by the selective foraging of large mammalian herbivores. More broadly, this study suggests that pulses of limiting resources can have both positive direct effects on plants and negative indirect effects due to selective herbivory, and that the net effects of pulsed resources on plants may depend on the composition and behavior of the surrounding herbivore community. Key words: bottom-up effects; Campanulastrum americanum; fertilization; foliar nitrogen; Magicicada spp.; periodic cicada; pulsed resources; resource pulses; satiation; selective herbivory; top-down effects; white-tailed deer.

To assess the effects of deer browsing on understory composition, we examined hardwood forests with documented differences in browse intensity within two regions of the Hiawatha National Forest in Michigan's Upper Peninsula. A deciduous twig damage assessment confirmed that two sites within the southern region experienced high white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) browse intensity (44-49% of twigs browsed) and two sites within the northern region incurred low browse intensity (0.5% and 0.6% of twigs browsed). We used within-site sample means and site-level rarefaction curves to compare understory species richness in these two forests. The forest experiencing low browse intensity had higher woody species richness on a per plot basis than the heavily browsed forest, but the converse was observed for herbaceous species richness. Site-level evaluation with rarefaction curves confirmed the plot-scale results for herbaceous species, but different patterns in woody species richness emerged due to differences in the distributions of species across the four sites. When graphed as a function of cumulative number of plots, we again found that a low browse site had the highest woody plant species richness, but a high browse site had the highest richness values when richness was graphed as a function of cumulative number of stems sampled. This study demonstrates that although species richness is a useful tool for describing ecosystems, results for the same sites can differ based on how species are grouped and on the scale of analysis.

Both herbivory and windthrow disturbances have individually been shown to dramatically alter the structure and composition of forest communities; however, the interaction of these two factors has scarcely been examined. Windthrow disturbance creates microsites such as fallen logs and treefall mounds and pits that may hinder movement and limit visibility of large mammals, thereby reducing the impact of browsing by white-tailed deer. In an old growth Pennsylvania forest that was severely wind-damaged in 1985, a previous study based on sampling in 1994 demonstrated reduced browsing and greater Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr seedling density on treefall mounds (Long et al., 1998). In this study we surveyed mounds to see if they continue to be effective browsing refugia 9 y later. We also determined whether other types of microsites and nearby microsites provide protection from browsing and tested for an associational density refuge, whereby seedlings of a preferred species are less browsed when surrounded by a high density of saplings. Tsuga canadensis seedlings occurred more frequently on microsites, particularly logs and mounds, whereas randomly selected points occurred most frequently off microsites. Tsuga canadensis seedlings that established off microsites were more heavily browsed than seedlings on mounds or logs. Seedling heights were greatest on mounds and shortest on logs. Although growing on a microsite acted as refugia from browsing, having multiple surrounding microsites did not. Additionally, seedling browse damage was not decreased by having multiple nearby saplings, suggesting no associational defense. Nevertheless, certain microsites continue to provide refugia from browsing 18 y after disturbance and, thereby, enhance regeneration of Tsuga canadensis.

Effects of multiple herbivores were isolated in a rare, old-growth, maritime forest that has been affected by high white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations for several decades. Three decades of change in the plant community was described using permanent plots and nearly two decades of recovery using deer exclosures. Additional short-term exclosure experiments were used to separate the effect of rabbit and vole herbivory and the influence of canopy type on understory vegetation. We assessed whether natural enclosures formed by high densities of greenbrier (Smilax rotundifolia and S. glauca) provide spatial refugia for plant species from deer. Significant differences in fenced plots indicate that deer, rabbits and voles individually affect the understory vegetation, though rabbits and voles are secondary to deer that are the major herbivore in the American holly (Ilex opaca) forest. Plant cover decreased within permanent plots from 1967 to 1986; during the same time period deer densities increased drastically island-wide. Since plots were fenced in 1986 no additional significant changes were detected, but this is likely due to an inadequate sample size, The cover of all species depended on the interaction of fencing and canopy type with significantly higher plant cover in fenced plots beneath mixed or exclusively deciduous canopy. The proportion of woody stems surpassing 0.5 m tall was significantly higher when stems were fenced. Browsing impacts were apparent on approximately a quarter of the vegetation in June 2003. Plant cover, richness and diversity were higher within natural greenbrier enclosures. Overall the exclosure studies indicate the potential natural recovery that could occur within the forest if deer herbivory were limited. Few species have been extirpated, although several are confined to the greenbrier enclosures. Under the current level of herbivory, the maritime holly forest composition will be altered, changing the characteristic canopy of a critically imperiled plant community.

Some 30 y after wolves (Canis lupus) were implicated in decimating wintering white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in a 3000-[km.sup.2] area of northeastern Minnesota, wintering deer still have not recolonized the area. From 1976 to 2004, we aerially radio-tracked wolves there during 250 h and recorded 2 deer (in 1985 and 2000) killed or eaten by wolves during February and March. We observed no other deer or deer sign, but regularly observed deer, deer sign and wolf-killed deer in adjacent wolf-pack territories. Although habitat in the study area generally remains poor, some regeneration has taken place, and deer have increased adjacent to the area. However, wolf numbers have persisted by preying on moose (Alces alces). We could detect no reason other than wolf predation and deer migration traditions for why wintering deer have not recolonized the area.

We compared the germination rates of running buffalo clover (Trifolium stoloniferum) seeds that had been passed through the digestive tract of a captive white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) with those that had not. We found no significant difference among germination rates of seeds passed through deer and those not, nor with seeds that were cold-stratified prior to planting and those that were not. Although white-tailed deer are viable vectors for running buffalo clover seed, our data suggest that the rates of ingested seed germination and survival are low. Dispersal and establishment of new populations by white-tailed deer herbivory may not contribute quickly or significantly to the recovery of running buffalo clover at present.

Comparisons of corn crop-loss reporting methods produced no statistically significant differences between on-the-ground estimates and mean estimates reported by farmers. Data were obtained from 222 randomly sampled cornfields in Pennsylvania. Categories include average wildlife-related losses and losses produced by white-tailed deer.

An overview is presented on the effects of hunting, poaching and coyote predation on Nova Scotia's white-tailed deer populations. Implications for wildlife management are also discussed, such as adjusting antlerless hunting permit allotments to balance hunting and nonhunting loss estimates.

Research indicates that philopatry and high survival rates of white-tailed deer in suburban areas contribute to their overabundance in metropolitan regions. Data were obtained from 208 marked deer from Chicago, Illinois forest preserves between 1994-1998. Philopatry consisted of dispersals of less than 9 km, with deer-auto collisions producing the highest mortality rate.

A habitat suitability index for white-tailed deer was tested using foraging intensity and pellet-group count levels in the presence and absence of hunting and timber harvesting. The model performed well for foraging intensity except under timber harvesting conditions, and was negatively correlated with pellet count except under hunting conditions.

A comparison of mule deer and white-tailed deer populations near Denver, Colorado, show mule deer outnumber white-tailed deer by a ratio of four to one, and mule deer fawns survive white-tailed deer fawns by a ratio of two to one. These baseline figures account for the three-to-one difference in perceived population growth rates between the mule deer and the white-tailed deer, respectively.

Stochastic recruitment was studied in white-tailed deer along an environmental gradient.

White-tailed deer use of clearings in relation to forage availability was examined.

High-density deer populations in forest communities can have a major effect on forest structures and are of increasing concern to management agencies protecting native plant communities. The effect of deer foraging varies widely, depending upon deer numbers and availability of alternative forage plants. A new study investigates whether summer deer grazing intensity can be predicted from estimates of winter deer density and from the composition of the forest's surrounding landscape. Results show that deer density is not the only consideration in management, with low densities of forage plant species in the surrounding area making parks and preserves especially vulnerable.

Helicopter surveys have been used for some time to gain information about population density which is vital to the effective management of white-tailed deer populations. However, aerial surveys are not practical for small landholdings or leasings, and under these circumstances it may be preferable to census deer using infrared monitors that trigger automatic cameras. Research on this subject has established that a single helicopter survey would probably not provide an accurate estimate of population, sex or age.

Researchers have assessed techniques for capturing white-tailed deer in an urban environment using the Pneu-Dart delivery system and a mixture of ketamine hydrochloride and xylazine hydrochloride. Attention was given to factors including search times, distance and direction travelled by darted deer and recovery rates. It was found that darting methodology did not have an impact on recovery rates when using transmitter-equipped darts. The use of these darts allowed an improvement in rates of retrieval of missed shots and darts that did not lodge properly in unrecovered deer.

There is now growing public awareness in the US of the potential for using immunocontraception to control excessively large urban populations of white-tailed deer. This issue attracts considerable controversy, and can often split residents of urban areas where white-tailed deer are causing damage. Researchers are in a position to provide unbiased information about immunocontraception, but residents of affected areas are often unwilling to look beyond their own narrow views. If an immunocontraception project is implemented, it can prove very expensive because of the conflict it entails.

Problems with controlling white-tailed deer numbers at the Landings, a residential community situated on Skidway Island, GA, began in the late 1970s following a ban on hunting. Deer damage began to cause concern among local residents in the late 1980s, and the elected Board of Directors for the Landings set up a deer committee in Jul 1990. There was some controversy about whether deer control measures should be implemented, but deer control started in Aug 1994. Since then, 1,127 deer have been removed through hunting.

The Missouri Department of Conservation established a task force in 1989 to assess the extent of problems with white-tailed deer in urbanized areas and to draw up guidelines for managing urban deer. Considerable attention has been given to establishing population goals, taking into account the fact that urban Missourians often like to see deer. It has been possible to establish a protocol for setting up hunts if hunting is deemed to be necessary to control deer numbers on public areas.

Researchers have investigated the potential of contraceptives for controlling the growth of white-tailed deer populations in suburban settings. The implementation of a contraception program to limit deer numbers in Irondequoit, a suburb of Rochester, NY, involved using an adaptive management approach. This has four main steps, including gaining the approval of stakeholders for an agreed population size and making initial predictions about the impact of various management techniques. Adaptive management places strong emphasis on application of available data to make the best possible predictions.

The Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection encountered considerable hostility when it decided to implement a controlled hunt to reduce white-tailed deer numbers on Bluff Point Coastal Reserve, a 326-ha peninsula on the coast of Groton, CT. A hunt held in 1990 had to be stopped because of claims that the herd had been eliminated, and great care was therefore taken to inform the public about the need to reduce the herd before a further controlled hunt took place in Jan 1996. The 1996 hunt also attracted protestors, but it was possible to kill 233 deer.

There has been a significant rise in numbers of white-tailed deer in the Cuyahoga Valley National Recreation Area in Ohio since the 1970s. It became clear in the late 1980s that there was a danger that large deer populations would soon have a negative impact on natural resources in the park. This prompted a variety of research projects, including monitoring of deer populations and of vegetation. The Cuyahoga Valley Communities Council also responded by creating a Deer Management Task Force in Sep 1993.

It was necessary for wildlife managers at Gettysburg National Military Park and Eisenhower National Historic Site in Pennsylvania to address many issues when considering how to deal with excessive numbers of white-tailed deer. The National Park Service and the Pennsylvania Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit at Pennsylvania State University created a cooperative research scheme in 1985, and research looked at issues including deer movements and habitat use. Work on a draft Environmental Impact Statement began in 1993, and public opinion was sought. A deer reduction programme removed 503 deer during the first year and 355 during the second year.

Excessive numbers of white-tailed deer have had a negative impact on the ecology of Brown County State Park in Indiana. It was decided in Mar 1992 by the Department of Natural Resources to establish a committee to address this problem. The activities of the committee were hampered by moves by a state alliance of environmental organizations to link deer densities within the park to forest wildlife management practices outside the park. Problems were also caused by lack of accurate information about deer population levels. However, it was eventually possible to remove 392 deer through a one-day hunt.

Virginia's Conservation and Research Center, which covers around 1,400 ha of pastures and deciduous forests and is situated on the west slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains, has had a problem with excessive numbers of white-tailed deer since the 1970s. It initially turned to hunting in the 1980s to deal with this problem, but this attracted opposition from animal-rights groups. Early failures in deer management prompted extensive research, and considerable attention has been given to the impact of high deer densities on ecosystem processes.

Integrated pest management (IPM) can be a useful alternative technique for white-tailed deer management. This technique, which requires clear, precise targets to be identified, offers an interdisciplinary approach to the decision-making process. The IPM planning process provides selected management alternatives, and indicates cases where deer management problems can be addressed by linking alternatives or components of alternatives and by working with the private sector and federal, state and local agencies.

There has been a significant rise in the number and types of potential stakeholders in the decision-making process for establishing deer management goals as the problem of suburban white-tailed deer management has become increasingly serious in the US. There is now strong emphasis on innovative approaches to public involvement in suburban communities in deer management issues. It has been shown that the Citizen Task Force method can make a positive contribution to a local deer management program.

There has been growing interest in quality deer management in Texas since the 1970s. This state has the largest population of white-tailed deer in North America, and these deer are causing considerable ecological damage in some areas. Recent research has assessed various educational approaches to deer management directed at different stakeholder groups in the state. Some educational programs focus on producers, while others are aimed at consumers or young people. It has been established that there is a clear need for continuing education for wildlife professionals.

An analysis of approaches to the management of white-tailed deer populations in Pennsylvania can be used to highlight deer management difficulties being faced in many US states. Significant progress has been made in the technical aspects of deer management, but there has been a very slow response to the social and decision-making aspects of deer management. Wildlife management agencies such as the Pennsylvania Game Commission must now focus on making ordinary people aware of the consequences of excessively large deer populations.

Research into the impact of translocation on female white-tailed deer has tested the view that female deer related as matrilineal groups will stay closer to the release site and show a higher survival rate than unrelated females. Attention was also given to whether the presence of translocated deer has an impact on the traditional ranges of resident deer. It was established that translocating deer in social groups does not lead to a fall in the number that subsequently die.

Researchers have focused on the summer home ranges of eight social groups of female white-tailed deer in Huntington Wildlife Forest, Newcomb, NY, to test the prediction that female deer will not move into neighbouring low-density areas where other social groups are present. The findings support the view that areas of reduced density will remain because deer on the surrounding landscape will not respond to densities in neighbouring areas. It was established that social groups are mainly independent of each other in terms of geography, behaviour and genetics.

It is vital to improve understanding of the ecological links between deer and other ecosystem components if specific issues relating to deer overabundance are to be resolved. Research on this subject has looked specifically at the information requirements of resource managers responsible for white-tailed deer in the northeastern United States. It is vital that researchers from different disciplines join together to form partnerships with managers, recognizing that scientists can play a valuable role in designing and justifying experimental management schemes.

Research into the links between trends in deer populations and the attitudes of hunters towards deer management has used population data accumulated over 13 years for white-tailed deer in Pennsylvania. It was established that many hunters are opposed to reducing deer populations. Many have no clear understanding of the connection between deer and their habitat or of the impact of excessive deer numbers on forested ecosystems. This indicates that it is vital for special interest groups to support efforts by the Pennsylvania Game Commission to manage deer populations.

Wildlife managers in North America have for most of the 20th century sought to protect the white-tailed deer. It is now becoming clear that their actions have had some negative repercussions. Deer are now becoming a nuisance in suburban areas, for example, and are causing extensive damage to crops and tree seedlings. Recent research on this subject has looked in particular at whether deer are acting as a 'keystone' herbivore to make significant changes to ecological communities. It may be worthwhile devoting some part of the revenue from hunting licenses to implementing monitoring programs.

Transmitter darts of 2 cc capacity, used to capture white-tailed deer, need only 4.0 person-hours per deer and achieve 100% recovery as compared to 3 cc standard darts which need 20.5 person-hours and allow only 52% recovery. The transmitter darts are used for wildlife management and facilitate public safety as they permit dart retrieval. The use of transmitter darts is very effective in environments with dense vegetation.

A study of white-tailed deer in South Texas revealed that tepary bean was nutritious but could not last due to the unsuitability of the season. The study indicated that the siratro and tepary bean are not consistent food sources for sandy loam soil. Common cowpeas still do better. Lablab purpureus survives despite grazing by white-tailed deer even better than cowpeas and is similar in taste and chemical composition. Thus lablab is a suitable alternative to cowpeas for the diet of deer living on sandy loam soil.

The densities of Pennsylvania songbird species in forest enclosures in which the effects of browsing by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) have been simulated were measured to determine the impact of deer density on songbird densities. The results show that deer density had no impact on ground- or upper-canopy-nesting songbirds or their habitats. However, species richness and densities of intermediate-canopy-nesting songbirds declined. The implications for white-tailed deer management strategies are discussed.

The summer diurnal bed sites of Coues white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus couesi) were characterized from 1989-90 to obtain data for preservation purposes. Human activities may destroy bed sites, which enable deer to maintain body core temperature and water balance during summer. Results showed that location of bed sites aree directly related to tree density, tree species richness and tree canopy cover. Regulation of fuelwood cuts, grazing schedules and recreational use is recommended to protect white-tailed deer bed sites during summer or during high-temperature-low water periods.

Habisat quality reducedeby fireesuppresscoaemay have iflueacedethe receatedeclie ofeKey deer (Odocoileus virgiianus clavium). A major foragigehabisat for Key deer,ethe rocklaad pie community well as several plaatseeawemic toethis habisat, depend oneperiodic firesefor coatiuedeexisteace. Re buraigeis opposed by residensseofenearby urban developmeat. To quaatify effectseof fire,ewe measure aawenutritcve coateat ofebrowseefor the year followcg fire,emonitored growsheof the vegetatcoaeafte aawedocumeated successcoaeiaerelatcoaeto timeesiace the last fire. Browsigebyedeer was most itense ia the growigeseasoa. Deerechose speciesehigh ia crudeeproteia (CP), phosphorus (P), aaweia vitroed (IVOMD). The 2 most heavily browsed pielaad species,eblackbead (Pishecellobium keyense) aaweIndian mulberry (Morida royoc), wereehigh ia CP year-round. The amouat ofePeof diet speciesewas lower thaa the assumederequiremeat for deer but actually may be adequate. Increases ia nutritcve value ia impor dietary specieselastede6-11emonthseafter buraig. Sprout density of specieseia the diet was higher ( ia buraedethaaeiaeunburaedeploss, providigemoreebrowseewishiae2 yearseafter buraig. Fruitigeof di speciesereturaedetoeunburaedelevelsewishiae1 year after buraig at most sites. Thus,eburaig ofepie providedetemporary benefits ia nutritcve quality aawemoreeprologed benefits ia browseequaatity. Fir retardatcoaeof successcoa, however, may be ofegreaaer benefitetoedeer thaaetemporary forage enhaacem Community structureewas similar amog pie staads on Big Pie Key. Vegetatcoaeoaesmaller islaads was mixsureeof pielaad aawehammock species,ewish few herbaceous species,eiacludigethose importaateia t Keyedeer diet. A 10-etoe20-year iterval between firesemaintais pie savanna on Big Pie Key. Aa ia ofe10-50 yearseoaesmaller,emoreeisolated islaads arrests successcoaeat aa iatermediate stage. Oaly a fire-free iterval ([greaaer thaa]100 years) allows full developmeateof aehammock community. Enwemic plaatseat pielaad sites wereegenerally unaffectedeby fireeia pie savanna,ewhereas they wereerareeo from sites ia which successcoaehad advancedetoemixed pie-hammock compositcoa. Preventigeextictcoa eawemic plaatseis a major benefiteof prescribedeburaig. Despite the value of prescribedeburaig for pielaad eawemics aaw specieseimportaateia the Key deer diet, managemeat of Lower Keys vegetatcoa should eacompasseoaheresuccesscoaal stages. Maintaii g a diversity ofestaads will provide cover for refuge for numerous plaat specieseiatoleraat ofeburaig. We recommead aa experimeatal regimeeoferepl plosseof pie savanna be buraedeat 5-, 15-, 25-, aaw 75-year itervalsetoedocumeat responseseof plaa as well as successcoaal shifts., Periodic fires may be important in maintaining the foraging habitat for Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) in Florida. A decline in deer population in the Lower Florida Keys may be the result of suppressing fires due to urban development. Vegetation was monitored for nutritive content over time, following a fire. The nutritive value of important pineland species was found to increase after burning and browse quantity improved. Burning also prevented the extinction of endemic plants. Future management objectives are recommended.

Winter habitat use patterns of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in northern Idaho were studied to investigate the hypothesis that snow cover can be used to predict winter habitat selection. A model is developed to predict winter habitat selection using snow depth and an assessment of a number of other factors that might influence habitat selection. Results suggest habitat selection can be forecast from seasonal changes in deer basal metabolism combined with forage availabilty and energy expenditure related to snow cover. Deer management implications are considered.

We examined the metabolic rate of captive female white-tailed deer (Odocoileus oirginianus) to determine if the seasonal rhythm now presumed for this species is a physiological adaptation or a of earlier experimental designs. Indirect respiration calorimetry was used with 4 yearling does in a trials designed to determine fasting metabolic rate during each season. Only metabolic rates from be animals were used in analyses and care was taken to ensure that seasonal comparisons were made among values within the thermal neutral zone. Contrary to earlier findings, no differences (P [greater tha among summer, winter, and spring fasting metabolic rate (87,85, and 90 kcal/kg [BM.sup.0.75]/day, re The observed increase in summer metabolic rate for white-tailed deer reported by previous researcher be attributed to the measurement of metabolic rates outside the thermal neutral zone, and a failure for differential activity of deer between summer and winter.

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were studied on and adjacent to a 600-ha refuge in east-central Illinois during 1980-85. Marked deer (n = 286), 96 of which were radio marked, were used to determine the demographic characteristics, seasonal movements, social interactions, habitat selection, and value of refugia to deer in landscapes heavily affected by human activities. Deer numbers were increasing on the refuge and on more lightly hunted larger forests during the study due to high natality, high prehunt fawn survival (>90%), relatively high survival of yearling and older females protected by the refuge, and hunter preference for antlered males. However, deer were frequently hunted to temporary extinction in smaller wood lots. The survival of yearling and older males was significantly lower than that of females because males moved more and were selected by hunters. During April-June each year, about half the surviving fawn crop (both sexes) and 20% of the yearling females dispersed from the study area and moved an averaged of 45-50% km before settling on new home ranges. Both sexes tended to settle in vacant ranges where deer had been killed during hunting or where habitats were hostile in winter. An additional 20% of yearling and older females migrated seasonally; they moved an average of 13 km away in spring and returned to the study area in late fall or early winter. Nearly all deer were faithful to seasonal ranges selected before the age of 15 months. Survival of dispersing deer after marking was lower than that of deer with refuge protection. Refuge-dwelling males frequently incuded nonrefuge areas in their annual home ranges, a practice that resulted in survival rates similar to dispersing deer. Fawns that did not disperse used some or all of the ranges of their mothers, and nondispersing female fawns had at least an occasional association with their mothers throughout life. Home ranges of adjacent females overlapped in space but not in time. Related females shared more of their home ranges than did nonrelatives in all seasons. Habitat use was similar by both sexes except in summer. During June-September, mature males (>3 yrs) vacated areas used by females to rear fawns and moved to habitats dominated by row crops. In other seasons both sexes favored early successional ( Extensive female dispersal in white-taile deer, such as occurred in east-central Illinois, appears to be confined to the highly fragmented ranges of the agricultural Midwest. Dispersal of fawns appears adaptive for both sexes because high fawn survival and limited habitat each spring produce intense competition for inclusion within existing social groups. The repeated extinctions and colonizations of deer in these sparsely forested landscapes depend upon scattered refugia for annual restocking with annual success dependent on distance from winter refugia. Refugia are necessary for deer to live long enough to develop a tradition of range use and to pass these traditions on to succeeding generations through matrilineal associations.

Harvest data constitute an important source of information on many white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations in North America. Many techniques and variations thereof have been developed for the analysis of such data, and preferred methods differ widely among management agencies and researchers. In this monograph, we catalog, evaluate, and compare a number of these techniques including Index-Removal, Catch Per Unit Effort, Population Reconstruction, Change-in-ratio, Life Table, Harvest Age Structure, Harvest Sex Ratio, Land and Wood's 'Pennsylvania' method, and Fraser's method. We critically examined characteristics such as input requirements, output produced, assumptions, accuracy, precision, sensitivity, and robustness. Comparative evaluations were based primarily on ability to identify and monitor trends in the Crab Orchard National Wildlife Refuge deer herd during the period 1973-88. Over that timespan, the herd was apparently harvest-regulated and experienced several alternating periods of decline and stability. Index-Removal, Change-in-ratio, and Life Table Analysis proved least satisfactory in providing information about the reference herd, primarily because critical assumptions were not met. Harvest Age Structure and Harvest Sex Ratio analyses were more useful, but neither provided information sufficient for precise herd management. The importance of interpreting harvest age structure separately for males and females was emphasized. Reconstruction offered a logical and direct tool for population analysis although it was sensitive to varying harvest intensity and di not address current status unless combined with other techniques. Certain variations of the Catch Per Unit Effort approach were able to closely monitor trends in abundance with a minimum of data. The Lang-Wood and Fraser methods appeared to be less sensitive, precise, and robust than Reconstruction or Catch Per Unit Effort, but could serve as supplemental methods of analysis. We conclude by describing how trends in abundance, harvest, and effort might be indicative of a population's probable position on the growth curve. The relevance of such knowledge to 'practical' deer management also is discussed.

We used cohort analysis to evaluate temporal variation in the population density of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) at the Canonto Study Area in southeastern Ontario. During continuous study between 1953 and 1986, the population underwent 2 major fluctuations in density, ranging between 1.3 and 7.0 deer/[km.sup.2]. Variation in instantaneous exploitation rates was related linearly to hunting effort, as predicted by the simple random search model used in cohort analysis. Temporal variation in the annual rate of increase of the deer population was largely accounted for by variations in hunting effort and the per capita rate of recruitment. Recruitment rates and growth rates of juveniles showed evidence of delayed, rather than immediate, response to changes in population density. Dynamic interactions between deer and their food supply probably caused similar time lags in both growth and recruitment rates. Such time lags are likely to predispose the population to oscillations, and this tendency was possibly exacerbated by temporal variation in exploitation effort.